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Eighteenth Century

Eighteenth Century

As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800 in the Gregorian calendar. European history scholars will sometimes specifically refer to the 18th century as 1715-1789, denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution.

Events

- 1701-14: War of the Spanish Succession
- 1703: Saint Petersburg founded by Peter the Great. Russian capital until 1918.
- 1707: Act of Union passed merging the Scottish and the English Parliaments, thus establishing The Kingdom of Great Britain.
- 1707: After Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline.
- 1715: Louis XIV dies
- 1718: City of New Orleans founded by the French in North America
- 1720: The South Sea Bubble
- 1721: Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of Great Britain (de facto).
- 1721: Treaty of Nystad signed, ending the Great Northern War.
- 1722: Afghans conquer Iran, ending the Safavid dynasty.
- 1722: Kangxi Emperor of China dies.
- 1733-38: War of the Polish Succession
- 1735-99: The Qianlong Emperor of China oversees a huge expansion in territory.
- 1736: Nadir Shah assumes title of Shah of Persia and founds the Afsharid dynasty. Rules until his death in 1747.
- 1739: Nadir Shah defeats the Mughals and sacks Delhi.
- 1740: Frederick the Great crowned King of Prussia.
- 1740-48: War of the Austrian Succession
- 1741: Russians begin settling the Aleutian Islands.
- 1747: Ahmad Shah founds the Durrani Empire in modern day Afghanistan.
- 1750: peak of the Little Ice Age
- 1755: The Lisbon earthquake
- 1756-63: Seven Years' War fought among European powers in various theaters around the world.
- 1757: Battle of Plassey signals the beginning of British rule in India.
- 1760: George III becomes King of Britain.
- 1762-96: Reign of Catherine the Great of Russia.
- 1763-66: Pontiac's Rebellion in North America
- 1766-99: Anglo-Mysore Wars
- 1767: Burmese conquer the Ayutthaya kingdom.
- 1768: Gurkhas conquer Nepal.
- 1768-1774: Russo-Turkish War
- 1769: Spanish missionaries establish the first of 21 missions in California.
- 1772-95: The Partitions of Poland end the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and erase Poland from the map for 123 years.
- 1775-82: First Anglo-Maratha War
- 1775-83: American Revolution
- 1779-1879: Cape Frontier Wars between British and Boer settlers and the Xhosas in South Africa
- 1785-95: Northwest Indian War between the United States and Native Americans
- 1787: Freed slaves from London found Freetown in present-day Sierra Leone.
- 1788: First European settlement established in Australia at Sydney.
- 1789: George Washington elected President of the United States. Serves until 1797.
- 1789-99: The French Revolution
- 1791-1804: The Haitian Revolution
- 1792-1815: The Great French War starts as the French Revolutionary Wars which lead into the Napoleonic Wars.
- 1792: New York Stock & Exchange Board founded.
- 1793: Upper Canada bans slavery.
- 1795: Pinckney's Treaty between the United States and Spain grants the Mississippi Territory to the US.
- 1796: British eject Dutch from Ceylon.
- 1796-1804: White Lotus Rebellion in China.
- 1797: Napoleon's invasion and partition of the Republic of Venice ends over 1,000 years of independence for the Serene Republic.
- 1798: Irish Rebellion against British Rule
- 1798-1800: Quasi-War between the United States and France.
- 1799: Napoleon stages a coup d'état and becomes dictator of France.
- 1799: Dutch East India Company is dissolved.

Significant people

- Ueda Akinari (Japanese writer)
- Queen Anne (British monarch)
- Marie Antoinette (French royalty and symbol of anti-Revolutionary ire)
- Benedict Arnold, considered a traitor by many people on both sides (United States and Britain) of the American Revolutionary War.
- Johann Sebastian Bach (composer)
- Pierre Beaumarchais (French writer)
- Jeremy Bentham (English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer)
- Napoleon Bonaparte (general and first consul of France)
- François Boucher (French painter)
- Edmund Burke (British statesman and philosopher who supported the American Revolution)
- Robert Burns (Scottish poet)
- Catherine the Great (Russian Tsaritsa)
- James Cook (British navigator)
- Denis Diderot (French writer and philosopher)
- Leonhard Euler (mathematician)
- Jean-Honoré Fragonard (French painter)
- Benjamin Franklin (American revolutionary, inventor, printer, and diplomat)
- Frederick the Great (Prussian monarch)
- Thomas Gainsborough (painter)
- King George III (British monarch)
- Christoph Willibald Gluck (German composer)
- Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (German writer)
- Thomas Gray (British writer)
- George Frideric Handel (German composer)
- Alexander Hamilton (American revolutionary, lawyer, and statesman)
- Joseph Haydn (Austrian composer)
- William Hogarth (painter and engraver)
- David Hume (philosopher)
- Thomas Jefferson (American revolutionary, philosopher, and statesman)
- Samuel Johnson (British writer and literary critic)
- Immanuel Kant (philosopher)
- Wolfgang von Kempelen (Hungarian scientist, pioneer in experimental phonetics)
- John Law (Scottish economist)
- Louis XIV of France (monarch)
- Louis XV of France (monarch)
- Louis XVI of France (monarch)
- James Madison (American revolutionary, writer, and statesman)
- Maria Theresa of Austria (Holy Roman Empress, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia)
- Michikinikwa (Miami tribe chief and war leader)
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (composer)
- Thomas Paine (British intellectual and philosopher who advocated for the American Revolution)
- Philip II, Duke of Orléans (Regent of France)
- Alexander Pope (British poet)
- Francis II Rákóczi (prince of Hungary and Transylvania, leader of the Hungarian freedom war)
- Jean-Philippe Rameau (French composer and music theorist)
- Sir Joshua Reynolds (painter)
- Maximilien Robespierre (French Revolutionary leader and dictator)
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau (French writer and philosopher)
- Friedrich Schiller (German writer)
- John Small, Sr (Hambledon cricketer; the first great batsman)
- Adam Smith (Scottish economist and philosopher)
- Laurence Sterne (British writer)
- Edward "Lumpy" Stevens (Surrey cricketer; the first great bowler)
- Jonathan Swift (Anglo-Irish satirist)
- Tecumseh (Revolutionary)
- Voltaire (French writer and philosopher)
- George Washington (American revolutionary general and first president)
- John Wesley (Founder of Methodism, Anglican clergyman, English reformer, scholar, theologian and writer) See Founding Fathers of the United States

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

List of 18th century inventions
- Industrial Revolution begins
- The Encyclopédie by the Encyclopedists
- The English Dictionary by Samuel Johnson
- Economics by Adam Smith
- Rosetta stone discovered by Napoleon's troops.
- Vitus Bering discovered Alaska.
- James Cook mapped the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and discovered many Pacific Islands.
- Wahhabism by Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab

Decades and years

- Category:Centuries Category:Industrial Revolution Category:Romanticism ko:18세기 ja:18世紀 th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 18

Time

Attempting to understand Time has long been a prime occupation for philosophers, scientists and artists. There are widely divergent views about its meaning, hence it is difficult to provide an uncontroversial and clear definition of time. The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "the indefinite continued progress of existence and events in the past, present, and future, regarded as a whole". Another standard dictionary definition is "a non-spatial linear continuum wherein events occur in an apparently irreversible order." This article looks at some of the main philosophical and scientific issues relating to time. The measurement of time has also occupied scientists and technologists, and was a prime motivation in astronomy. Time is also a matter of significant social importance, having economic value ("time is money") as well as personal value due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in our lives. Units of time have been agreed upon to quantify the duration of events and the intervals between them. Regularly recurring events and objects with apparently periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time - such as the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum.

Philosophy of time

Main article: Philosophy of space and time; Ontology In ancient thought, Zeno's paradoxes challenged the conception of infinite divisibility, and eventually led to the development of calculus. Parmenides (of whom Zeno was a follower) believed that time, motion, and change were illusions, basing this on a rather interesting argument. More recently, McTaggart held a similar belief. Newton believed time and space form a container for events, which is as real as the objects it contains. In contrast, Leibniz believed that time and space are a conceptual apparatus describing the interrelations between events. Leibniz and others thought of time as a fundamental part of an abstract conceptual framework, together with space and number, within which we sequence events, quantify their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind of entity that "flows", that objects "move through", or that is a "container" for events. The bucket argument proved problematic for Leibniz, and his account fell into disfavour, at least amongst scientists, until the development of Mach's principle. Modern physics views the curvature of spacetime around an object as much a feature of that object as are its mass and volume. Immanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori notion that allows us (together with other a priori notions such as space) to comprehend sense experience. With Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic framework necessarily structuring the experiences of any rational agent. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantify how far apart events occur. Nietzsche, inspired by the concept of eternal return in his book Thus Spoke Zarathustra, argued that time possesses a circular characteristic. Postulating an infinite past, "all things" must have come to pass therein; the same for an infinite future. In Existentialism, time is considered fundamental to the question of being, in particular by the philosopher Martin Heidegger.

Contemporary theses in the philosophy of time

In contempoary philosophy there has been a very active debate over the nature of time, especially in light of the big changes in physics since the 1920s. Contributors include Ned Markosian, Ted Sider, Quentin Smith, and L. Nathan Oaklander. Two major theses have been developed, along with some hybrids. There is no real consensus among philosophers about which, if any, is correct. The two major theories can be summed up as follows: 1. A-theory of time: Presentism: Oaklander writes: "[A] version of the pure A-theory, known as "", purports to avoid… the problem of change... According to presentism, only the present exists. Thus, it is not the case that, say, O is green and [then] O is red [if, for example, O is a tomato]." (Oaklander, L. Nathan. In Smith, Quentin, and Oaklander, L. Nathan. 1995. Time, Change, and Freedom. New York: Routledge. 2004, 27.) 2. B-theory of time: Eternalism: the following passage from L. Nathan Oaklander sums this up

…[T]ime [involves] events strung out along a series united to one another by the relations of earlier than, later and simultaneity… The events in the temporal series are fixed in that they never change their position relative to each other… It has become customary to call the entire series of events spread out along the time-line from earlier to later, the “B-series.” When viewed solely in terms of the B-series, time is thought of as static or unchanging for there is nothing about temporal relations between events that changes... Time not only has a static aspect, it also has a transitory aspect. In addition to conceiving of time in terms of events standing in temporal relations, we also conceive of time and the events in time as moving or passing from the far future to the near future, from the hear future to the present, and then from present they recede into the more and more distant past… When events are ordered in terms of the notions of past, present, or future they form what is called an “A-series.” It should be noted, of course, that the A- and B-series are not really “two” different series of events, but the same series ordered in two different ways. (Oaklander 2004,Page 69)

Time in physics

never change Main article: Time in physics Time is currently one of the few fundamental quantities (quantities which cannot be defined via other quantities because there is nothing more fundamental known at present). Thus, similar to definition of other fundamental quantities (like space and mass), time is defined via measurement. Currently, the standard time interval (called conventional second, or simply second) is defined as 9 192 631 770 oscillations of a hyperfine transition in the ¹³³Cs atom. Prior to Albert Einstein's relativistic physics, time and space had been treated as distinct dimensions; Einstein linked time and space into spacetime. Einstein showed that people traveling at different speeds will measure different times for events and different distances between objects, though these differences are minute unless one is traveling at a speed close to that of light. Many subatomic particles exist for only a fixed fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but some that travel close to the speed of light can be measured to travel further and survive longer than expected. According to the special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists for the same amount of time as usual, and the distance it travels in that time is what would be expected for that velocity. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seems to shorten. Even in Newtonian terms time may be considered the fourth dimension of motion; but Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped") by high-speed motion. Einstein (The Meaning Of Relativity - 1968): "Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relatively to K, which register the same simultaneously."

Measurement

Present day standards

The standard unit for time is the SI second, from which larger units are defined like the minute, hour, and day. Because they do not use the decimal system, and because of the occasional need for a leap-second, the minute, hour, and day are "non-SI" units, but are officially accepted for use with the International System. There are no fixed ratios between seconds (or days) on the one hand and months and years on the other hand -- months and years having significant variations in length. Despite its great social importance, the week is not mentioned even as a "non-SI" unit. ([http://www1.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-brochure.pdf See external pdf file: The International System of Units].) The measurement of time is so critical to the functioning of our modern societies that it is coordinated at an international level. The basis for scientific time is a continuous count of seconds based on atomic clocks around the world, known as International Atomic Time (TAI). This is the yardstick for other time scales including Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) which is the basis for civil time. The 60 base used for seconds, minutes and hours is all the remains of the ancient Phoenician counting base, using 60 as the equivalent of 10, or 100 in modern times. A 60 base is known as sexagesimal.

Chronology

Another form of time measurement consists of studying the past. Events in the past can be ordered in a sequence (creating a chronology), and be put into chronological groups (periodization). One of the most important systems of periodization is Geologic time, which is a system of periodizing the events that shaped the Earth and its life. Chronology, periodization, and interpretation of the past are together known as the study of history.

Psychology

Different people may judge identical lengths of time quite differently. Time can "fly"; that is, a long period of time can seem to go by very quickly. Likewise, time can seem to "drag," as in when one performs a boring task. The psychologist Jean Piaget called this form of time perception "lived time". Time appears to go fast when sleeping, or, to put it differently, time seems not to have passed while asleep. Time also appears to pass more quickly as one gets older. For example, a day for a child seems to last longer than a day for an adult. One possible reason for this is that with increasing age, each segment of time is an increasingly smaller percentage of the person's total experience. Altered states of consciousness are sometimes characterised by a different estimation of time. Some psychoactive substances--such as entheogens--may also dramatically alter a person's temporal judgement. In explaining his theory of relativity, Albert Einstein is often quoted as saying that although sitting next to a pretty girl for an hour feels like a minute, placing one's hand on a hot stove for a minute feels like an hour. This is intended to introduce the listener to the concept of the interval between two events being perceived differently by different observers.

Use of time

The use of time is an important issue in understanding human behaviour, education, and travel behaviour. The question concerns how time is allocated across a number of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes with technology, as the television or the Internet created new opportunities to use time in different ways. However, some aspects of time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of time spent traveling to work, which despite major changes in transport, has been observed to be about 20-30 minutes one-way for a large number of cities over a long period of time. This has led to the disputed time budget hypothesis. Time management is the organization of tasks or events by first estimating how much time a task will take to be completed, when it must be completed, and then adjusting events that would interfere with its completion so that completion is reached in the appropriate amount of time. Calendars and day planners are common examples of time management tools. Arlie Russell Hochschild and Norbert Elias have written on the use of time from a sociological perspective.

References

- Oxford English Dictionary - [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/time?view=uk]

External links

Perception of time

- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/time-experience/ The Experience and Perception of Time]
- [http://cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/00003125/ Subjective Perception of Time and a Progressive Present Moment: The Neurobiological Key to Unlocking Consciousness]
- [http://www.primitivism.com/time.htm Time and Its Discontents]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-5/time.htm Time and Learning]
- [http://mixingmemory.blogspot.com/2004/12/by-request-time-perception-i.html Time Perception I] and [http://mixingmemory.blogspot.com/2004/12/time-perception-ii-cognitive-factors.html II]
- [http://theorderoftime.org/ The Order of Time: Platform for an Alternative Time Consciousness]
- [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=74335 What is Time?] An elucidation of the Lubavitcher Rebbe's comments on the topic.

Physics

- [http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/world.html A walk through Time]
- [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/lobster/tmx Time Travel and Multi-Dimensionality]
- [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0310055 Time and classical and quantum mechanics: Indeterminacy vs. discontinuity]
- [http://www.sankey.ws/time.html Time as a universal consequence of quanta]

Timekeeping

- [http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/systime.html Different systems of measuring time]
- [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/outside.html non-SI units]
- [http://www1.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/time_server.html UTC/TAI Timeserver]
- [http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html Leapsecond]
- [http://www.intuitor.com/hex/hexclock.html Hex Time]
- [http://www.florencetime.net Florencetime.net]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3486160.stm BBC article on shortest time ever measured]
- [http://www.awi-net.org American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute]
- [http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ The World Clock - Time Zones]

Miscellaneous

- [http://www.boost.org/doc/html/date_time.html Boost Date-Time Library -- Powerful C++ Library for date-time manipulation]
- [http://www.cyclesresearchinstitute.org/ Cycles Research Institute]
- [http://www.timeticker.com/ TimeTicker and the time tickers...]
- [http://www.welt-zeit-uhr.de/worldtime.php World Time and Zones]
- [http://www.timetools.co.uk Time Servers] NTP Time Servers provide accurate timing for computers and computer networks.

1701

Events

- January 18 - Frederick I becomes King of Prussia.
- May 23 - After being convicted of murdering William Moore and for piracy, Captain William Kidd is hanged in London.
- July 24 - Detroit, Michigan founded.
- September 16 - Prince James Francis Edward Stuart becomes the new claimant to the thrones of Scotland as King James VIII and England as King James III.
- October 9 - The Collegiate School of Connecticut (later renamed Yale University) is chartered in Old Saybrook, Connecticut.
- Philharmonic Society (Academia philharmonicorum) established in Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- In Japan, the young daimyo Asano Naganori is ordered to commit seppuku (ritual suicide). 47 samurai of his service begin planning to avenge his death.
- The English Parliament passes the Act of Settlement 1701, passing the crown of Great Britain to Sophia, Electress of Hanover and her descendants on the death of Princess Anne, the heiress presumptive to the throne after her brother in law, King William III.

Births

- January 27 - Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim, German historian and theologian (d. 1790)
- January 28 - Charles Marie de La Condamine, French mathematician and geographer (d. 1774)
- February 14 - Enrique Florez, Spanish historian (d. 1773)
- March 18 - Niclas Sahlgren, Swedish merchant and philanthropist (d. 1776)
- April 27 - King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia (d. 1773)
- May 14 - William Emerson, English mathematician (d. 1782)
- August 4 - Thomas Blackwell, Scottish classical scholar (d. 1757)
- October 15 - Marie-Marguerite d'Youville, Canadian saint (d. 1771)
- October 18 - Charles le Beau, French historian (d. 1778)
- November 27 - Anders Celsius, Swedish astronomer (d. 1744)

Deaths

- January 14 - Tokugawa Mitsukuni, Japanese warlord (b. 1628)
- March 15 - Jean Renaud de Segrais, French writer (b. 1624)
- April 4 - Joseph Haines, English entertainer and author
- April 21 - Asano Naganori, Japanese warlord (b. 1667)
- May 23 - Captain Kidd, Scottish pirate (b. 1645)
- June 2 - Madeleine de Scudéry, French writer (b. 1607)
- July 7 - William Stoughton, American judge at the Salem witch trials (b. 1631)
- August 20 - Charles Sedley, English playwright
- August 22 - John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English royalist statesman (b. 1628)
- September 15 - Edmé Boursault, French writer (b. 1638)
- September 16 - King James II of England/James VII of Scotland (b. 1633)
- October 3 - Joseph Williamson, English politican (b. 1633)
- November 5 - Charles Gerard, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield, French-born English politician Category:1701 ko:1701년 simple:1701

1789

1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 7 - First nationwide United States election
- January 21 - The first American novel, The Power of Sympathy or the Triumph of Nature Founded in Truth, is printed in Boston, Massachusetts
- January 23 - Georgetown College becomes the first Catholic college in the United States (Washington, DC).
- February 4 - George Washington is unanimously elected the first President of the United States by the U.S. Electoral College.
- March 4 - At Federal Hall in New York City, the first U.S. Congress meets and declares the new Constitution of the United States to be in effect.
- April 1 - At Federal Hall in New York City, the United States House of Representatives holds its first quorum and elects Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania as its first House Speaker.
- April 28 - Fletcher Christian leads a mutiny on HMS Bounty against Captain William Bligh
- April 30 - George Washington is inauguration at Federal Hall in New York City, beginning his term as the 1st President of the United States
- May 5 - In France, the Estates-General convenes for the first time in 175 years.
- June 14 - HMAV Bounty mutiny survivors including Captain William Bligh and 18 others reach Timor after a nearly 4,000 mile journey in an open boat
- June 17 - In France, representatives of the Third Estate at the Estates-General declare themselves the National Assembly.
- June 23 - Tennis Court Oath in Paris
- July 9 - In Versailles, the National Assembly reconstitutes itself as the National Constituent Assembly and begins preparations for a French constitution.
- July 10 - Alexander Mackenzie reaches Mackenzie River Delta.
- July 11 - King of France fires popular chief minister Necker
- July 12 - Angry Parisian crowd demonstrates against King’s decision to dismiss minister Necker
- July 14 - French Revolution: Citizens of Paris storm the Bastille and free seven prisoners. In rural areas, peasants attack noble manors.
- July 27 - The first U.S. federal government agency, the Department of Foreign Affairs (later renamed the Department of State), is established.
- August 4 - In France members of the Constituent Assembly take an oath to end feudalism and abandon their privileges
- August 7 - The United States War Department is established
- August 26 - Declaration of the Rights of Man in France
- September 2 - United States Department of the Treasury is founded.
- September 24 - The Judiciary Act of 1789 establishes the Supreme Court of the United States and the federal judiciary.
- September 25 - The United States Congress proposes a set of twelve amendments for ratification by the states. Ratification for ten of these proposals is completed on December 5, 1791, creating the United States Bill of Rights. An additional proposal is ratified more than two centuries later in 1992.
- September 29 - The United States War Department first establishes the nation's first regular army, with a strength of several hundred men.
- November 6 - Pope Pius VI appoints Father John Carroll the first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States.
- November 20 - New Jersey ratifies the United States Bill of Rights, the first state to do so.
- November 21 - North Carolina ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 12th U.S. state.

Undated

- Change of Ottoman sultan of the Ottoman Empire from Abd-ul-Hamid I (1773-1789) to Selim III (1789-1807)
- Thomas Jefferson brings the first macaroni machine to the United States
- United States Revenue Cutter Service (predecessor of United States Customs Service and direct predecessor of the United States Coast Guard) is founded
- United States Marshals Service is founded
- Influenced by dr Benjamin Rush's argue against excessive use of alcohol, about 200 farmers in a Connecticut community formed a temperance association.

Ongoing events

- French Revolution (1789-1799)

Births

- January 4 - Benjamin Lundy, American abolitionist (d. 1839)
- January 21 - William Machin Stairs, Canadian businessman and statesman (d. 1865)
- July 19 - John Martin, English painter (d. 1854)
- August 21 - Augustin Louis Cauchy, French mathematician (d. 1857)
- August 28 - Stephanie de Beauharnais, Grand Duchess of Baden (d. 1860)
- September 15 - James Fenimore Cooper, American writer (d. 1851)
- December 28 - Catharine Sedgwick, American writer (d. 1867)

Deaths

January 1 - Fletcher Norton, 1st Baron Grantley, English politician (b. 1716) January 8 - Jack Broughton, English boxer January 23 - Frances Brooke, English writer (b. 1724) February 19 - Nicholas Van Dyke, American lawyer and President of Delaware (b. 1738) April 7 - Abd-ul-Hamid I, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1725) April 7 - Petrus Camper, Dutch anatomist (b. 1722) April 26 - Count Petr Ivanovich Panin, Russian soldier (b. 1721) May 9 - Jean Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, French Sartillery specialist (b. 1715) May 25 - Anders Dahl, Swedish botanist (b. 1751) June 4 - Louis-Joseph-Xavier-François, son of Louis XVI of France (tuberculosis) (b. 1781) [July 13]] - Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau, French economist (b. 1715)
- July 14 - Jacques de Flesselles, French provost (assassinated) (b. 1721)
- July 15 - Jacques Duphly, French composer (b. 1715)
- July 22 - Joseph-François Foulon, French politician (executed) (b. 1715)
- September 23 -
- October 27 - John Cook, American farmer and President of Delaware (b. 1730)
- December 3 - Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (b. 1714)
- December 12 - John Ponsonby, Irish politician (b. 1713)
- December 23 - Charles-Michel de l'Épée, French philanthropist and developer of signed French (b. 1712) Category:1789 ko:1789년 ms:1789 simple:1789

1701

Events

Births

Deaths

War of the Spanish Succession

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was a major European armed conflict that arose in 1701 after the death of the last Spanish Habsburg king, Charles II. Charles had bequeathed all of his possessions to Philip, duc d'Anjou (Philip V), a grandson of the French King Louis XIV. The war began slowly, as the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I fought to protect his own dynasty's claim to the Spanish inheritance. As Louis XIV began to expand his territories more aggressively, however, other European nations (chiefly England and the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands) entered on the Holy Roman Empire's side to check French expansion (and, in the English case, to safeguard the Protestant succession). Other states joined the coalition opposing France and Spain in an attempt to acquire new territories, or to protect existing dominions. The war was fought not only in Europe, but also in North America, where the conflict became known to the English colonists as Queen Anne's War. The war proceeded for over a decade, and was marked by the military leadership of notable generals such as the Duc de Villars and the Duke of Berwick for France, the Duke of Marlborough for England, and Prince Eugene of Savoy for the Austrians. The war was concluded by the treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714). As a result, Philip V remained King of Spain but was removed from the French line of succession, thereby averting a union of France and Spain. The Austrians gained most of the Spanish territories in Italy and the Netherlands. As a result, France's hegemony over continental Europe was ended, and the idea of a balance of power became a part of the international order due to its mention in the Treaty of Utrecht.

Origins

As King Charles II of Spain had been both mentally and physically infirm from a very young age, it was clear that he could not produce an heir. Thus, the issue of the inheritance of the Spanish kingdoms—which included not only Spain, but also dominions in Italy, the Low Countries, and the Americas—became quite contentious. Two dynasties claimed the Spanish throne: the French Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs; both royal families were closely related to the late King of Spain. Low Countries The most direct and legitimate successor would have been Louis, the Grand Dauphin, the only legitimate son of King Louis XIV of France and Spanish princess Maria Theresa, herself King Charles II's elder half-sister. In addition, Louis XIV was a first cousin of his wife Maria Theresa and of King Charles II as his mother was Spanish princess Anne of Austria, the sister of King Philip IV, Charles II's father. The Dauphin, being next in the French line of succession as well, was a problematic choice: had he inherited both the French and the Spanish crowns, he would have control of a vast empire that would have threatened the European balance of power. Furthermore, both Anne and Maria Theresa had renounced their rights to the Spanish succession upon their marriages. In the latter case, however, the renunciation was widely seen as invalid, since it had been predicated upon Spain's payment of the Infanta's dowry, which in the event was never paid. The alternative candidate was the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I, of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty. He was a first cousin of the King of Spain, his mother having been another sister of Philip IV; moreover, Charles II's father, Philip IV, had given the succession to the Austrian line in his will. This candidate, too, posed formidable problems, for Leopold's success would have reunited the powerful Spanish-Austrian Habsburg empire of the sixteenth century. In 1668, only three years after Charles II had ascended, the then-childless Leopold had agreed to the partition of the Spanish territories between the Bourbons and the Habsburgs, even though Philip IV's will entitled him to the entire inheritance. In 1689, however, when William III of England required the Emperor's aid in the War of the Grand Alliance against France, he promised to support the Emperor's claim to the undivided Spanish empire. A new candidate for the Spanish throne, the Electoral Prince Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria, had been born in 1692. Joseph Ferdinand was Leopold I's grandson, but in the female line, so he belonged not to the Habsburg but to the Wittelsbach dynasty. His mother, Maria Antonia, had been Leopold's daughter by his first marriage, to Philip IV of Spain's younger daughter Margaret Theresa. As Joseph Ferdinand was neither a Bourbon nor a Habsburg, the likelihood of Spain merging with either France or Austria remained low. Although Leopold and Louis were both willing to defer their claims to a junior line of the family—Leopold to his younger son, the Archduke Charles, and Louis to the Dauphin's younger son, the Duc d'Anjou—the Bavarian prince remained a far less threatening candidate. Accordingly, he soon became the preferred choice of England and the Netherlands. Joseph Ferdinand, moreover, would have been the lawful heir to the Spanish throne under Philip IV's will. As the War of the Grand Alliance came to a close in 1697, the issue of the Spanish succession was becoming critical. England and France, exhausted by the conflict, agreed to the Treaty of The Hague (1698) (the First Partition Treaty), which named Joseph Ferdinand heir to the Spanish throne, but divided Spanish territory in Italy and the Low Countries between France and Austria. This decision was taken without consulting the Spanish, who vehemently objected to the dismemberment of their empire. Thus, when the Partition Treaty became known in 1698, Charles II of Spain agreed to name the Bavarian Prince his heir, but assigned to him the whole Spanish Empire, not just the parts England and France had chosen. The young Bavarian prince abruptly died of smallpox in 1699, reopening the issue of the Spanish succession. England and France soon ratified the Treaty of London, 1700 (the Second Partition Treaty), assigning the Spanish throne to the Archduke Charles. The Italian territories would go to France, while the Archduke would receive the remainder of the Spanish empire. The Austrians, who were not party to the treaty, were displeased, for they openly vied for the whole of Spain, and it was the Italian territories in which they were most interested: richer, closer, and more governable. In Spain, distaste for the treaty was even greater; the courtiers were unified in opposing partition, but were divided on whether the throne should go to a Habsburg or a Bourbon. The pro-French statesmen, however, were in the majority, and in October 1700, Charles II agreed to bequeath all of his territory to the Dauphin's second son, the duc d'Anjou. Charles took steps to prevent the union of France and Spain; should Anjou have inherited the French throne, Spain would have gone to his younger brother, the duc de Berri. After Anjou and his brother, the Archduke Charles was to have been next in the line of succession.

Beginning of the war

When the French court first learned of the will, Louis XIV's advisors convinced him that it was safer to accept the terms of the Second Partition Treaty, of 1700, than to risk war by claiming the whole Spanish inheritance. However, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy, the French foreign secretary, successfully argued that whether France accepted the whole or a part of the Spanish Empire, it would still have to fight Austria, which did not accept the nature of the partition stipulated by the Treaty of London. Furthermore, the terms of Charles' will stipulated that Anjou was only to be offered the choice of the whole Spanish Empire or nothing—if he refused, the entire inheritance was to go to Archduke Charles. Knowing that the Maritime Powers—England and the United Provinces—would not join France in a fight to impose the partition treaty on the unwilling Austrians and Spanish, Louis determined to accept his grandson's inheritance. Charles II died on 1 November 1700, and on 24 November, Louis XIV proclaimed Anjou King of Spain. The new King, Philip V, was declared ruler of the entire Spanish empire, contrary to the provisions of the Second Partition Treaty. William III of England, however, could not declare war against France, since he did not have the support of the elites who determined policy in both England and the United Provinces. He reluctantly recognised Philip as King in April 1701. Louis, however, took too aggressive a path in his attempt to secure French hegemony in Europe. He cut off England and the Netherlands from Spanish trade, thereby seriously threatening the commercial interests of those two countries. William III secured the support of his subjects and negotiated the Treaty of the Hague with the United Provinces and Austria. The agreement, reached in September 1701, recognised Philip V as King of Spain, but allotted Austria that which it desired most: the Spanish territories in Italy, forcing it to accept as well the Spanish Netherlands, thus protecting that crucial region from French control. England and the Netherlands, meanwhile, were to retain their commercial rights in Spain. A few days after the signing of the treaty, the former King of England, James II (who had been deposed by William III in 1688) died in France. Although Louis had treated William as King of England since the Treaty of Ryswick, he now recognized James II's son, James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender"), as the rightful monarch. Louis's action alienated the English public even further, and gave William grounds for war. England and the United Provinces had already begun raising armies, but had not actually declared war. Armed conflict began slowly, as Austrian forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy invaded the Duchy of Milan, one of the Spanish territories in Italy, prompting French intervention. England, the United Provinces, and most German states (most notably Prussia and Hanover), sided with Austria, but the Wittelsbach Electors of Bavaria and Cologne, the King of Portugal, and the Duke of Savoy supported France and Spain. In Spain, the cortes of Aragon, Valencia, and Catalonia (most of the kingdoms of the Crown of Aragon) declared themselves in favour of the Austrian Archduke. Even after William III died in 1702, his successor in England, Anne, continued the vigorous prosecution of the war, under the guidance of her ministers Godolphin and Marlborough.

Early fighting

Marlborough, recovering silver to the value of about a million pounds sterling.]] There were two main theatres of the war in Europe: Spain and West-Central Europe (especially the Low Countries). The latter theatre proved the more important, as Prince Eugene and the English commander, the Duke of Marlborough, distinguished themselves as military commanders. There was also important fighting in Germany and Italy. In 1702, Eugene fought in Italy, where the French were led by the Duc de Villeroi, whom Eugene defeated and captured at the Battle of Cremona (February 1). Villeroi was now replaced by the Duc de Vendôme, who, despite a drawn battle at Luzzara in August and a considerably numerical superiority, proved unable to drive Eugene from Italy. In the meantime, Marlborough led combined English, Dutch, and German forces in the Low Countries, where he captured several important fortresses, most notably Liège. On the Rhine, an Imperial army under Louis of Baden captured Landau in September, but the threat to Alsace was relieved by the entrance of the Elector of Bavaria into the war on the French side. Prince Louis was forced to withdraw across the Rhine, where he was defeated by a French army under Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars at Friedlingen. The English admiral Sir George Rooke also won an important naval battle, the Battle of Vigo Bay, which resulted in the complete destruction of the Spanish treasure fleet and in the capture of tons of silver. Next year, although Marlborough captured Bonn and drove the Elector of Cologne into exile, he failed in his efforts to capture Antwerp, and the French were successful in Germany. A combined Franco-Bavarian army under Villars and Max Emanuel of Bavaria defeated Imperial armies under Louis of Baden and Hermann Styrum, but the Elector's timidity prevented a march on Vienna, which led to Villars's resignation. French victories in south Germany continued after Villars' resignation, however, with a new army under Camille de Tallard victorious in the Palatinate. French leaders entertained grand designs, intending to use a combined French and Bavarian army to capture the Austrian capital the next year. By the end of the year 1703, however, France had suffered setbacks for Portugal and Savoy had defected to the other side. Meanwhile, the English, who had previously held the view that Philip could remain on the throne of Spain, now decided that their commercial interests would be more secure under the Archduke Charles.

Blenheim to Malplaquet

Palatinate.]] In 1704, the French plan was to use Villeroi's army in the Netherlands to contain Marlborough, while Tallard and the Franco-Bavarian army under Max Emanuel and Ferdinand de Marsin, Villars's replacement, would march on Vienna. Marlborough—ignoring the wishes of the Dutch, who preferred to keep their troops in the Low Countries—led the English and Dutch forces southward to Germany; Eugene, meanwhile, moved northward from Italy with the Austrian army. The objective of these manœuvres was to prevent the Franco-Bavarian army from advancing on Vienna. Having met, the forces under Marlborough and Eugene faced the French under the Tallard at the Battle of Blenheim. The battle was a resounding success for Marlborough and Eugene, and had the effect of knocking Bavaria out of the war. In that year, England achieved another important success as it captured Gibraltar in Spain, with the help of Dutch forces, and initially on behalf of the Archduke Charles. Following the Battle of Blenheim, Marlborough and Eugene separated again, with the former going to the Low Countries, and the latter to Italy. In 1705, little progress was made by either France or the allies in any theatre. Marlborough and Villeroi maneuvered indecisively in the Netherlands, and the story was much the same for Villars and Louis of Baden on the Rhine, and Vendôme and Eugene in Italy. The stalemate was broken in 1706, as Marlborough drove the French out of most of the Spanish Netherlands, decisively defeating troops under Villeroi in the Battle of Ramillies in May and following up by the conquest of Antwerp and Dunkirk. Prince Eugene also met with success; in September, following the departure of Vendôme to shore up the shattered army in the Netherlands, he and the Duke of Savoy inflicted a heavy loss on the French under Orleans and Marsin at the Battle of Turin, driving them out of Italy by the end of the year. France having been expelled from Germany, the Low Countries and Italy, Spain became the centre of activity in the next few years. In 1706, Henry Massue de Ruvigny, given the optimistic Jacobite title Earl of Galway led an invasion of Spain from Portugal, managing to capture Madrid. By the end of the year, however, Madrid was recovered by an army led by King Philip V and the Duke of Berwick (the illegitimate son of James II of England, serving in the French army). Galway led another attempt on Madrid in 1707, but Berwick roundly defeated him at the Battle of Almansa on 25 April. Thereafter, the war in Spain settled into indecisive skirmishing from which it would not subsequently emerge. In 1707, the War briefly intersected with the Great Northern War, which was being fought simultaneously in Northern Europe. A Swedish army under Charles XII arrived in Saxony, where he had just finished chastising the Elector Augustus II and forced him to renounce his claims to the Polish throne. Both the French and the Allies sent envoys to Charles's camp, and the French hoped to encourage him to turn his troops against the Emperor Joseph I, who Charles felt had slighted him by his support for Augustus. However, Charles, who liked to see himself as a champion of Protestant Europe, greatly disliked Louis XIV for his treatment of the Huguenots, and was generally uninterested in the western war. He turned his attention instead to Russia, ending the possibility of Swedish intervention. Later in 1707, Prince Eugene led an allied invasion of southern France from Italy, but was stalled by the French army. Marlborough, in the meantime, remained in the Low Countries, where he was caught up in capturing an endless succession of fortresses. In 1708, Marlborough's army clashed with the French, who were beset by leadership problems: their commanders, the Duc de Bourgogne (Louis XIV's grandson) and the Duc de Vendôme were frequently at variance, the former often making unwise military decisions. Bourgogne's insistence that the French army not attack led Marlborough once again to unite his army with Eugene's, allowing the allied army to crush the French at the Battle of Oudenarde, and then proceeded to capture Lille. The disasters of Oudenarde and Lille led France to the brink of ruin. Louis XIV was forced to negotiate; he sent his foreign minister, the Marquis de Torcy, to meet the allied commanders at The Hague. Louis agreed to surrender Spain and all its territories to the allies, requesting only that he be allowed to keep Naples (in Italy). He was, moreover, prepared to furnish money to help expel Philip V from Spain. The allies, however, imposed more humiliating conditions; they demanded that Louis use the French army to dethrone his own grandson. Rejecting the offer, Louis chose to continue fighting until the bitter end. He appealed to the people of France, bringing thousands of new recruits into his army. In 1709, the allies attempted three invasions of France, but two were so minor as to be merely diversionary. A more serious attempt was launched when Marlborough and Eugene advanced toward Paris. They clashed with the French under the Duc de Villars at the Battle of Malplaquet, the bloodiest battle of the war. Although the allies defeated the French, they lost over twenty thousand men, compared with only ten thousand for their opponents, and although they captured Mons, they were unable to follow up their victory. The battle marked a turning point in the war; despite winning, the allies were unable to proceed with the invasion, having suffered such tremendous casualties.

Final stages

In 1710, the allies launched a final campaign in Spain, but failed to make any progress. An army under James Stanhope reached Madrid together with the Archduke Charles, but it was forced to capitulate when a relief army came from France. The alliance, in the meantime, began to weaken. In Great Britain, Marlborough's powerful political influence was lost, as the source of much of his clout—the friendship between his wife and the Queen—came to an end, with Queen Anne dismissing the Duchess of Marlborough from her offices and banishing her from the court. Moreover, the Whig ministry which had lent its support to the war fell, and the new Tory government that took its place sought peace. Marlborough was recalled to Great Britain in 1711, and was replaced by the Duke of Ormonde. In 1711, the Archduke Charles became Holy Roman Emperor as Charles VI following the sudden death of Joseph, his elder brother; now, a decisive victory for Austria would upset the balance of power just as much as a victory for France. The British, led by Secretary of State Henry St John, began to secretly correspond with the Marquis de Torcy, excluding the Dutch and Austrians from their negotiations. The Duke of Ormonde refused to commit British troops to battle, so the French under Villars were able to recover much lost ground in 1712. Peace negotiations bore fruit in 1713, when the Treaty of Utrecht was concluded, and Great Britain and the Netherlands ceased fighting France. Barcelona, which had supported the allies in 1705, finally surrendered to the Bourbon army in 11 September 1714 following a long siege, ending the presence of the allies in Spain. Nowadays this date is remembered as the National Day of Catalonia. Hostilities between France and Austria lumbered on until 1714, when the Treaties of Rastatt and Baden were ratified, marking the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. Spain was slower in ratifying treaties of peace; it did not formally end its conflict with Austria until 1720, after it had been defeated by all the powers in the War of the Quadruple Alliance.

Result

Under the Peace of Utrecht, Philip V was recognised as King of Spain, but renounced his place in the French line of succession, thereby precluding the union of the French and Spanish crowns (although there was some sense in France that this renunciation was illegal). He retained the Spanish overseas empire, but ceded the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and Sardinia to Austria; Sicily and parts of the Milanese to Savoy; and Gibraltar and Minorca to Great Britain. Moreover, he granted the British the exclusive right to slave trading in Spanish America for thirty years, the so-called asiento. Philip also issued the Decretos de Nueva Planta, ending the political autonomy of the kingdoms of the Crown of Aragon; territories in Spain that had supported the Archduke Charles and up to them kept their institutions in a framework or loose dynastic union. No important changes were made to French territory in Europe. Grandiose imperial desires to turn back the French expansion to the Rhine which had occurred since the middle decades of the seventeenth century were not realized, nor was the French border pushed back in the Low Countries. France agreed to stop supporting the Stuart pretenders to the British throne, instead recognising Anne as the legitimate queen. France gave up various North American colonial possessions, recognising British sovereignty over Rupert's Land and Newfoundland, and ceding Acadia and its half of Saint Kitts. The Dutch were permitted to retain various forts in the Spanish Netherlands, and were permitted to annex a part of Spanish Guelders. With the Peace of Utrecht, the wars to prevent French hegemony that had dominated the seventeenth century were over for the time being. France and Spain, both under Bourbon monarchs, remained allies during the following years. Spain, stripped of its territories in Italy and the Low Countries, lost most of its power, and became a second-rate nation in Continental politics.

References

- [http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0028.php Acton, J. E. E., 1st Baron. (1906). Lectures on Modern History. London: Macmillan and Co.]
- [http://www.chivalricorders.org/royalty/bourbon/france/success/sucprt1.htm Sainty, Guy Stair. (2004). "The French Succession: The Renunciations of 1712, the Treaties of Utrecht and Their Aftermath in International Affairs."]
- "Spanish Succession, War of the." (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
- Wolf, John B. (1951). The Emergence of the Great Powers, 1685-1715. New York: HarperCollins.
- Brodrick, Thomas (1713). "A Compleat History of the late war in The Netherlands together with an abstract of the treaty of Utrecht". London: William Pearson

External links

- [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/origens/poleuropea.jsp Catalonia in the context of 18TH-Century european politics: The war of succession(1702-1714)] Spanish Succession Spanish Succession Spanish Succession Spanish Succession Spanish Succession Spanish Succession ko:에스파냐 왕위계승전쟁 ja:スペイン継承戦争

1703

Events

- February 2 - Earthquake in L'Aquila, Italy
- February 4 - In Japan, the 47 samurai commit seppuku (ritual suicide)
- February 14 - Earthquake in Norcia, Italy
- April 21 - Company of Quenching of Fire (ie. fire brigade) founded in Edinburgh, Scotland
- May 27 - Founding of St Petersburg in Russia. Onlooker throw flowers on him.
- May 26 - Portugal joins Grand Alliance
- July 29-31 - Daniel Defoe is placed in a pillory for the crime of seditious libel after publishing a politically satirical pamphlet
- September 12 - War of the Spanish Succession – Habsburg Archduke Charles proclaimed King of Spain
- October - A whirlwind blows down the tower of the Gan Takal in Gondar, capital of Ethiopia, killing 30.
- November 19 - Unknown masked prisoner dies in Bastille
- November 24 to December 2 - the Great Storm of 1703 ravages southern England and the English Channel, killing thousands
- December 27 - Portugal and England sign the Methuen Treaty which gives preference to Portuguese imported wines into England.
- A Tale of a Tub, first major satire by Jonathan Swift, published
- George Psalmanazar arrives in London
- Isaac Newton becomes the chairman of Royal Society
- Ahmed III (1703-1730) succeeds Mustafa II (1695-1703) as emperor of the Ottoman Empire.

Births

- February 5 - Gilbert Tennent, Irish-born religious leader (d. 1764)
- March 5 (N. S.) - Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky, Russian poet (d. 1768)
- May 14 - David Brearly, delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (d. 1785)
- June 17 - John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (d. 1791)
- June 26 - Thomas Clap, first president of Yale University (d. 1767)
- June 28 - John Wesley, English founder of Methodism (d. 1791)
- August 2 - Lorenzo Ricci, Italian Jesuit leader (d. 1775)
- October 5 - Jonathan Edwards, American preacher (d. 1758)
- October 28 - Antoine Deparcieux, French mathematician (d. 1768)
- November 25 - Jean-François Séguier, French astronomer and botanist (d. 1784)
- November 26 - Theophilus Cibber, English actor and writer (d. 1758)
- December 2 - Ferdinand Konščak, Croatian explorer (d. 1759)
- François Boucher, French painter (d. 1770)

Deaths

- Phetracha, king of Ayutthaya
- January 11 - Johann Georg Graevius, German classical scholar and critic (b. 1632)
- March 3 - Robert Hooke, English scientist (b. 1635)
- March 31 - Johann Christoph Bach, German composer (b. 1642)
- April 20 - Lancelot Addison, English royal chaplain (b. 1632)
- May 16 - Charles Perrault, French author (b. 1628)
- May 26 - Samuel Pepys, English civil servant and diarist (b. 1633)
- June 14 - Jean Herauld Gourville, French adventurer (b. 1625)
- September 22 - Vincenzo Viviani, Italian mathematician and scientist (b. 1622)
- September 25 - Archibald Campbell, 1st Duke of Argyll, Scottish privy councillor (b. 1658)
- September 29 - Charles de Saint-Évremond, French soldier (b. 1610)
- October 28 - John Wallis, English mathematician (b. 1616)
- November 30 - Nicolas de Grigny, French organist and composer (b. 1672)
- December 28 -

Eighteenth Century

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1701

Events

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1789

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1701

Events

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War of the Spanish Succession

Origins

Beginning of the war

Early fighting

Blenheim to Malplaquet

Final stages

Result

References

See also

External links

1703

Events

Births

Deaths