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Wheat

Wheat


T. aestivum
T. aethiopicum
T. araraticum
T. boeoticum
T. carthlicum
T. compactum
T. dicoccon
T. durum
T. ispahanicum
T. karamyschevii
T. militinae
T. monococcum
T. polonicum
T. spelta
T. timopheevii
T. trunciale
T. turanicum
T. turgidum
T. urartu
T. vavilovii
T. zhukovskyi
References:
  [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=42236 ITIS 42236] 2002-09-22 Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a grass that is cultivated around the world. Globally, it is the second-largest cereal crop behind maize; the third being rice. Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour, livestock feed and as an ingredient in the brewing of beer. The husk can be separated and ground into bran. Wheat is also planted strictly as a forage crop for livestock and as straw, too.

History

Domestic wheat originated in southwest Asia in what is now known as the Fertile Crescent. The oldest archaeological evidence for wheat cultivation comes from Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Armenia, and Iraq. Around 9000 years ago, wild einkorn wheat was harvested and domesticated in the first archeological signs of sedentary farming in the fertile crescent. Around 8,000 years ago though, a mutation or hybridization occurred within emmer wheat, resulting in a plant with seeds that were larger, but could not sow themselves on the wind (see domestication). While this plant could not have succeeded in the wild, it produced more food for humans, and within cultivated fields, it outcompeted plants with smaller, self-sowing seeds to become the primary ancestor of modern wheat breeds. A wild ancestor (Triticum turgidum dicoccoides (Körn.)) of one of the earliest domesticated forms of emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum dicoccum (Schrank.)), was discovered in the region of Palestine by Aaron Aaronsohn in 1906. The cultivation of wheat began to spread into Europe beginning in the Neolithic period.

Genetics & Breeding

Wheat genetics is more complicated than domesticated animal genetics. Wheat is capable of polyploidism, or having more than two sets of chromosomes (diploid). Many wheat breeds not only have differences in their genomes but also in the number of chromosomes they carry. Four out of five of the most common wheat breeds are the results of hybridization. Einkorn wheat is diploid (2x chromosomes) and can be considered the "grandfather" breed of wheat. Einkorn wheat hybridized with another wild diploid grass (Triticum speltoides, Triticum tripsacoides or Triticum searsii) made the tetraploid (4x chromosomes) breeds, Emmer and Durum wheat. Emmer and Durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass (Triticum tauschii) made the hexaploid (6x chromosomes) breeds Spelt wheat and Common wheat. It is debatable whether emmer wheat was naturally or intentionally hybridized: to interbreed emmer wheat’s ancestors required a chromosome duplication mutation, a mutation that does not seem survivable naturally for more than a few generations for wheat. All of this genetic engineering (hybridizing) was conducted thousands of years ago by ancient farmers completely unaware of modern genetics or the difficulty of hybridizing polyploid plants.

Cultivars

There are many taxonomic classification systems used for wheat species. It is good to keep in mind that the name of a wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another information source. [http://www.ksu.edu/wgrc/Taxonomy/taxintro.html] Wheat cultivars are classified by growing season, such as winter wheat vs. spring wheat, and by gluten content, such as hard wheat (high gluten content) or soft wheat (high starch content).

Major cultivar groups of wheat


- Common Wheat - (T. aestivum) A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world.
- Einkorn - (T. monococcum) A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants. One of the earliest cultivated but rarely planted today.
- Emmer - (T. turgidum var. dicoccum) A tetraploid species, with wild and cultivated variants. Cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread usage.
- Durum - (T. turgidum var. durum) The only tetraploid form of wheat widely used today.
- Kamut® or QK-77 - (T. turgidum var. polonicum) A tetraploid species grown in small quantities that is extensively marketed. Originally from the Middle East
- Spelt - (T. spelta) Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities. Spelt Spelt

Economics

Harvested wheat grain is classified according to grain properties (see below) for the purposes of the commodities market. Wheat buyers use the classifications to help determine which wheat to purchase as each class has special uses. Wheat producers determine which classes of wheat are the most profitable to cultivate with this system. Wheat is widely cultivated as a cash crop because it produces a good yield per unit area, grows well in a temperate climate even with a moderately short growing season, and yields a versatile, high-quality flour that is widely used in baking. Most breads are made with wheat flour, even many breads named for the other grains they contain, including most rye and oat breads. Many other popular foods are made from wheat flour as well, resulting in a large demand for the grain even in economies with a significant food surplus.

Production and consumption statistics

In the 2004 crop year, global wheat production totalled 624 million tonnes and the top wheat producing countries were: # China: 91.3 million tonnes # India: 72 million tonnes # United States: 58.8 million tonnes # Russian Federation: 42.2 million tonnes # France: 39 million tonnes # Germany: 25.3 million tonnes # Australia: 22.5 million tonnes 1997 global per capita wheat consumption was 101 kg, led by Denmark at 623 kg. Past International wheat production statistics.

Agronomy

Crop development

International wheat production statistics Crop management decisions require the knowledge of stage of development of the crop. In particular, spring fertilizers applications, herbicides, fungicides, growth regulators are typically applied at specific stages of plant development. For example, current recommendations often indicate the second application of nitrogen be done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is about 1 cm in size (Z31 on Zadoks scale). Knowledge of stages is also interesting to identify periods of higher risk, in terms of climate. For example, the meïosis stage is extremely suceptible to low temperatures (under 4 °C) or high temperatures (over 25 °C). Farmers also benefit from knowing when the flag leaf (last leaf) appears as this leaf represents about 75% of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period and as such should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield. Several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the Feekes and Zadoks scales being the most widely used. Each scale is a standard system which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season.

Wheat stages


- Wheat at the anthesis stage (face and side view)

Diseases

Wheat is subject to more diseases than other grains, and, in some seasons, especially in wet ones, heavier losses are sustained from those diseases than are felt in the culture of other cereal crops. Wheat may suffer from the attack of insects at the root; from blight, which primarily affects the leaf or straw, and ultimately deprives the grain of sufficient nourishment; from mildew on the ear; and from gum of different shades, which lodges on the chaff or cups in which the grain is deposited. Examples of wheat diseases: Bacterial diseases
- Bacterial leaf blight Pseudomonas syringae subsp. syringae
- Bacterial sheath rot Pseudomonas fuscovaginae
- Basal glume rot Pseudomonas syringae pv. atrofaciens
- Black chaff = bacterial streak Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucens
- Pink seed Erwinia rhapontici Fungal diseases
- Alternaria leaf blight Alternaria triticina
- Anthracnose Colletotrichum graminicola
- Ascochyta leaf spot Ascochyta tritici
- Black head molds = sooty molds Alternaria spp., Cladosporium spp.
- Common bunt = stinking smut T. tritici, T. laevis
- Downy mildew = crazy top Sclerophthora macrospora
- Dwarf bunt Tilletia controversa
- Ergot Claviceps purpurea
- Foot rot = dryland foot rot Fusarium spp.
- Leaf rust = brown rust Puccinia triticina
- Pink snow mold = Fusarium patch Microdochium nivale
- Powdery mildew = Blumeria graminis
- Scab = head blight Fusarium spp., Gibberella zeae, Microdochium nivale
- Septoria blotch Septoria tritici = Mycospharella graminicola
- Smut = Ustilaginomycotina clade of the class Teliomycetae, subphylum Basidiomycota
- Storage moulds Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. Nematodes, parasitic
- Grass cyst nematode Punctodera punctata
- Root gall nematode Subanguina spp. Viral diseases and viruslike agents
- Agropyron mosaic genus Rymovirus, Agropyron mosaic virus (AgMV)
- Barley stripe mosaic genus Hordeivirus, Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV)
- Oat sterile dwarf genus Fijivirus, Oat sterile dwarf virus (OSDV)
- Tobacco mosaic genus Tobamovirus, Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
- Wheat dwarf genus Monogeminivirus, Wheat dwarf virus (WDV)
- Wheat yellow mosaic Wheat yellow mosaic bymovirus Phytoplasmal diseases
- Aster yellows phytoplasma Link between air pollution and septoria blotch A team of researchers examined a library of British wheat samples dating back to 1843. For each year, they determined the levels of Phaeosphaeria nodorum and Mycospharella graminicola DNA in the samples. After accounting for influences such as growing and harvesting methods and weather conditions, they compared the DNA data with estimates of emissions of air pollutants. The effect of sulfur dioxide correlated with the abundance of the two fungi. P. nodrum grew more successful with the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. M. graminicola was more abundant before 1870 and since the 1970s. The success since the 1970s is a reflection of reductions in sulfur dioxide emissions due to environmental regulations. (Bearchell, et al., 2005)

Pests

Wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including The Flame, Setaceous Hebrew Character and Turnip Moth.

Wheat in the United States

Classes used in the United States are
- Durum - Very hard, translucent, light colored grain used to make semolina flour for pasta.
- Hard Red Spring - Hard, brownish, high protein wheat used for bread and hard baked goods.
- Hard Red Winter - Hard, brownish, very high protein wheat used for bread, hard baked goods and as an adjunct in other flours to increase protein.
- Soft Red Winter - Soft, brownish, medium protein wheat used for bread.
- Hard White - Hard, light colored, opaque, chalky, medium protein wheat planted in dry, temperate areas. Used for bread and brewing
- Soft White - Soft, light colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas. Used for bread. Hard wheats are harder to process and red wheats may need bleaching. Therefore, soft and white wheats usually command higher prices than hard and red wheats on the commodities market. Much of the following text is taken from the Household Cyclopedia of 1881: Wheat may be classed under two principal divisions, though each of these admits of several subdivisions. The first is composed of all the varieties of red wheat. The second division comprehends the whole varieties of white wheat, which again may be arranged under two distinct heads, namely, thick-chaffed and thin-chaffed. Thick-chaffed wheat varieties were the most widely used before 1799, as they generally make the best quality flour, and in dry seasons, equal the yields of thin-chaffed varieties. However, thick-chaffed varieties are particularly susceptible to mildew, while thin-chaffed varieties are quite hardy and in general are more resistant to mildew. Consequently, a widespread outbreak of mildew in 1799 began a gradual decline in the popularity of thick-chaffed varieties.

See also


- Norin 10 wheat
- Granular material
- Buckwheat - despite its name, it is not wheat

References


-
- Bonjean, A.P., and W.J. Angus (editors). The World Wheat Book: a history of wheat breeding. Lavoisier Publ., Paris. 1131 pp. (2001). ISBN 2-7430-0402-9.

External links


- [http://www.kswheat.com/ The Kansas Wheat Commission].
- [http://www.ndwheat.com/ The North Dakota Wheat Commission].
- [http://www.cimmyt.org/ CIMMYT] – Web site of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
- [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/crops/wheat.html Triticum species] at Purdue University
- [http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/168/2/1087 A Workshop Report on Wheat Genome Sequencing]
- [http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/pdf/54.pdf Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled Wheats] (PDF) July 1995
- [http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/10/10/1509 Molecular Genetic Maps in Wild Emmer Wheat] Category:Cereals Category:Grains Category:Grasses ja:コムギ

Einkorn wheat

Einkorn wheat (from German Einkorn, litterally "one grain") is a wild species of wheat, Triticum boeoticum (the spelling baeoticum is also common). Einkorn is a diploid species with a shattering ear and small seeds, making it difficult to harvest. The cultivated variant is Triticum monococcum. Einkorn wheat was one of the earliest cultivated varieties of wheat. Kernels have been found in Epi-Paleolithic and early Neolithic sites of the Fertile Crescent. It was first domesticated approximately 9000 years ago. Its cultivation decreased in the Bronze Age, and today it is considered a relic crop that is rarely planted. The cultivated variety is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe and the seeds are larger. All of these traits are essential for cultivation. Category:Cereals Category:Grasses

Einkorn

Einkorn wheat (from German Einkorn, litterally "one grain") is a wild species of wheat, Triticum boeoticum (the spelling baeoticum is also common). Einkorn is a diploid species with a shattering ear and small seeds, making it difficult to harvest. The cultivated variant is Triticum monococcum. Einkorn wheat was one of the earliest cultivated varieties of wheat. Kernels have been found in Epi-Paleolithic and early Neolithic sites of the Fertile Crescent. It was first domesticated approximately 9000 years ago. Its cultivation decreased in the Bronze Age, and today it is considered a relic crop that is rarely planted. The cultivated variety is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe and the seeds are larger. All of these traits are essential for cultivation. Category:Cereals Category:Grasses

Spelt

Spelt (Triticum aestivum spelta) is a subspecies of common wheat. Spelt is considered to be a hybrid of emmer wheat and einkorn wheat that originated in the Near East, where it was cultivated at least 3000 years ago. In the Middle Ages, it was cultivated in parts of Switzerland, Tyrol and Germany. Spelt was introduced to the United States in the 1890s. In the 20th century, spelt was virtually replaced by wheat, which produces higher yields. However, since spelt is rather more hardy than wheat and does not require fertilizers, the organic farming movement made it more popular again towards the end of the century. Spelt contains about 62 percent carbohydrates, 8.8 percent fibre, 12 percent protein and 2.7 percent fat, as well as dietary minerals and vitamins, including silica. As it contains a high amount of gluten, it is suitable for baking. However, the gluten in spelt is different from that in normal wheat and therefore spelt can be consumed by some gluten-intolerant people. The name of Spelt in German is Dinkel, and the hull which covers the seed is called Spelz. The grains which don't thresh freely like modern wheat were identified by this quality and the name probably wandered into the English language and changed its function. In Germany, the unripe spelt grains are dried and eaten as Grünkern, which literally means "green seed". The Luxembourger surname Speltz is derived from this grain. In Italy spelt is known as farro. In France spelt is known as épeautre. Category:Grasses Category:Cereals

Poaceae


There are 7 subfamilies:
Subfamily Arundinoideae
Subfamily Bambusoideae
Subfamily Centothecoideae
Subfamily Chloridoideae
Subfamily Panicoideae
Subfamily Pooideae
Subfamily Stipoideae
The true grasses are monocotyledonous plants (Class Liliopsida) in the Family Poaceae, also known as Gramineae. There are about 600 genera and perhaps 10,000 species of grasses. It is estimated grasslands comprise 20% of the vegetation cover of the earth. This family is the most important of all plant families to human economies, including lawn and forage grasses, the staple food grains grown around the world, and bamboo, widely used for construction throughout Asia. Grasses generally have the following characteristics:
- Typically hollow stems (called culms), plugged at intervals (the nodes).
- Leaves, arising at nodes, alternate, distichous (in one plane) or rarely spiral, and parallel-veined.
- Leaves differentiated into a lower sheath hugging the stem for a distance and a blade with margin usually entire; a ligule (a membranous appendage or ring of hairs) lies at the junction between sheath and blade.
- Small, wind-pollinated flowers (called florets) sheathed inside two glumes (bracts), lacking petals, and grouped into spikelets, these arranged in a panicle, raceme, spike, or head.
- Fruit that is a caryopsis. Until recently grasses were thought to have evolved around 55 million years ago, based on fossil records. However, recent findings of 65-million-year-old grass phytoliths including ancestors of rice and bamboo in Cretaceous dinosaur coprolites ([http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/N17334781.htm], [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/310/5751/1126]), places the diversification of grasses to an earlier date. The growth of grasses from the base of the blade rather than from growing tips gave the grasses an edge under the pressures of grazing herbivores.

Cultivation and uses

coprolite Agricultural grasses grown for human food production are called cereals. Cereals constitute the major source of food energy for humans and perhaps the major source of protein, and include rice in South and Southeast Asia, maize in Central and South America, and wheat and barley in the Americas and North Eurasia. Many other grasses are also grown for forage and fodder for animal food, particularly for sheep and cattle. Some commonly known grass plants are:
- maize
- wheat
- rice
- rye
- ryegrass
- sugarcane
- barley
- bamboo

See also


- agrostology
- grass
- sedges
- Meadow-grass
- Marram grass
- Bahia grass

External links and references


- [http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/data/grasses-db/sppindex.htm Kew Index of World Grass Species]
- [http://forages.oregonstate.edu/projects/regrowth/main.cfm?PageID=11 Definitions of Grass structures]
- [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/graminea.htm Poaceae] in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz] (1992 onwards). [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ The families of flowering plants:] descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.
- L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). [http://delta-intkey.com/grass/ The grass genera of the world:] descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval; including synonyms, morphology, anatomy, physiology, phytochemistry, cytology, classification, pathogens, world and local distribution, and references. Category:Grasses Category: gardening Category:Plant families Category:Poales ja:イネ科 th:หญ้า

Maize

:This article is about the cereal. For the town, see Maize, Kansas. Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) is a cereal grain that was domesticated in Mesoamerica. It is called corn in the United States, Canada, and Australia but there are further regional differences in terminology. While some maize varieties grow 7 m (23 ft) tall at certain locations, commercial maize has been bred for a high-end height of 2.5 m (9 ft). Sweet corn is usually shorter than field corn varieties.

Maize physiology

The stems look like bamboo cane and the joints (nodes) are about 40–50 cm (16–20 inches) apart. Maize has a very distinct growth form, the lower leaves being like broad flags, 50–100 cm long and 5–10 cm wide (2–4 feet by 2–4 inches); the stems are erect, from 2–3 m (7–10 feet) in height, with many nodes, casting off flag-leaves at every node. Under these leaves and close to the stem grows the corn, covered over by several layers of leaves, and so closed in by them to the stem, that it does not show itself easily till there bursts out at the end of the ear a number of strings, called silk, that look like tufts of horsehair, at first green, and afterwards red or yellow. The top of the stem ends in a flower, called the tassle. For each silk on which pollen from the tassle lands, one kernel of corn is produced. Young ears can be consumed raw, cob, silk, and all; as the plant matures (usually during the summer months) the cob toughens and the silk dries to inedibility. By late August the kernels have dried out and become difficult to chew without cooking them tender first in boiling water. The kernel of corn has a pericarp of the fruit fused with the seed coat, typical of the grasses. It is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows round a white pithy substance, which forms the ear. An ear contains from two to four hundred grains, and is from 10–25 cm (4–10 inches) in length. They are of various colors, blackish, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, it yields more flour, with much less bran, than wheat does. However, it lacks the protein gluten, and therefore makes baked goods with poor raising capability.

Genetics

Maize has 10 chromosomes (n=10). The combined length of the chromosomes is 1500 cM. Some of the maize chromosomes have what are know as "chromosomal knobs". They are highly repetitive heterochromatic domains that stain darkly. Individual knobs are polymorphic among strains of both maize and teosinte. Barbara McClintock used these knob markers to prove her transposon theory of "jumping genes".

Origin of maize

transposon Maize is a direct domesticate of the teosinte Zea mays ssp. parviglumis, native to the Balsas River Valley of southern Mexico, with up to 12% of its genetic material obtained from Zea mays ssp. mexicana through introgression. The term teosinte describes all species in the genus Zea, excluding Zea mays ssp. mays. Maize development is thought to have started from 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. The domestication of maize is of particular interest to researchers. It is unknown what precipitated its domestication, because the edible portion of the wild variety is too small to be worth cultivating. It would have taken many generations of selective breeding in order to produce a plant with cobs large enough to eat. Archaeological remains of the earliest maize cob, found at Guila Naquitz Cave in the Oaxaca Valley of Mexico, date back roughly 6,250 years. Maize was the staple food, or a major staple, of all the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. During the 1st millenium CE, maize cultivation spread from Mexico across North America, transforming the landscape as Native Americans cleared large forest and grassland areas for the new crop. In the late 1930s, Paul Mangelsdorf suggested that domesticated maize was the result of a hybridization event between an unknown wild maize and Tripsacum. However, the proposed role of the related genus Tripsacum in the origins of maize has been refuted by modern genetic analysis.

Cultivation

Paul Mangelsdorf] Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world, and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other grain. While the United States produces almost half of the world's harvest, other top producing countries are as widespread as China, India, Brazil, France, Indonesia, and South Africa. Worldwide production was over 600 million metric tons in 2003, just slightly more than rice or wheat. Maize is planted in the spring to take advantage of spring rains. Its root system is shallow and the plant is dependent on steady rain or irrigation. In the United States, a good harvest was predicted traditionally if the corn was "knee-high by the Fourth of July", although modern hybrids often exceed this growth rate. Maize used as silage is harvested while the plant is green and the fruit unmatured. Otherwise, maize is left in the field very late in the autumn in order to dry thoroughly. In fact, it is sometimes not harvested until winter or even early spring. The importance of regular rain is shown in many parts of Africa, where periodic drought regularly causes famine by causing maize crop failure; the older traditional African native millet (which is however less palatable than maize, and much less productive in good years) would have survived and produced a small crop in these conditions. millet] Maize was planted by the Native Americans in hills, in a complex system known to some as the Three Sisters: beans used the corn plant for support, and squashes provided ground cover to stop weeds. This method was replaced by single species hill planting where each hill 60–120 cm (2–4 feet) apart was planted with 3 or 4 seeds, a method still used by the home gardener. A later technique was checked corn where hills were placed 40 inches apart in each direction, allowing cultivators to run through the field in two directions. In more arid lands this was altered and seed were planted in the bottom of 10–12 cm (4–5 inch) deep furrows to collect water. Modern technique plants maize in rows which allows for cultivation while the plant is young. In North America, fields are often planted in a two-crop rotation with a nitrogen-fixing crop, often soybeans. Sometimes a third crop, winter wheat, is added to the rotation. Fields are usually plowed each year, although no-till farming is increasing in use. Before about World War II, most maize was harvested by hand. This often involved large numbers of workers and associated social events. Some one- and two-row mechanical pickers were in use but the corn combine did not get adopted until after the War. By hand or mechanical picker, the entire ear is harvested which then requires a separate operation of a corn sheller to remove the kernels from the ear. Whole ears of corn were often stored in corn cribs which is a sufficient form for some livestock use. Some modern farms store maize in this manner and later shell it for sale in the off-season to capture better prices. The combine with a corn head (with points and snap rolls instead of a reel) cuts the stalk near the base and then separates the ear of corn from the stalk so that only the ear and husk enter the machinery. The combine separates the husk and the cob, keeping only the kernels.

Pests of maize

Insect pests

combine
- Corn earworm (Heliothis zea)
- Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)
- Common armyworm (Pseudaletia unipuncta)
- Stalk borer (Papaipema nebris)
- Corn leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis)
- European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) (ECB)
- Corn silkfly (Euxesta stigmatis)
- Lesser cornstalk borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus)
- Corn delphacid (Peregrinus maidis) The susceptibility of maize to the European corn borer, and the resulting large crop losses, led to the development of transgenic corn expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin. Bt corn is widely grown in the United States and has been approved for release in Europe.

Diseases


- Corn smut or common smut (Ustilago maydis): a fungal disease, known in Mexico as huitlacoche, which is prized by some as a gourmet delicacy in itself.
- Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus
- Stewart's Wilt (Pantoea stewartii)
- Common Rust (Puccinia sorghi)

Uses for maize

The primary use for corn (seed) in United States and Canada, is as a feed for livestock, while some is for the production of corn sweeteners like corn syrup, and the production of ethanol. Ethanol, a type of alcohol, is mostly used as an additive in gasoline to increase the octane rating. It is also used for making Bourbon whiskey. Bourbon whiskey Human consumption of corn and corn meal constitutes a staple food in many regions of the world. It is the main ingredient for tortilla and many other dishes of Mexican food. Maize can also be prepared as hominy, in which the kernels are bleached with lye; or grits, which are simply coarsely ground corn. These are commonly eaten in U.S. Southern States, foods handed down from Native Americans. Another common food made from maize is corn flakes. The flour of maize (cornflour or masa) is used to make cornbread and Mexican tortillas. Teosinte is used as fodder, and can also be popped as popcorn. As a food, maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) is used in various forms, with several major Cultivar Groups. The most important Cultivar Groups are:
- Flour corn - Zea mays L. subsp. mays Amylacea Group
- Popcorn - Zea mays L. subsp. mays Everta Group
- Dent corn - Zea mays L. subsp. mays Indentata Group
- Flint corn - Zea mays L. subsp. mays Indurata Group
- Sweetcorn - Zea mays L. subsp. mays Saccharata Group
- Pod corn - Zea mays L. var. tunicata Larrañaga ex A. St. Hil Many scientists speculate that fuel ethanol will mostly be produced from switchgrass and other biomass sources in the future. Corn cobs are also used as a biomass fuel source. Maize is relatively cheap and home heating furnaces have been developed which uses maize kernels as a fuel. They feature a large hopper which feeds the uniformly sized corn kernels (or wood pellets or cherry pits) into the fire. Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and coloured leaf forms, as well as those with colourful cobs are used. Corncobs can be hollowed out and treated to make inexpensive smoking pipes, first manufactured in the United States in 1869. In 1983, Barbara McClintock received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for discovery of transposons while studying maize. Maize is still an imporant model organism for genetics and developmental biology today. In 2005, research by the USDA Forest Service indicated that the rise in maize cultivation 500 to 1,000 years ago in the southeastern United States contributed to the decline of freshwater mussels, which are very sensitive to environmental changes. [http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/about/newsrelease/nr_2005-06-06-mussels.htm] An unusual use for maize prior to harvest is for a maze. In the U.S., these are called "corn mazes" and are popular in many farming communities. The first modern corn maze was designed by Adrian Fisher, who is in the Guiness Book of World Records for several of his maze designs. Mr. Fisher currently operates a company [http://www.mazemaker.com/ Adrian Fisher Mazes, Ltd.], specializing in mazes, including maize mazes.

See also


- Protein per unit area
- Detasseling

References


- Ferro, D.N. and Weber, D.C. [http://www.eap.mcgill.ca/CPMP_1.htm Managing Sweet Corn Pests in Massachusetts]
- [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=42268 ITIS 42268] as of 2002-09-22
- [http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Zea.html Sorting Zea names]

External links


- [http://www.ncga.com/WorldOfCorn/main/index.htm NCGA Corn Industry Statistics]
- [http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/~stueber/thome/band1/tafel_088.html Image of Zea mays from Flora von Deutschland Österreich und der Schweiz]
- [http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Zea+mays&CAN=WIKPEDIA Zea mays at Plants For A Future]
- [http://www.iowacorn.org/cornuse/cornuse_3.html Usage of Iowa and U.S. Corn Crop]
- [http://www.kallipolis.com/diet/food.php?id=11168&w=3 Corn nutrition information]
- [http://maize.agron.iastate.edu/corngrows.html How a Corn Plant Develops]
- [http://www.maizegdb.org/ Maize Genetics/Genomics Database project]
- [http://www.cimmyt.org/ International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center]
- [http://www.howtocookcornonthecob.com How to cook corn on the cob]
- [http://www.milpa.nl Maize of Guatemala]
Food  |  List of fruits  |  List of vegetables
Category:Vegetables Category:Cereals Category:Grains Category:Grasses Category:Fruits and vegetables of Mexico ms:Jagung ja:トウモロコシ zh-min-nan:Hoan-be̍h

Rice

Rice (Oryza sativa) is a species of grass in the genus Oryza, native to tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia, where it grows in wetlands. It is an annual plant, growing to 1-1.8 m tall, occasionally more, with long slender leaves 50-100 cm long and 2-2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30-50 cm long. The seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5-12 mm long and 2-3 mm thick.

Rice cultivation

Rice is a dietary staple of more than half of the world's human population, making it the most consumed cereal grain. Rice cultivation is well suited to countries and regions with low labour costs and high rainfall, as it is very labour-intensive to cultivate and requires plenty of water for irrigation. However, it can be grown practically anywhere, even on steep hillsides. Rice is the world's third largest crop, behind maize (corn) and wheat. Although its species are native to South Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation has made it commonplace in many cultures. wheat wheat wheat Rice is often grown in paddies — shallow puddles carefully controlled to ensure the appropriate water depth (typically 15 cm). Rice paddies sometimes serve a dual agricultural purpose by also producing edible fish or frogs, a useful source of protein. The farmers take advantage of the rice plant's tolerance to water: the water in the paddies prevents weeds from outgrowing the crop. Once the rice has established dominance of the field, the water can be drained in preparation for harvest. Paddies increase productivity, although rice can also be grown on dry land (including on terraced hillsides) with the help of chemical weed controls. In some instances, a deepwater strain of rice often called floating rice is grown. This can develop elongated stems capable of coping with water depths exceeding 2 meters (6 feet). Rice paddies are an important habitat for birds such as herons and warblers, and a wide range of amphibians and snakes. They perform a useful function in controlling insect pests. Whether it is grown in paddies or on dry land, rice requires a great amount of water compared to other food crops. Rice growing is a controversial practice in some areas, particularly in the United States and Australia, where rice farmers use 7% of the nation's water to generate just 0.02% of GDP. However, in nations that have a periodical rain season and typhoons, rice paddies serve to keep the water supply steady and prevent floods from reaching a dangerous level. Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation.

Preparation as food

Magnaporthe grisea]] The seeds of the rice plant are first milled to remove the outer husks of the grain; this creates brown rice. This process may be continued, removing the germ and the rest of the husk, called bran at this point, creating white rice. The white rice may then be buffed with glucose or talc powder (often called polished rice), parboiled, or processed into flour. The white rice may also be enriched to add nutrients, especially those lost during the milling process. While the cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsing), more sophisticated methods which apply nutrients directly to the grain and then coat the grain with a water insoluble substance are resistant to washing. flour While washing is counterproductive for the powder enriched rice, it is absolutely necessary to create a better tasting and better consistency of rice when polished rice (illegal in some countries including the United States) is used. Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist inner oily layer that is heated to produce a very healthy oil. Another use is to make a kind of pickled vegetable. The raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses as well, including making many kinds of beverages such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and sake. Rice flour is generally safe for people on a gluten-free diet. The processed rice seeds are usually boiled or steamed to make them edible, after which they may be fried in oil, or butter, or beaten in a tub to make mochi. mochi Rice, like other cereal grains, can be puffed (or popped). This process takes advantage of the grains' moisture content and typically involves heating grain pellets in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing pre-puffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber. By the ideal gas law, one can see that both lowering the local pressure or raising the moisture temperature would result in an increase in volume prior to moisture evaporation, thus resulting in a puffy texture.

Cooking rice

See :Category:Rice dishes and Wikibooks' Rice Recipes for information on food preparation using rice. Rice is cooked by boiling it in water until it has been heated enough and has absorbed enough water to become soft and fluffy, and in some cases, sticky. This process can be done either using a measured amount of water fixed so that it is exactly enough to cook the rice, or by using excess water which is drained away once the rice is cooked. In Asia, many households expediate the cooking process using an electrical device known as a rice cooker. Rice may be soaked prior to cooking. Like beans this will enable the rice to cook faster, and to have an improved texture due to increased expansion of the rice grains. When preparing brown rice, a nutritionally superior method of preparation known as GABA Rice may be used. This involves soaking washed brown rice for 8 to 12 hours in warm water (38 °C or 100 °F) prior to cooking it. This process stimulates germination, which activates various enzymes in the rice. By this method, a result of the United Nations Year of Rice, it is possible to obtain a complete amino acid profile, including GABA.

History of rice cultivation

GABA Rice cultivation is considered to have begun simultaneously in many countries over 6500 years ago. Two species of rice were domesticated, Asian rice (Oryza sativa) and African rice (Oryza glaberrima). It is believed that common wild rice, Oryza rufipogon, was the wild ancestor of Asian rice . O. sativa appears to have originated around the foothills of the Himalaya, with O. sativa var. indica on the Indian side and O. sativa var. japonica on the Chinese side. African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between 1500 and 800 BCE, O. glaberrima propagated from its original center, the Niger River delta, and extended to Senegal. However, it never developed far from its original region. Its cultivation even declined in favor of the Asian species, possibly brought to the African continent by Arabs coming from the east coast between the 7th and 11th centuries. Dry-land rice was introduced to Japan circa 1000 BCE. Later wet-paddy rice agriculture was brought to Japan by the Yayoi circa 300 BCE. O. sativa was adapted to farming in the Middle East and Mediterranean Europe around 800 BCE. The Moors brought it to Spain when they conquered the country circa 700 CE. After the middle of the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, later propagating to all the continents during the great age of European exploration. In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably originating from Madagascar. The Spanish brought rice to South America at the beginning of the 18th century. 18th century In the United States, colonial South Carolina and Georgia grew and amassed great wealth from the slave labour obtained from the Senegambia area of West Africa. At the port of Charleston, through which 40% of all American slave imports passed, slaves from this region of Africa brought the highest prices, in recognition of their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was put to use on the many rice plantations around Georgetown, Charleston, and Savannah. From the slaves, plantation owners learned how to dike the marshes and periodically flood the fields. At first the rice was milled by hand with wooden paddles, then winnowed in sweetgrass baskets (the making of which was another skill brought by the slaves). The invention of the rice mill increased profitability of the crop, and the addition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwright Jonathan Lucas was another step forward. Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less profitable with the loss of slave labour after the American Civil War, and it finally died out just after the turn of the 20th century.

World production and trade

World production of rice has risen steadily from about 200 million tons of paddy rice in 1960 to 600 million tons in 2004. Milled rice is about 68% of paddy rice by weight. In the year 2004, the top three producers were China (31% of world production), India (20%), and Indonesia (9%). World trade figures are very different, as only about 5-6% of rice produced is traded internationally. The largest three exporting countries are Thailand (26% of world exports), Vietnam (15%), and the United States (11%), while the largest three importers are Indonesia (14%), Bangladesh (4%), and Brazil (3%).

Cultivars

20th century Rice cultivars are often classified by their grain shapes and texture. For example, Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relatively less sticky, as long-grain rice contains less amylopectin than short-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants usually serve long-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice. Japanese mochi rice and Chinese sticky rice are short-grain. Chinese people use sticky rice which is properly known as "glutinous rice" (which does not contain dietary gluten) to make zongzi. The Japanese table rice is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanese sake rice is another kind as well. Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic Basmati (grown in the North), long and medium-grained Patna rice and short-grained Masoori. Rice in East India and South India, is usually prepared by boiling the rice in large pans immediately after harvesting and before removing the husk; this is referred to in English as parboiled rice. It is then dried, and the husk removed later. It often displays small red speckles, and has a smoky flavour from the fires. Usually coarser rice is used for this procedure. It helps to retain the natural vitamins and kill any fungi or other contaminants, but leads to a peculiar odour. This rice is easier on the stomach to digest and is mostly used by blue collar workers. In South India, it is also used to make idlis. Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavours; the most noted cultivars are the aforementioned basmati, Patna rice, and a hybrid cultivar from America sold under the trade name, Texmati. It is a genetically modified patented cultivar that is creating great controversy. Both Basmati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-like aroma and flavour. In Indonesia there are also red and black cultivars. High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa and other dry ecosystems called the new rice for Africa (NERICA) cultivars have been developed. It is hoped that their cultivation will improve food security in West Africa. Scientists are working on so-called golden rice which is genetically modified to produce beta carotene, the precursor to vitamin A. This has generated a great deal of controversy over whether the amount of beta carotene would be significant and whether genetically modified foods are desirable. Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars, indica and japonica, were published in April 2002. Rice was chosen as a model organism for the biology of grasses because of its relatively small genome (~430 megabase pairs). As a result rice was the first plant or animal to have its complete genome mapped . Basmati rice is the oldest, common progenitor for most types.

International Year of Rice

On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The declaration was sponsored by Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cuba, Cyprus, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Ecuador, Fiji, Gabon, Grenada, Guyana, India, Indonesia, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Madagascar, Mali, Malaysia, the Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Myanmar, Nauru, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Pakistan, Peru, the Philippines, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tajikistan, Thailand, Togo, Vietnam, and Zambia.

See also


- List of rice varieties
- Bhutanese red rice
- Forbidden rice
- Inari
- Indonesian rice table
- Patna rice
- Protein per unit area
- Rice milk
- Riceland Foods
- Roma rice
- Wild rice

External links

General


- [http://www.fao.org/rice2004/index_en.htm 2004: International Year of Rice]
- [http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/rice/characteristics.htm Infocomm/UNCTAD]
- [http://www.irri.org/ International Rice Research Institute]
- [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ Rice Knowledge Bank]

Rice in agriculture


- [http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/names/rice.asp American Phytopathological Society: Diseases of Rice (Oryza sativa)]
- [http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/afris/Data/312.HTM FAO: Animal Feed Resources Information System, Oryza sativa]
- [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/commonpests/CommonPests.htm International Rice Research Institute: Common Insect Pests of Rice]
- [http://www.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/zhimin99.htm Origin of Chinese rice cultivation]
- [http://www.schistory.org/vm/vm1001/vm1001fa.html South Carolina rice planting photos from the early 1900s]

Rice as food


- [http://www.completerecipes.com/rice1.htm Complete Recipes: Rice]
- [http://www.recipedelights.com/indianricedishes.htm Indian Rice Recipes]
- [http://www.kallipolis.com/diet/food.php?id=20053 Nutrition information for cooked rice]
- [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=/netahtml/search-bool.html&r=4&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=ptxt&s1='puffed+rice'&OS=%22puffed+rice%22&RS=%22puffed+rice%22 US Patent 6,676,983: Puffed food starch product]

Rice economics


- [http://www.sagevfoods.com/MainPages/Rice101/Production.htm Sage V Foods with some good U.S. regional production data]
- [http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/rice/market.htm UNCTAD market information]

Rice genome


- n:Chinese authorities question genetically altered rice allegation
- [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Projets/Projet_CC/organisme_CC.html Oryza sativa The rice genome, a "Rosetta stone" for other cereals]
- [http://rgp.dna.affrc.go.jp/ Rice Genome Research Program]
- [http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030047 Rice Genome Approaches Completion]
- [http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0030038 The Genomes of Oryza sativa: A History of Duplications]

References

# # all figures from UNCTAD 1998-2002 and the [http://www.irri.org/science/ricestat/index.asp International Rice Research Institute] statistics (accessed September 2005) # Category:Cereals Category:Grains Category:Grasses Category:Model organisms ko:벼 ja:米 ms:Padi

Caryopsis

In botany, a caryopsis is a type of simple dry fruit — one that is monocarpelate (formed from a single carpel) and indehiscent (not opening at maturity) and resembles an achene, except that in a caryopsis the pericarp is fused with the thin seed coat. The caryopsis is popularly called a grain and is the fruit typical of the family Poaceae (or Gramineae), such as wheat, rice, and corn. The term grain is also used in a more general sense as synonymous with cereal (as in cereal grains, which include some non-Gramineae)). Considering that the fruit wall and the seed are intimately fused into a single unit, and the caryopsis or grain is a dry fruit, it is not surprising that in general usage little concern is given to technically separating the terms "fruit" and "seed" in these plant structures. In many grains, the "hulls" to be separated before processing are actually flower bracts. Category: plant morphology

Flour

An ingredient used in many foods, flour is a fine powder made from cereals or other starchy food sources. It is most commonly made from wheat, but also maize (aka corn), rye, barley and rice, amongst many other grasses and non-grain plants (including many Australian species of acacia). Flour is the key ingredient of bread, which is the staple food in many countries, and therefore the availability of adequate supplies of flour has often been a major economic and political issue. Flour is always based on the presence of starches, which are complex carbohydrates. Usually, the word "flour" used alone refers to wheat flour, which is one of the most important foods in European and American culture. Wheat flour is the main ingredient in most types of breads and pastries. Wheat is so widely used because of an important property: when wheat flour is mixed with water, a complex protein called gluten develops. The gluten development is what gives wheat dough an elastic structure that allows it to be worked in a variety of ways, and which allows the retention of gas bubbles in an intact structure, resulting in a sponge-like texture to the final product. This is highly desired for breads, cakes and other baked products. A coarser preparation, somewhat granular rather than a fine dust, is often called meal.

Types of flour

gluten
- The vast majority of today's flour consumption is wheat flour. :Wheat varieties are typically known as 'White' or Brown if they have high gluten content, and soft or weak flour if gluten content is low. Hard flour, or bread" flour, is high in gluten and so forms a certain toughness which holds its shape well once baked. Soft flour is comparatively low in gluten and so results in a finer texture. Soft flour is usually divided into cake flour, which is the lowest in gluten, and pastry flour, which has slightly more gluten than cake flour. :All-purpose flour is a blended wheat flour with an intermediate gluten level which is marketed as an acceptable compromise for most household baking needs. :In terms of the parts of the grain (the grass seed) used in flour -- the endosperm or starchy part, the germ or protein part, and the bran or fiber part -- there are three general types of flour. White flour is made from the endosperm only. Whole grain flour is made from the entire grain including bran, endosperm, and germ. A germ flour is made from the endosperm and germ, excluding the bran. :Whole-wheat flour is wholegrain wheat flour. :Bleached flour is flour that was subjected to flour bleaching agents in order to whiten it (freshly milled flour is yellowish) and give it more gluten-producing potential. Similar effect can be achieved by letting the flour slowly oxidize with oxygen in the air ("natural aging"), however this process is too slow to be commercially viable. Oxidizing agents are therefore employed, most commonly organic peroxides like acetone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide, nitrogen dioxide, or chlorine. :Bromated flour is flour with a maturing agent added. The agent's role is to help with developing gluten, a role similar to the flour bleaching agents. Bromate is usually used. Other choices are phosphates, ascorbic acid, and malted barley. :Cake flour is a finely milled flour made from soft wheat. It has very low gluten content, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies. Higher gluten content of other flours would make the cakes tough. :Graham flour is a special type of whole wheat flour. The endosperm is finely ground, as in white flour, while the bran and germ are coarsely ground. Graham flour is uncommon outside of the USA. It is the basis of true graham crackers. Many graham crackers on the market are actually imitation grahams because they do not contain graham flour or even whole-wheat flour. :Pastry flour (also called cookie flour or cracker flour) is flour with gluten content slightly higher than cake flour, but lower than all-purpose flour. It is suitable for fine, light-textured pastries. :Self-rising or self-raising flour is "white" wheat flour that is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. It was invented by Henry Jones. Typical ratios are: ::U.S. customary: :::one cup flour :::1 to 1 1/2 teaspoon baking powder :::a pinch to 1/2 teaspoon salt ::Metric: :::100 g flour :::3 g baking powder :::1 g or less salt :Corn flour is very popular in the southern United States and in Mexico. Coarse whole-grain corn flour is usually called corn meal. Corn meal which has been leached with lye is called masa harina and is used to make tortillas and tamales in Mexican cooking. Corn flour should never be confused with cornstarch, which is known as cornflour in British English. :Durum flour is a flour made of durum wheat. It has the highest protein content, and it is an important component of nearly all noodles and pastas. :100% Rye flour is used to bake the traditional sourdough breads of Germany and Scandinavia. Most rye breads use a mix of rye and wheat flours because rye has a low gluten content. Pumpernickel bread is usually made exclusively of rye, and contains a mixture of rye flour and rye meal. :Rice flour is of great importance in Southeast Asian cuisine. Also edible rice paper can be made from it. Most rice flour is made from white rice, thus is essentially a pure starch, but whole-grain brown rice flour is commercially available. :Chestnut flour is popular in Corsica, the Périgord and Lunigiana. In Corsica, it is used to cook the local variety of polenta. In Italy, it is mainly used for desserts. :Chickpea flour (besan) is of great importance in Indian cuisine, and in Italy, where it is used for the Ligurian farinata. :Flour can also be made from soy beans, arrowroot, potatoes, taro, cattail and other non-grain foodstuffs. :Tang flour is a kind of wheat flour used in Chinese cooking that is suitable for making the outer layer of dumplings and buns. It is also called wheat starch. You can find it in any Chinese supermarket. It does not resemble Tang.

Flour type numbers

In some markets, the different available flour varieties are labeled according to the ash mass ("mineral content") that remains after a sample was incinerated in a laboratory oven (typically at 550 °C or 900 °C, see international standards ISO 2171 and ICC [http://www.icc.or.at/methods3.php#ICC104 104/1]). This is an easy to verify indicator for the fraction of the whole grain that ended up in the flour, because the mineral content of the starchy endosperm is much lower than that of the outer parts of the grain. Flour made from all parts of the grain (extraction rate: 100%) leaves about 2 g ash or more per 100 g dry flour. Plain white flour (extraction rate: 50-60%) leaves only about 0.4 g.
- German flour type numbers (Mehltype) indicate the amount of ash (measured in milligrams) obtained from 100 g of the dry mass of this flour. Standard wheat flours (defined in DIN 10355) range from type 405 for normal white wheat flour for baking, to strong bread flour types 550, 650, 812, and the darker types 1050 and 1600 for wholegrain breads.
- French flour type numbers (type de farine) are a factor 10 smaller than those used in Germany, that is they indicate the mineral content (in milligrams) per 10 g flour. Type 45 is the standard white flour for baking, types 65, 80, and 110 are strong bread flours of increasing darkness, and type 150 is a wholemeal flour.

Flour production

Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels. Today, "stone-ground" usually means that the grain has been ground in a water-operated mill, in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, with the grain in between. Many small appliance mills are now available, both hand-cranked and electric. Flour dust suspended in air is explosive, as is any mixture of a finely powdered flammable substance with air see Lycopodium. Some of the worst civilian fatalities from explosions have been at flour mills.

History

In history, both large and hand mills were operated. Until modern times, much flour contained minute amounts of grit, either the result of poor sifting of the grain or of grinding stones together. This grit strongly abraded teeth. One of the most ancient methods of grinding to produce flour was by using a pair of quern-stones. These were made out of rock, and were ground together by hand. They were generally replaced by millstones once mechanised forms of milling appeared, particularly the water mill and the windmill, although animals were also used to operate the millstones.

Flour products

Bread, pasta, crackers, many cakes, amongst many other foods, are made using flour. Wheat flour is also used to make a roux as a base for gravy and sauces. White wheat flour is the traditional base for wallpaper paste. It is also the base for papier-mâché. Cornstarch is a principal ingredient of many puddings.

External links


- [http://www.professionalpasta.it/dir_1/flour_1.htm Grain and wheat flour]
- [http://www.cookingforengineers.com/article.php?id=63 Cooking For Engineers - Kitchen Notes: Wheat Flour]

References


- [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1998/19980141.htm The Bread and Flour Regulations 1998], United Kingdom Category:Food ingredients ja:小麦粉

Brewing

Brewing is the production of alcoholic beverages and alcohol fuel through fermentation. This is the method used in beer production, although the term can be used for other drinks such as sake, mead and wine. The term is also sometimes used to refer to any chemical mixing process. Brewing has a very long history, and archeological evidence tells us that this technique was used in ancient Egypt. Descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in Sumerian writings, some of the oldest known writing of any sort. The brewing industry is part of most western economies.

Brewing beer

All beers are brewed using a process based on a simple formula. Key to the process is malted grain, traditionally barley, but often also wheat and, less commonly rye. (When malting rye, due care must be taken to prevent ergot poisoning (ergotism), as rye is particularly prone to developing this toxic fungus during the malting process.) Malt is made by allowing a grain to germinate, after which it is then dried in a kiln and sometimes roasted. The germination process creates a number of enzymes, notably α-amylase and β-amylase, which will be used to convert the starch in the grain into sugar. Depending on the amount of roasting, the malt will take on dark colour and strongly influence the colour and flavour of the beer. The malt is crushed to break apart the grain kernels, increase their surface area, and separate the smaller pieces from the husks. The resulting grist is mixed with heated water in a vat called a "mash tun" for a process known as "mashing". During this process, natural enzymes within the malt break down much of the starch into sugars which play a vital part in the fermentation process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time various temperature rests (waiting periods) activate different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the desires of the brewmaster. The activity of these enzymes convert the starches of the grains to dextrines and then to fermentable sugars such as maltose. The Mash Tun generally contains a slotted "false bottom" or other form of manifold which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain. A mash rest at 104 °F or 40 °C activates beta-glucanase, which breaks down gummy beta-glucans in the mash, making the sugars flow out more freely later in the process. In the modern mashing process commercial fungal based beta-glucanase may be added as a supplement. A mash rest from 120°F to 130 °F (49°C to 55°C) activates various proteinases, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the beer to be hazy. But care is of the essence since the head on beer is also composed primarily of proteins, so too aggressive a protein rest can result in a beer that cannot hold a head. This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts which are decreasingly popular in Germany and the Czech Republic, or non-malted grains such as corn and rice, which are widely used in North American beers. Finally, a mash rest temperature of 149 to 160 °F (65 to 71 °C) is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by the yeast later in the brewing process. Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range produces more low-order sugars which are more fermentable by the yeast. This in turn creates a beer lower in body and higher in alcohol. A rest closer to the higher end of the range creates more higher-order sugars which are less fermentable by the yeast, so a fuller-bodied beer with less alcohol is the result. After the mashing, the resulting liquid is strained from the grains in a process known as lautering. Prior to lautering, the mash temperature may be raised to 165F to 170F (known as a mashout) to deactivate enzymes. Additional water may be sprinkled on the grains to extract additional sugars (a process known as sparging). At this point the liquid is known as wort (rhymes with hurt). The wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or kettle where it is boiled with hops and sometimes other ingredients such as herbs or sugars. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, precipitate proteins, isomerize hop resins, concentrate and sterilize the wort. Hops add flavour, aroma and bitterness to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a "whirl-pool" and the clarified wort is then cooled. The wort is then moved into a "fermentation vessel" where yeast is added or "pitched" with it. The yeast converts the sugars from the malt into alcohol, carbon dioxide and other components through a process called Glycolysis. After a week to three weeks, the fresh (or "green") beer is run off into conditioning tanks. After conditioning for a week to several months, the beer is often filtered to remove yeast and particulates. The "bright beer" is then ready for serving or packaging. There are four main families of beer styles determined by the variety of yeast used in their brewing.

Ale (top fermenting yeasts)

Ale yeasts ferment at warmer temperatures between 15°C and 20°C (60°F to 68°F), and occasionally as high as 24°C (75°F). Pure ale yeasts form a foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, though many British yeasts contain yeast strains that settle to the bottom. Because of this they are often referred to as Top Fermenting yeast. Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation, though they benefit from additional storage of up to two months. Ales range in color from very pale to black opaque. England is best known for its variety of Ales.

Lager (bottom fermenting yeasts)

While the nature of yeast was not fully understood until Emil Hansen of the Carlsberg brewery in Denmark isolated a single yeast cell in the 1800s, brewers in Bavaria had for centuries been selecting these cold-fermenting Lager yeasts by storing or "Lagern" their beers in cold alpine caves. The process of natural selection meant that the wild yeasts that were most cold tolerant would be the ones that would remain actively fermenting in the beer that was stored in the caves. Some of these Bavarian yeasts were stolen and brought back to the Carlsberg brewery around the time that Hansen did his famous work. Lager yeast tends to collect at the bottom of the fermenter and is often referred to as Bottom Fermenting yeast. Lager is fermented at much lower temperatures, around 10°C (50°F), compared to typical ale fermentation temperatures of 18°C (65°F). It is then stored for 30 days or longer close to the freezing point. During the storing or Lagering process, the beer mellows and flavours become smoother. Sulfur components developed during fermentation disipate. The popularity of lager was a major factor that led to the rapid introduction of refrigeration in the early 1900s. Today, lagers represent the vast majority of beers produced, the most famous being a light lager called Pilsner which originated in Pilsen, Czech Republic (Plzeň in czech language). It is a common misconception that all Lagers are light in color but lagers range from very light to black opaque just like Ales.

Beers of Spontaneous Fermentation (wild yeasts)

These beers are nowadays primarily only brewed around Brussels, Belgium. They are fermented by means of wild yeast strains that live in a part of the Zenne river which flows through Brussels. These beers are also called Lambic beers. However with the advent of yeast banks and the [http://www.ncyc.co.uk/ NCYC], brewing these beers, although not through spontaneous fermentation, is possible anywhere.

Beers of mixed origin (blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers)

These beers are blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers or they are ales/lagers which are also fermented by wild yeasts.

See also


- distilling.
- The word zymurgy is sometimes used as a generic term for brewing, winemaking and distilling.
- Brewery#The Brewing Process
- Homebrew
- History of alcohol Category:Beer

Husk

:For the comic book superhero in the Marvel Comics universe, see Husk. Husk (or hull) usually refers to the leafy outer covering of an ear of maize (corn) as it grows on the plant. In the literal sence, a husk or hull includes the protective outer covering of a seed, fruit or vegetable. Category:Plant anatomy

Dietary bran

Bran is the hard outer layer of cereal grains, and consists of combined aleurone and pericarp. Along with germ, it is an integral part of whole grains, and is often produced as a by-product of milling in the production of refined grains. When bran is removed from grains, they lose a portion of their nutritional value. Bran is present in and may be milled from any cereal grain, including rice, wheat, maize, oats, and millet. Bran is particularly rich in dietary fiber, and contains significant quantitities of starch, protein, fat, vitamins, and dietary minerals. Oat bran, alone or as a part of oatmeal, has been shown to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease when part of an overall diet that is low in saturated fat and cholesterol, and the United States Food and Drug Administration now allows manufacturers to make specific health claims to that effect on food packaging[http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/tpoatbrn.html]. Wheat bran (miller's bran) is very effective in treating constipation. Bran is often used to enrich breads (notably muffins) and breakfast cereals, especially for the benefit of those wishing to increase their intake of dietary fiber. Bran may also be used for pickling, as in the tsukemono of Japan. Rice bran finds particularly many uses in Japan, where it is known as nuka (糠; ぬか). Besides using it for pickling, Japanese people also add it to the water when boiling bamboo shoots, and use it for dish washing. The high oil content of bran makes it subject to rancidification, one of the reasons that is often separated from the grain before storage or further processing. The bran itself can be heat-treated to increase its longevity[http://www.fftc.agnet.org/library/article/pt2003037.html]. Eating foods rich in bran became somewhat of a health craze in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with massive promotion of bran cereals and granola. In the late 1980s, there was the "oat bran craze," with oat products in all shapes and sizes flooding the market (including potato chips with oat bran added), claiming to lower blood cholesterol and fight heart disease. This craze peaked in 1989 and was short-lived, as studies in the early 1990s showed that oat bran only modestly reduced cholesterol. However, in January 1997, the Food and Drug Administration decided (with some controversy) that food with a lot of oat bran or rolled oats can carry a label claiming it may reduce the risk of heart disease, when combined with a low-fat diet. As of 2005, this fact still appears on many oatmeal packages. Bran oil may be also extracted for use by itself for industrial purposes (such as in the paint industry[http://www.hbti.edu/oil.htm]), or as a cooking oil, such as rice bran oil. ja:糠 Category:Cereals Category:Food ingredients

Forage


- Forage is the herbaceous plant material (mainly grasses and legumes) eaten by grazing animals. The major forage types: # Pasture # Range # Hay # Silage
- Forage (honeybee) can also be the nectar producing plants that are available for nectar gatherers, such as honeybees.

See also


- Browse (a woody plant material eaten by animals such as deer and goats)
- Fodder

Straw

:This article is about the agricultural product. For the drinking implement, see Drinking straw. Drinking straw Straw is the dry stalk of a cereal plant, after the nutrient grain or seed has been removed. Straw makes up about half of the yield of a cereal crop such as wheat, oats, rye or barley. In times gone by, it was regarded as a useful by-product of the harvest, but with the advent of the combine harvester, straw has become more of a burden, almost a nuisance to farmers. However, straw can be put to many uses, old and new.

Uses of straw


- Biofuels
  - The use of straw as a carbon-neutral energy source is increasing rapidly
- Bedding humans or livestock
  - The straw-filled mattress, also known as palliasse, is still used in many parts of the world.
- Thatching
  - Thatched roofs are becoming increasingly popular, and the skills of a master thatcher are once again in demand.
- Packaging
  - Straw is resistant to being crushed and therefore makes a good packing material. A company in France makes a straw mat sealed in thin plastic sheets.
  - Straw envelopes for wine bottles have become rarer, but are still to be found at some wine merchants.
- Paper
  - Straw can be pulped to make paper.
- Archery targets
  - Heavy gauge straw rope is coiled and sewn tightly together. This is no longer done entirely by hand, but is partially mechanised.
- Horse collars
  - Working horses are making a comeback, and there is a need for horse collars stuffed with good quality rye straw. Being a "long straw filler" is a highly skilled job.
- Construction material: bricks / cob
  - In many parts of the world, straw is used to bind clay and concrete. This mixture of clay and straw, known as cob, can be used as a building material. There are many recipes for making cob.
  - When baled, straw has excellent insulation characterics. It can be used, alone or in a post-and-beam construction, to build straw bale houses.
- Rope
  - Rope made from straw was used by thatchers, in the packaging industry and even in iron foundries.
- Straw plait for the hatting industry
  - Until about 100 years ago, thousands of women and children in England were employed in the straw hat making industry. Nowadays the straw plait is imported.
- Basketry
  - Bee skeps and linen baskets are made from coiled and bound together continuous lengths of straw. The technique is known as lip work.
- Horticulture
  - Straw is used in cucumber houses and for mushroom growing. In Japan, certain trees are wrapped with straw to protect them from the effects of a hard winter as well as to use them as a trap for parasite insects.
  - It is also used in ponds to 'soak up' algae.
  - The soil under strawberries is covered with straw to protect the ripe berries from dirt.
  - Straw also makes an excellent mulch.
- Decoration
  - Corn dollies
  - Straw marquetry
  - Harvest crosses

See also


- hay Category:Packaging materials Category:Biodegradable materials Category:Livestock ja:藁

Southwest Asia

Southwest Asia (often confused with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. The term Western Asia is commonly used in writings about the archaeology and late prehistory of the region. Unlike the Middle East, which is a vaguely-defined region generally meant to include the African state of Egypt, Western Asia is a purely geographical term that includes the southwestern extreme of Asia. South-western Asia is partly coterminous with the traditional European name "the Middle East". The term "West Asia" has become the preferred term of use for the Middle East by international organizations (most notably the United Nations) and also in African and Asian countries, such as India, because of the perceived Eurocentrism of the historical term "Middle East". In therms of cultural and political geography, the Middle East sometimes includes North African countries, particularly Egypt. For similar reasons, Afghanistan, Central Asia and/or Pakistan are variously affiliated with the region, as well. The United Nations, however, assigns Iran and Afghanistan to South Asia and includes Azerbaijan and Georgia in Southwest Asia, even though the latter are partly located in Europe and have political, historical and cultural ties to Europe. See Continent and Transcontinental country for further definitions Southwest Asia is in most contexts meant to encompass:
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