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Western Hemisphere

Western Hemisphere

Western Hemisphere (capitalised) is a geopolitical term for the Americas and nearby islands. It is derived from the geographical western hemisphere, which is the half of the Earth that lies west of the prime meridian, but usage has shifted so that the term refers only to North, Central and South America, and the islands of the Caribbean. It is also used in a more demographic sense, for the people (and governments and nations) inhabiting the continent. The main difference between the geographical and geopolitical meanings is the exclusion of parts of Africa, Europe and Antarctica (and the eastern tip of Asia) in the latter. The word hemisphere is a geometric term that literally means 'half ball' and in geography the term is used when dividing the Earth into two halves. The most obvious dividing line is the equator, creating the northern and southern hemisphere. These hemispheres are based on the unambiguous reference points North and South Pole, which are defined by the Earth's axis of rotation and in turn define the equator. But any definition of eastern and western hemispheres requires the selection of an arbitrary meridian (plus the corresponding meridian at the other side of the Earth). Usually the prime meridian is used, which runs through Greenwich, London to define the international date line at the other side of the Earth at the 180° line of longitude. One might argue that this is a eurocentric choice, which would make the more common geopolitical meaning of 'the Americas' eurocentric as well. The term eastern hemisphere is not commonly used in a geopolitical sense. eastern hemisphere

The Americas

The Americas refers to the American landmass, comprised of the entirety of the North American and South American continents and associated lands. The term is a relatively recent and less ambiguous alternative to the name America, which may refer to either the whole American landmass or the United States of America. The former, and original, usage is now often considered archaic in English-speaking nations, but still in use in other areas, in which the Americas is often considered to form a single continent, and therefore called America (singular). An analogous term to America or (the) America(s) as used to mean a "twin (or double) continent" is the use of Eurasia.

Peoples of the Americas

Names

Main article: Use of the word American Many people living in the Americas refer to themselves as American. Meanwhile, in most of the English-speaking world (e.g., Canada), this will only refer to a citizen of the United States of America.

Ethnology

The American population is made up of the descendents of three large ethnic groups and their combinations: the native inhabitants of the Americas, being "Indians" (or "Native Americans" or "Amerindians"), Eskimos, and Aleuts; Europeans (of mainly Spanish, British, Irish, Portuguese, French, Italian, German and Dutch, origin); and black Africans. There are also more recent immigrants, such as from the Balkan, Central Europe and Central and Eastern Asia. The majority of the American people live in Latin America. Most of Latin America is Spanish-speaking, with Portuguese-speaking Brazil as the major exception. Canada and the United States are linguistically, culturally and economically quite different from Latin America, with the whites being more predominantly of North European ancestry. As part of the more prosperous northern world, the United States especially has long overshadowed and attempted to manipulate southern Latin America, most notably during the Cold War.

Languages

Various languages, both European and native, are spoken in America. Primary:
- - spoken by approximately 350 million people in many nations, regions, islands, and communities throughout the continent.
- - spoken by approximately 300 million in the United States, Canada, Belize and islands of the Caribbean
- - spoken by approximately 185 million in Brazil
- - spoken by approximately 7 million in Québec and 2 million in the rest of Canada; in the Caribbean, especially in Haiti; and in French Guiana.
- (avañe'ẽ) - native language spoken by approximately 6 million people in Paraguay, and regions of Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil.
- Mapudungun (or Mapuche) - native language spoken by approximately 440,000 people in Chile and Argentina. Others:
- Aymará - native language spoken in the Andes, especially in Bolivia.
- - spoken in the Netherlands Antilles, Aruba, and Suriname
- Quiché and other Maya languages - native languages spoken in Guatemala and southern Mexico.
- Quechua - native language spoken in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile and Argentina.
- - creole language, based in French and various African languages, spoken by 7.8 million in Haiti.
- Nahuatl - native language of central Mexico with 1.5 million speakers Most of the non-native languages have, to different degrees, evolved differently from the mother country, but are usually still mutually intelligible. Some have combined though, which has even resulted in completely new languages, such as Papiamentu, which is a combination of Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch (representing the respective colonisers), native Arawak, various African languages and, more recently, English. Because of immigration, there are many communities where other languages are spoken from all parts of the world, especially in the United States and Canada, two important destinations for immigrants.

Naming of America

African languages The earliest known use of the name America for the continents of the Americas dates from 1507. It appears on a globe and a large map created by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller in Saint-Dié-des-Vosges. An accompanying book, Cosmographiae Introductio, explains that the name was derived from the Latinized version of the explorer Amerigo Vespucci's name, Americus Vespucius, in its feminine form, America, as the other continents all have Latin feminine names. However, as Dr. Basil Cottle (Author, Dictionary of Surnames, 1967) points out, new countries or continents are never named after a person's first name, always after their second name. Thus, America should really have become Vespucci Land or Vespuccia if the Italian explorer really gave his name to the newly discovered continent. Christopher Columbus, who had first brought the continents' existence to the attention of Renaissance era voyagers, had died in 1506 (believing, to the end, that he'd discovered and conquered part of India) and could not protest Waldseemüller's decision. A few alternative theories regarding the continents' naming have been proposed, but none of them have any widespread acceptance. One alternative first proposed by a Bristol antiquary and naturalist, Alfred Hudd, was that America is derived from Richard Amerike, a merchant from Bristol, who is believed to have financed John Cabot's voyage of discovery from England to Newfoundland in 1497. Supposedly, Bristol fishermen had been visiting the coast of North America for at least a century before Columbus' voyage and Waldseemüller's maps are alleged to incorporate information from the early English journeys to North America. The theory holds that a variant of Amerike's name appeared on an early English map (of which however no copies survive) and that this was the true inspiration for Waldseemüller. Another theory, first advanced by Jules Marcou in 1875 and later recounted by novelist Jan Carew, is that the name America derives from the district of Amerrique in Nicaragua. The gold-rich district of Amerrique was purportedly visited by both Vespucci and Columbus, for whom the name became synonymous with gold. According to Marcou, Vespucci later applied the name to the New World, and even changed the spelling of his own name from Alberigo to Amerigo to reflect the importance of the discovery. Vespucci's role in the naming issue, like his exploratory activity, is unclear. Some sources say that he was unaware of the widespread use of his name to refer to the new landmass. Others hold that he promulgated a story that he had made a secret voyage westward and sighted land in 1491, a year before Columbus. If he did indeed make such claims, they backfired, and only served to prolong the ongoing debate on whether the "Indies" were really a new land, or just an extension of Asia.

External links

- [http://www.uhmc.sunysb.edu/surgery/america.html The Naming of America]
- [http://texashistory.unt.edu/permalink/meta-pth-2422 America noviter delineata / M. Merian, fecit.] 1633 Map of North and South America, hosted by the Portal to Texas History. Category:Americas zh-min-nan:Bí-chiu ko:아메리카 ja:アメリカ州 simple:The Americas th:ทวีปอเมริกา

Prime Meridian

The Prime Meridian is the meridian (line of longitude) passing through the Royal Greenwich Observatory, Greenwich, England; it is the meridian at which longitude is 0 degrees. It is often referred to as the Greenwich Meridian. The meridian was agreed upon in October 1884. At the behest of U.S. President Chester A. Arthur, 41 delegates from 25 nations met in Washington, D.C., USA for the International Meridian Conference. France abstained when the vote was taken, and the French would cling to the Paris Meridian for several decades. The International Date Line is on the opposite side of the world from the Prime Meridian. The zero meridian used by satellite navigation systems (on the WGS84 datum) is about 100 metres to the east of the line marked at Greenwich. It is not fixed on the ground as the continents are moving because of continental drift, and the WGS84 datum is an average of the various continental movements - the datum stays where it is and the continents slide around underneath it. (Otherwise a minor earthquake in Greenwich could change longitudes throughout the world.) The zero meridian used by the Ordnance Survey (OSGB36 datum) is about six metres to the west of the line marked at Greenwich. This was the standard meridian before 1851, and the Ordnance Survey simply carried on using it. Universal Time is calculated for a notional meridian which is near the WGS84 meridian.

Other reference meridians

The meridian through Greenwich was selected as the Prime Meridian because over two-thirds of all ships and tonnage already used it as the reference meridian on their maps in 1884. Other reference meridians used previously include:
- WGS84 longitude zero - about 100 metres east of the traditional Prime Meridian :caution:WGS84 longitudes may supplant traditional ones and the offset is not constant with longitude
- Copenhagen
- El Hierro (Ferro) (Canary Islands) Ancient, later redefined 17° 39' 46" W of Greenwich to be exactly 20° W of Paris. French "submarin" at Washington 1884.
- Giza
- Jerusalem
- Madrid (3°41′16.48″ west of Greenwich)
- Oslo (Kristiania) (10°43′22.5″ east of Greenwich)
- Paris (2°20′14″ east of Greenwich; see Paris Meridian)
- Philadelphia
- Pisa
- Rome (12°27'08.04" east of Greenwich)
- Saint Petersburg (Pulkovo meridian, 30°19′42.09″ east of Greenwich)
- Washington, D.C. (77°3′2.3″ west of Greenwich)
- Ujjain (23.09°N, 75.43°E of Greenwich). Used by Hindu geographers since about 4th century BCE. Still used sometimes in Hindu Astronomy and timekeeping. With respect to other solid celestial bodies, prime meridians are likewise arbitrarily defined.
- The prime meridian of the Moon lies directly in the middle of the face of the moon visible from earth and passes near the crater Bruce.
- The 20th meridian of Mercury is defined by a special small crater known as Hun Kal, which is Mayan for 20.
- The prime meridian of Mars is defined by the crater Airy-0.

External links

- [http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/scans-meridian.html scanned TIFFs of the conference proceedings]
- [http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/info/prime-meridian.htm Prime meridians in use in the 1880s, by country] Category:Time zones Category:Greenwich Category:Geodesy Category:Lines of longitude ja:グリニッジ子午線

North America

North America is a continent in the northern hemisphere bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean. It covers an area of 24,497,994 km² (9,458,728 sq mi), or about 4.8% of the Earth's surface. As of July 2002, its population was estimated at more than 514,600,000. It is the third largest continent in area, after Asia and Africa, and is fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Both North and South America are named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered (by Europeans) New World. North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America. North America's only land connection is to South America at the narrow Isthmus of Panama. (For geopolitical reasons, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is often considered a part of North America alone.) According to some authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the intervening region called Central America and resting on the Caribbean Plate. Most, however, tend to see Central America as a region of North America, considering it too small to be a continent on its own. Greenland, although a part of North America geographically, is not considered to be part of the continent politically.

Physical features

Greenland, plutonic, metamorphic rock types of North America. ]] Plate tectonics recognizes the vast majority of North America as being the surface of the North American Plate. Parts of California and western Mexico are known for being the edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many sub-regions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf. The western mountains are split in the middle, into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia with the Great Basin – a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts – in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska. Since 1931, Rugby, North Dakota, has officially been recognized as being at the geographic center of North America. The location is marked by a 4.5 metre (15 foot) field stone obelisk. Image:North america terrain 2003 map.jpg|North America bedrock and terrain. Image:North america basement rocks.png|North American cratons and basement rocks. Image:North America Tectonic Elements.jpg|Tectonic elements of North America Image:North america craton nps.gif|North American craton.

Territories and regions

craton On the main continent landmass, there are three large and relatively populous countries:
- Canada - many large islands off the shore of North America belong to Canada, including Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands on the west, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island on the east, and the Canadian Arctic islands (including Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, and Victoria Island) in the north
- Mexico - the Revillagigedo archipelago and numerous smaller islands off its coast belong to Mexico
- The United States - the 48 contiguous states and Alaska are part of North America, while the state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean is not; the Aleutian Islands south of Alaska also belong to the U.S. At the southern end of the continent, in a relatively small area known as Central America, are the countries of:
- Belize
- Costa Rica
- El Salvador
- Guatemala
- Honduras
- Nicaragua
- Panama ¹ At the southeastern end of the continent lies a chain of islands territories called the Antilles, the Caribbean or the West Indies, which include the countries:
- Antigua and Barbuda
- Bahamas
- Barbados
- Cuba
- Dominica
- Dominican Republic
- Grenada
- Haiti
- Jamaica
- Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Saint Lucia
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
- Trinidad and Tobago ¹ And the dependencies:
- Anguilla (British overseas territory)
- Aruba ² (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Cayman Islands (British overseas territory)
- Guadeloupe (French région d'outre-mer)
- Martinique (French région d'outre-mer)
- Montserrat (British overseas territory)
- Navassa Island (U.S. territory)
- Netherlands Antilles ¹ (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Puerto Rico (U.S. commonwealth)
- Turks and Caicos Islands (British overseas territory)
- British Virgin Islands (British overseas territory)
- U.S. Virgin Islands (territory of the USA) Lying in the Atlantic Ocean but considered part of the continent are the dependencies:
- Bermuda, a British overseas territory found about 1,072 km (670 mi.) southeast of New York City
- Greenland, the largest island in the world and a self-governing dependency of Denmark, which is located in the far north of the continent to the east of Nunavut.
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon, a French collectivité d'outre-mer off the south coast of Newfoundland, is the last of France's once vast possessions in America north of the Caribbean. ¹ These states and dependencies have territory both in North and South America.
² These dependencies lie in South America, but are considered North American because of cultural and historical reasons.
See here for details.

Usage

The United States, Canada, and the other English-speaking nations of the Americas (Belize, Guyana, and the Anglophone Caribbean) are sometimes grouped under the term Anglo-America, while the remaining nations of North and South America are grouped under the term Latin America. Alternatively, Northern America is used to refer to Canada and the U.S. together (plus Greenland and Bermuda), while Central America is mainland North America south of the United States. The West Indies generally include all islands in the Caribbean Sea. In this respect, Latin America generally includes Central America and South America and, sometimes, the West Indies. The term Middle America is sometimes used to refer to Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean collectively. The term "North America" may mean different things to different people. The term in common usage is often taken to mean "the United States and Canada, only" by some people of the United States and Canada, excluding Mexico and the countries of Central America, unless the context makes it clear that they are to be included (such as with specific reference to Mexico, when talking about NAFTA). For example, guides to wild flora and fauna published by the National Audubon Society for "North America" frequently include only species found in Canada and the U.S. This may be attributed to the fact that culturally and economically, the U.S. and Canada are more alike to each other than they are to the rest of North America. Mexicans, however, are acutely aware that Mexico is a part of North America and object to this usage. Central Americans, however, are generally content to be called Central Americans – largely because of their shared history, which includes several attempts at supranational integration in the region and in which Mexico, their much larger northern neighbor, was never involved.

Political divisions and regions

Notes:
¹ Continental regions as per UN categorisations/map.
² Depending on definitions, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of North and South America.
³ Due to ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning 1995, much of Plymouth, Montserrat's de jure capital, was destroyed and government offices relocated to Brades.

External links

- http://www.america-norte.com/america-norte-mapa.htm Category:Continents Category:North America zh-min-nan:Pak Bí-chiu ko:북아메리카 ja:北アメリカ simple:North America th:ทวีปอเมริกาเหนือ

South America

South America is a continent, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. South America is situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. Commonly referred to as part of America, like North America, South America is named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered New World. South America has an area of 17,821,601 km² (6,880,959 sq mi), or almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface. As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,200,000. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).Europe __TOC__

Geography

The classification of its geographic location is subject to dispute, as in some non-English speaking regions of the world, the Americas are a continent and North, Central and South America are its subcontinents. In English-speaking and certain other regions of the world, North and South America are considered to be continents and their union is referred to as the supercontinent of the Americas. The classification given to South America, as a subcontinent in a continent or a continent in a supercontinent, depends entirely on regional preferences. It became attached to North America only recently (geologically speaking) with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama some 3 million years ago, which resulted in the Great American Interchange. The Andes, likewise a comparatively young and seismically restless mountain range, run down the western edge of the continent; the land to the east of the Andes is largely tropical rain forest, the vast Amazon River basin. The continent also contains drier regions such as Patagonia and the extremely arid Atacama desert. The region of South America also includes various islands, most of which belong to countries on the continent. The Caribbean territories are grouped with North America. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Sea – including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana – are also known as Caribbean South America. Major natural resources are copper, iron ore, tin and oil. The many resources in South America have become useful around the world, but they have failed to diversify their economies. This has lead to major highs and lows in their economy causing instability. South America is home to many interesting species of animals including parrots, tarantulas, snakes, and mammals. The largest country in South America by far, in both area and population, is Brazil followed by Argentina. Regions in South America include the Andean States, the Guianas, the Southern Cone, and Eastern South America.

History

South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering strait, though there are also suggestions of migration from the southern Pacific Ocean.

Chavín

The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.

Inca

Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tahuantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization.

European colonization

Before arrival of Europeans, an estimated 30 million people lived in South America. brain surgery In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (which is now known to comprehend most of the South American soil), would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles and typhus) to which the native populations had no resistance, and cruel systems of forced labor, such as the infamous haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated the American population under Spanish control. After this, African slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their American subjects to Christianity, and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as American groups simply blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs. On the other hand, the Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion, and the Catholic Church's evangelization in , and actually contributed to the expansion of these American languages, equipping them with writing systems. Eventually the Natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a Mestizo class. These and the original Americans were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish government and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included the many gold and silver sculptures found in the Americas, which were melted down before transport to Europe. Mestizo

Independence

The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the South American Wars of Independence. Simon Bolivar and José de San Martín led their independence struggle. In Brazil, a Portuguese colony, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the War of the Triple Alliance and the War of the Pacific. A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
- Trinidad and Tobago, from the United Kingdom, in 1962
- Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966.
- Suriname, from the Dutch control, in 1975 French Guiana remains part of France as of 2005, and hosts the European Union's principal spaceport, the Centre Spatial Guyanais.

Recent history

The continent, like many others, became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. The government of Chile was overthrown in the early 1970s, as a late (and peculiar) development of the U.S. Monroe Doctrine. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from internal conflicts (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Other revolutions and military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is the norm now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century.

Economy

As of 2002, South America's gross domestic product declined by 0.3 percent, and its unemployment rate was 10.8 percent. Due to histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest rates and thus investment remain high and low, respectively. Interest rates are usually double that of the United States. For example, interest rates are about 22 percent in Venezuela and 23 percent in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which had a head start from 1973 under Augusto Pinochet. The South American Community of Nations is a planned continent-wide free trade zone to unite two existing free-trade organizations—Mercosur and the Andean Community. In South America, the gap between the rich and the poor is tremendous. In Venezuela, Paraguay, Brazil, and many other South American countries, the richest 20 percent may own over 60 percent of the nation's wealth, while the poorest 20 percent may own less than 5 percent. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie next to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.

Culture

Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. French Guiana also has a large number of Protestants. Guyana and Suriname are exceptions, with three major religions: Christianity in general, Hinduism, and Islam. Portuguese and Spanish are the primary languages of the continent. The majority of South Americans (51%) speak Portuguese. However, most South American countries are Spanish-speaking, and nearly all of the continent's lusophones reside in Brazil. Among other languages used by many South Americans are:
- Aymará in Bolivia and Peru.
- Quechua in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru.
- Guaraní in Paraguay.
- English in Guyana.
- Hindi in Guyana and Suriname.
- Dutch and Indonesian in Suriname.
- Italian and German in certain pockets across southern South America. South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include samba from Brazil and cumbia from Colombia. Because of South America's ethnic mix, South American cuisine takes on African, American Indian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is especially well-known for its West African-influenced cuisine.

People

Ethnic groups of South America include:
- Awá
- Banawa
- Caiapos
- Enxet
- European descendants, especially from Spain, Portugal and Italy.
- Ge
- Guarani
- Incas
- Quechuas
- Juris
- Latin peoples
- Mapuche
- Mestizo
- Xucuru
- Zaparos Indigenous peoples make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru, and are a significant element in most other former Spanish colonies. Exceptions to this include Argentina and Uruguay. At least three of the Amerindian languages (Quechua in Peru and Bolivia, Aymara also in Bolivia, and Guarani in Paraguay) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages. Argentina is 10 percent Indian.

Mestizos

"Mestizo" is a term of Spanish origin used to designate the peoples of mixed European and Amerindian racial strain inhabiting the region spanning the Americas. Mestizos officially make up the majority of the populations of Chile (90%), Colombia (58%), Ecuador (65%), Paraguay (95%) and Venezuela (67%). Figures in other countries are Argentina (about 13%), Bolivia (30%), Brazil (about 12%), Uruguay (8%) and Peru (37%).

African ancestry

Africans first arrived with the Spanish and Portuguese in the 16th century. Most were brought as slaves and delivered to Brazil and the Caribbean. Brazil now has about 60 million black people. Venezuela and Colombia also have significant black population. "Mulato" is a term of Spanish origin (Mulatto in English) describing Latin Americans of mixed African and White racial descent. "Zambo" is a term of Spanish origin describing Latin Americans of mixed African and Amerindian racial descent. The feminine form is zamba.

Territories and divisions

Notes:
¹ La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia; Sucre is the judicial seat.
² Santiago is the administrative capital of Chile; Valparaíso is the site of legislative meetings.
³ Claimed by Argentina.
⁴ The South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands have no permanent population, only hosting a periodic contingent of about 100 researchers and visitors.
- Depending on definitions, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of South and North America.

External links

News
- [http://www.notisur.com/ NOTISUR -- Political and social news of South America (in Spanish)] Sports
- [http://www.conmebol.com/ CONMEBOL -- Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (The South American Footbal Confederation) in Spanish and Portuguese] Geography
- [http://www.freeworldmaps.net/southamerica/index.html Physical map of South America] South American Community of Nations Category:Continents South America zh-min-nan:Lâm Bí-chiu ko:남아메리카 ja:南アメリカ simple:South America th:ทวีปอเมริกาใต้

Caribbean

The Caribbean, (Spanish: Caribe) or the West Indies, is a group of islands and countries which are in or border the Caribbean Sea which lies on the Caribbean Plate. The countries and islands of the Caribbean are located to the south and east of Mexico and to the north and west of Venezuela, South America. There are at least 7,000 islands, islets, reefs, and cayes in the region. They are organized into 25 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. The name "West Indies" originates from Christopher Columbus' idea that he had landed in the Indies (then meaning all of south and east Asia) when he had in fact reached the Americas. The name "Caribbean" is named after the Caribs, one of the dominant Amerindian groups in the region at the time of European contact. The Caribbean consists of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, and is often considered part of North America. At one time, there was a short-lived country called the Federation of the West Indies composed of the English-speaking Caribbean islands of the region. The Caribbean area is also famous for its sea pirates. See the article piracy in the Caribbean. The region known as "Caribbean" is usually restricted to the islands of the Caribbean Sea, although sometimes the continental American coastline is included.

Historical groupings

Main article: History of the Caribbean Most islands at some point were, or still are, colonies of European nations:
- British West Indies / Anglophone_Caribbean - Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago and the Turks and Caicos Islands
- Danish West Indies - present-day United States Virgin Islands
- Dutch West Indies - present-day Netherlands Antilles and Aruba
- French West Indies - Haiti and the French overseas départements of Guadeloupe and Martinique
- Spain - Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic and Haiti), Puerto Rico The British West Indies were formerly united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation. The independent countries which were once a part of the B.W.I. still have a unified composite cricket team that successfully competes in test matches and one-day internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on that continent. In addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories.

Present-day island territories of the Caribbean

Bahamas] See also: Caribbean South America, Caribbean_basin
- (British dependency)
- Anguillita Island
- Dog Island
- East Cay
- Little Scrub Island
- Prickly Pear Cays
- Sandy Island
- Scrub Island
- Seal Island
- Sombrero
- West Cay
-
- Antigua
- Barbuda
- Redonda
- (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
-
- Barbados
- Culpepper Island
- Pelican Island (now absorbed into Barbados)
- (British dependency, shares the Virgin Islands with the U.S. Virgin Islands.)
- Anegada
- Beef Island
- Bellamy Cay
- Carvel Rock
- Cockroach Island
- Cooper Island
- Dead Chest Cay
- Diamond Cay
- Dog Islands
- Drowned Island
- East Seal Dog Island
- Eustatia Island
- Fallen Jerusalem Island
- Frenchmans Cay
- Grouge Dog Island
- Ginger Island
- Great Camanoe
- Great Dog Island
- Great Thatch
- Great Tobago Island
- Green Cay
- Guana Island
- Jost Van Dyke
- Key Cay
- Little Anegada
- Little Camanoe
- Little Cay
- Little Jost Van Dyke
- Little Seal Dog Island
- Little Thatch
- Little Tobago
- Little Wickmans Cay
- Marina Cay
- Mosquito Island
- Nanny Cay
- Necker Island
- Norman Island
- Old Jerusalem Island
- Oyster Rock
- Pelican Island
- Peter Island
- Prickly Pear Island
- Saba Rock
- Salt Cay
- Sandy Cay
- Scrub Island
- Spanish Island
- Tortola
- Virgin Gorda
- West Dog Island
- (British dependency)
- Cayman Brac
- Grand Cayman (with the capital George Town)
- Little Cayman
-
- Cuba
- Isla de la Juventud
-
- Bird Island (disputed territory with Venezuela located about 110 km (70 mi) west of the island of Dominica)
- (shares the Grenadines group with Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
- Carriacou
- Grenada
- Petit Martinique
- Ronde Island
- Petite Martinique
- (overseas department of France)
- Basse-Terre
- La Désirade
- Grande-Terre
- Marie-Galante
- Iles de la Petite Terre
- Saint-Barthélemy (also Saint Barts)
- Saint-Martin (part of the island Saint Martin shared with the Netherlands Antilles; note the dash)
- Iles des Saintes
- Terre de Haut
- Terre de Bas
- Hispaniola
-
-
-
- (overseas department of France)
- (British dependency)
- Navassa Island (U.S. insular area)
- (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Bonaire
- Curaçao
- Saba
- Sint Eustatius
- Sint Maarten (part of the island Saint Martin shared with Guadeloupe)
- (U.S. commonwealth)
- Culebra
- Mona
- Puerto Rico
- Vieques
-
- Nevis
- Saint Kitts
-
- (shares the Grenadines group with Grenada)
- Baliceaux Island
- Bequia
- Canouan Island
- Mayreau
- Mustique
- Palm Island
- Petit Mustique
- Petit Saint Vincent
- Saint Vincent
- Tobago Cays
- Union Island
- Young Island
-
- Tobago
- Little Tobago
- Trinidad
- Chacachacare
- Gaspar Grande
- Huevos
- Monos
- (U.S. territory, shares the Virgin Islands with the British Virgin Islands)
- Birsk Island
- Buck Island
- Capella Island
- Cas Cay
- Cow And Calf Island
- Dog Island
- Dry Rock
- Fish Cay
- Flat Cay
- Grass Cay
- Great Saint James Island
- Green Cay
- Hassel Island
- Inner Brass Island
- Johnsons Reef
- Leduck Island
- Little Saint James Island
- Lovango Cay
- Ningo Island
- Outer Brass Island
- Packet Rock
- Patricia Cay
- Saba Island
- Saint Croix
- Saint John
- Saint Thomas
- South-West Rock
- Stranglers Island
- Thatch Cay
- Turtledove Cay
- Water Island
- Welk Rock

Continental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands

-
- Ambergris Caye
- Belize City
- Big Creek
- Caye Caulker
- Glover's Reef
- Hicks Cays
- Lighthouse Reef
- South Water Caye
- Turneffe Islands
-
- San Andres and Providencia
-
-
-
-
-
- Cortés department
- Atlántida department
- Gracias a Dios department
- Islas de la Bahía Department
- Puerto Cortés
- Tela
- La Ceiba
- Trujillo
- La Mosquitia
- Puerto Lempira
- Guanaja
- Roatán
- Útila
- Cayos Cochinos
- Swan Islands
-
- Cancún
- Isla Contoy
- Isla Cozumel
- Isla Mujeres
-
- Corn Islands
- Cayos Miskitos
-
- San Blas Islands
- Bocas del Toro
-
-
- Isla Margarita
- Los Monjes Archipelago
- Las Aves Archipelago
- Isla de Aves
- Los Hermanos Island
- Los Frailes Island
- Los Roques Archipelago
- La Sola Island
- La Tortuga Island
- La Orchila Island
- Los Testigos Island
- La Blanquilla Island
- Isla de Patos The nations of Belize and Guyana, although on the mainland of Central America and South America respectively, were former British colonies and maintain many cultural ties to the Caribbean and are members of CARICOM. The Turneffe Islands (and many other islands and reefs) are part of Belize and lie in the Caribbean Sea.

Island territories near the Caribbean

Though not technically in the Caribbean Sea, the nearby Bahaman Archipelago is sometimes considered to be part of the Caribbean.
-
- Abaco
- Acklins Island
- Andros
- Bimini Islands
- Cat Island
- Crooked Island
- Eleuthera
- Grand Bahama
- Great Abaco
- Great Exuma
- Great Inaco
- Long Island
- Mayaguana
- New Providence
- Ragged Island
- San Salvador Island
- (British dependency)
- Grand Turk
- Middle Caicos
- North Caicos
- Parrot Cay
- Pine Cay
- Providenciales
- Salt Cay
- South Caicos

Indigenous Tribes

- Arawak
- Carib
- Ciboney
- Garifuna
- Lucayan
- Taino

Regional Institutions

Here are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:
- African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP)
- Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago
- Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago [http://www.caic.org.tt/]
- Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Guyana
- Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Barbados
- Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA), Barbados
- Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica
- Caribbean Hotel Association (CHA), Puerto Rico [http://www.caribbeanhotels.org/]
- Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness (CPEC), Saint Lucia [http://www.cpechrd.org/]
- Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize [http://www.caricom-fisheries.com/]
- Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic [http://www.crnm.org/]
- Caribbean Tourism Organisation (CTO), Barbados
- Inter-American Economic Council (IAEC), Washington, D.C.
- Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC), Brazil and Uruguay
- Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Saint Lucia
- United Nations - Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Chile and Trinidad and Tobago Many of the nations in the Caribbean play international cricket as one team called the West Indies. Category:Americas ko:서인도 제도 ja:西インド諸島 simple:Caribbean

Antarctica

:For the Kim Stanley Robinson novel, see Antarctica (novel) Antarctica (from Greek ἀνταρκτικός, "opposite the Arctic") is a continent surrounding the Earth's South Pole. It is the coldest place on Earth and is almost entirely covered by ice; however, it is also the world's largest desert. Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ("Southern Land") go back to antiquity, the first commonly accepted sighting of the continent occurred in 1820 and the first verified landing in 1821 by the Russian expedition of Mikhail Lazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen. (See also History of Antarctica.) With an area of 13,200,000 km², Antarctica is the fifth largest continent, after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. However, it is by far the smallest in population: indeed, it has no permanent population at all. It is also the continent with the highest average altitude, and the lowest average humidity of any continent on Earth, as well as the lowest average temperature. It has been assigned the Internet ccTLD .aq.

Antarctic climate

.aq Antarctica is the coldest place on earth. Temperatures reach a minimum of between -85 and -90 degrees Celsius in the winter and about 30 degrees higher in the summer months. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. There is little precipitation over the central portion of the continent, but ice there can last for extended time periods. However, heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the costal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 48 inches in 48 hours have been recorded. Nearly all of Antarctica is covered by an ice sheet that is, on average, 2.5 kilometers thick. At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, windspeeds are often moderate. Depending on the latitude, long periods of constant darkness, or constant sunlight, mean that climates familiar to humans are not generally available on the continent.

Geography

katabatic wind The continent of Antarctica is located mostly south of the Antarctic Circle, surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Physically Antarctica is divided in two by mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portion of the continent west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called Western Antarctica and the remainder Eastern Antarctica, since they correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian. Western Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. See also: Extreme points of Antarctica, Antarctic territories.

Population

It is usually estimated that at a given time there are at least 1,000 people living in Antarctica. This varies considerably with season. Generally, stations use their home country's time zone, but not always; where known, a base's UTC offset is listed. Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent research stations throughout the continent. Many of the stations are staffed around the year. These include: staffed
- Akademik Vernadsky Station, Galindez Island, (), ( UKR)
- Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, South Pole United States Antarctic Program
- Belgrano II, () Laboratory and meteorological station Argentine southernmost base (since 1979).
- Bellingshausen Station, King George Island ()
- Bernardo O'Higgins Station, Antarctic Peninsula, Chilean Army.
- Casey, Vincennes Bay ( Australian Antarctic Division) (UTC+8)
- Comandante Ferraz Station, King George Island ()
- Concordia Research Station, (75° S 123° E),
- Dakshin Gangotri Station, Indian Antarctic Program
- Davis, Princess Elizabeth Land ( Australian Antarctic Division) (UTC+7)
- Dumont d'Urville Station () (UTC+10)
- Eduardo Frei Montalva Station and Villa Las Estrellas, King George Island, Chilean Air Force.
- Esperanza () Laboratory and meteorological station (since 1952). Radio LRA Arcángel, School #38 Julio A. Roca (since 1978), tourist facilities.
- General Artigas Station ()
- Georg von Neumayer Station, () (Atka-Bay) (Alfred Wegener Institute )
- Great Wall Station (), King George Island ()
- Halley Research Station () British Antarctic Survey
- Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station (), King George Island
- Jubany, (), since 1953 ()
- King Sejong Station (), King George Island, since 1988 ()
- Machu Picchu Research Station, Admiralty Bay, King George Island, summer base established in 1989.
- Macquarie Island ( Australian Antarctic Division)
- Maitri Station, () near Schirmacher Region ( Indian Antarctic Program)
- Marambio Base, () Seymour-Marambio Island. Laboratory, meteorological station, 1.2 km long, 30 m wide landing track (since 1969) () [http://www.marambio.aq website]
- Mawson Station, Mac Robertson Land ( Australian Antarctic Division) (UTC+6)
- McMurdo Station, Ross Island () (UTC+12, follows New Zealand DST)
- Mirny Station () ()
- Mizuho Station () (National Institute of Polar Research )
- Molodezhnaya Station () ()
- Novolazarevskaya Station, Dronning Maud Land () ()
- Orcadas () Orcadas Islands (since 1904)()
- Palmer Station, Anvers Island () (UTC-4, follows Chilean DST)
- Professor Julio Escudero base, King George Island.
- Progress Station () ()
- Rothera Research Station () British Antarctic Survey (UTC-3)
- San Martín Station () (since 1951) Laboratory and Meteorological measurements ()
- SANAE (South African National Antarctic Expeditions), on the Fimbul Coastal Ice Shelf in Queen Maud Land
- Saint Climent Ohridski () (since 1988) Biology Research, Laboratory and Meteorological measurements. First Orthodox Church - St. Ivan Rilski ()
- Scott Base, () Ross Island () (UTC+12, follows New Zealand DST)
- Showa Station () (National Institute of Polar Research ) (GMT+3)
- Troll Station (Norwegian Polar Institute), () Queen Maud Land ()
- Vostok, Antarctica () () (UTC+6)
- Zhongshan (Sun Yet-Sen) Station () () Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born in Antarctica (Base Esperanza) in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families. Emilio Marcos Palma

Communications

The international dialing code for Antarctica is +672. Antarctica has wireless telephone services. There is a single cell tower using AMPS technology at Argentina's Marambio Base and an Entel Chile GSM tower on King George Island. Communications are otherwise limited to satellite connections. Radio frequencies that can be used are FM2 and shortwave 1.

Military

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. It permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes. The United States military issues the Antarctica Service Medal to those members of the military or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal, including the winter-over bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete, six-month seasons, is properly awarded by the United States Congress. The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was "Operación 90," undertaken 10 years before the Antarctic Treaty by the Argentinian military.

External links

- [http://www.70south.com 70South]
- [http://www.ats.org.ar Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]
- [http://www.anetstation.com ANetStation]
- [http://www.add.scar.org The Antarctic Digital Database - a source of digital topographic map data for Antarctica]
- [http://www.ejercito.mil.ar/antartico/historia/antarti_hist.htm Argentine Antarctic history]
- [http://www.aad.gov.au/ Australian Antarctic Division]
- [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk British Antarctic Survey]
- [http://www.comnap.aq/ Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP)], official homepage.
- [http://www.awi-bremerhaven.de/Polar/index.html German Antarctic Ships and Stations]
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html Portals on the World - Antarctica] from the Library of Congress
- [http://www.polarmuseum.sp.ru/Eng/ The Russian State Museum of Arctic and Antarctic]
- [http://www.scar.org The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science]
- [http://members.eunet.at/castaway/stations/aa-bases.html Antarctic Research Stations]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html The World Factbook – Antarctica] from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency
- [http://www.70south.com Latest Antarctic news and information by 70South]
- [http://www.planetavivo.org/english/ResearchPrograms/Antarctica/SlideShows/ArdleyIsland/ArdleyIsland1.html Biodiversity at Ardley Island, South Shetland archipelago, Antarctica]
- [http://www.iaato.org International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)] Category:Continents Category:Antarctica Category:Special territories Category:Lists of coordinates ja:南極大陸 ko:남극 ms:Antartika simple:Antarctica th:ทวีปแอนตาร์กติกา zh-min-nan:Lâm-ke̍k-tāi-lio̍k

Hemisphere

The word hemisphere literally means "half sphere" or "half ball"; when used in the singular form, it refers to one of the halves of a spherical object. It may be used to mean:
- one-half of the Earth (or other planetary or stellar body; see also New World and Old World)
- Eastern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere.
- Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere.
- A land hemisphere and a water hemisphere.
- one-half of any spherical object, divided at a great circle.
- one-half of certain parts of the brain. The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is divided into the right and left cerebral hemispheres; the cerebellum, a smaller part of the brain, is likewise divided into right and left cerebellar hemispheres.
- Hemispheres (album), any of four musical albums.
- Hemispheres (magazine), the inflight publication on United Airlines