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Dynasty
A dynasty is a succession of rulers who are members of the same family for generations. The term is also used to refer to the period during which that family reigns. A ruler in a dynasty is sometimes referred to as a dynast. A series of dynasties dating back to the Xia (2033 BC) ruled China until the end of the Xinhai Revolution in 1912. Historians traditionally recount China's story within a framework of successive dynasties (See Dynasties in Chinese history). A similar pattern happened in Ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire, and dynasties such as the Carolingians, the Capetians, the Bourbons, the Habsburgs, the Stuarts, the Hohenzollerns and the Romanovs successively and together dominated much of European political history.
Political families in democracies
Though in democratic governments rule does not pass automatically by inheritance, political power often accrues to generations of related individuals. Influence, familiarity, tradition and even nepotism may contribute to this phenomenon. See, for example, the list of U.S. political families, which includes the Roosevelts, Kennedys, Bushes, and Adamses.
Apart from the United States case, political dynasties also occur commonly in other former parts of the British empire, particularly in southern Asia. Note especially:
- The Nehru-Gandhi family in India
- Inheritance by Khaleda Zia from her late husband Ziaur Rahman; and by Sheikh Hasina from her late father Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in Bangladesh
- The Zulfikar Ali Bhutto dynasty in Pakistan
- Lee Kuan Yew's family in Singapore
- Aung San Suu Kyi's political inheritance in Burma
- The extended family of Solomon Bandaranaike in Sri Lanka
In Britain itself, the persistance of aristocratic families and their varying titles may serve to disguise some of the on-going influence of several political dynasties (as opposed to the royal dynasties which have provided monarchs of England and of Scotland):
- the Churchills (the family of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough)
- the Russells (such as John Russell, 1st Earl Russell)
- the Chamberlains (descendants of Joseph Chamberlain)
- the Greys (notably Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey)
- the Pitts (for example: William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham)
Category:Kinship and descent
ja:王朝
Xia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty (), ca. 2070 BC (?)–1600 BC (?), is the first dynasty to be described in Chinese historical records, which record the names of seventeen kings over fourteen generations. The legends of The Three August Ones and the Five Emperors precede this dynasty, and it is followed by the Shang dynasty.
Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the existence of the Xia Dynasty. But since then, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. Most Chinese archaeologists identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia Dynasty, while most Western archaeologists remain unconvinced of the connection between the Erlitou culture and the Xia Dynasty. At a minimum, the Xia period marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the typical Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty. Agricultural technology improved drastically, with the invention of wine making and the improvement in horse herding. Carriages were also used in Xia Dynasty.
Xia Dynasty resumed hereditary monarchy from the legendary Yellow Emperor times, and began the period of a family or a clan controlling everything in the nation (家天下). It was also during this period that the Chinese civilization developed a ruling structure that employed both a benign civilian government (文治) and harsh punishment for legal transgressions (刑罰). From this the earliest forms of Chinese legal codes came into being.
Xia Dynasty is believed to encompass a territory east to Henan, Shandong and Hebei Provinces, west to Henan and Shanxi, south to Hubei and north to Hebei.
Jie, the last ruler, was said to be a corrupt king. He was overthrown by T'ang, the leader of Shang people from the east.
Sovereigns of the Xia dynasty
ja:夏 (三代)
21st century BC(22nd century BC - 21st century BC - 20th century BC - other centuries)
(4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC)
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Events
- 2130 BC – 2080 BC — Ninth Dynasty wars in Egypt.
- 2112 BC – 2095 BC — Sumerian campaigns of Ur-Nammu.
- 2091 BC — beginning of the mythological Patriarchal Age is traditionally set in this year.
- 2071 BC — Magh Ithe, first recorded battle in Ireland myths.
- 2070 BC
- — Xia Dynasty of China established.
- 2064 BC – 1986 BC — Twin Dynasty wars in Egypt.
- 2049 BC — Oak trees for Seahenge felled.
- 2040 BC — Pharaoh Merykare died. End of Tenth dynasty of Egypt. Pharaoh Mentuhotep II started to rule. Start of Eleventh Dynasty.
- 2034 BC – 2004 BC — Ur-Amorite wars.
- 2004 BC — Elamite destruction of Ur.
- 2000 BC — Arrival of the ancestors of the Latins in Italy.
- 2000 BC — The town of Mantua was presumedly founded.
- 2000 BC — Stonehenge is believed to have been completed.
- 2000 BC — Farmers and herders travel south from Ethiopia and settle in Kenya.
Significant persons
- Ur-Nammu, 3rd dynasty of Ur
- Shulgi of Urim
- Abraham (probably)
- According to Hindu tradition, lifetime of Rama, the 7th avatar of Vishnu
Inventions, discoveries, introductions
- 2037 BC — Emperor Shen Nong makes first (perhaps mythical) tea drink by boiling fresh leaves.
- 2000 BC — First written accounts of Schizophrenia.
Category:21st century BC
Xinhai RevolutionThe Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution (Chinese: 辛亥革命; pinyin: Xīnhài Gémìng), named for the Chinese year of Xinhai (1911), was the overthrow (October 10, 1911–February 12, 1912) of China's ruling Qing Dynasty, sometimes known as the Manchu Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China.
The revolution began with the armed Wuchang Uprising and the spread of republican insurrection through the southern provinces, and culminated in the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor after lengthy negotiations between rival Imperial and Republican regimes based in Beijing and Nanjing respectively.
The Revolution inaugurated a period of struggle over China's eventual constitutional form, which saw two brief monarchical restorations and successive periods of political fragmentation before the Republic's final establishment.
See also
- History of China
- History of the Republic of China
Category:Revolutions
Category:China
Category:1911
category:History of China category:History of the Republic of China
ko:신해혁명
ja:辛亥革命
1912
1912 (MCMXII) was a leap year starting on Monday.
Events
January-March
- January 1 - Establishment of Republic of China.
- January 5 - Prague Party Conference
- January 6 - New Mexico is admitted as the 47th U.S. state.
- January 17 - British polar explorer Robert Falcon Scott and a team of four begin the second expedition to reach the South Pole.
- January 23 - The International Opium Convention is signed at The Hague.
- February 8 - Mexican Revolution - Military rebellion against the rule of Francisco Madero begins in Mexico City. Battles last for 10 days
- February 12 - Republic of China adopts the Gregorian calendar
- February 14 - Arizona is admitted as the 48th U.S. state.
- February 14 - In Groton, Connecticut, the first diesel-powered submarine is commissioned.
- February 18 - Francisco Madero is forced to resign - battle ends. All members of Madero's government are arrested.
- February 19 - Prizes are included in Cracker Jack candy boxes for the first time
- February 22 - Francisco Madero and Pino Suarez are shot, allegedly when they "tried to escape"
- March 1 - Albert Berry makes the first parachute jump from a moving airplane.
- March 1 - Georg Ritter von Trapp, head of the famous Austrian singing family memorialized in the musical The Sound of Music marries Agathe
- March 5 - Italian forces are the first to use airships for a military purpose by using them for reconnaissance west of Tripoli behind Turkish lines.
- March 7 - Roald Amundsen announces discovery of the South Pole
- March 7 - French aviator Henri Seimet makes the first non-stop flight from Paris to London in three hours
- March 12 - The Girl Guides (later renamed the Girl Scouts) are founded.
- March 16 - Lawrence Oates, ill member of Scott's South Pole expedition leaves the tent saying, "I am just going outside and may be some time"
- March 27 - Mayor Yukio Ozaki of Tokyo gives 3,000 cherry blossom trees to be planted in Washington, D.C. to symbolize the friendship between the two countries.
- March 30 - France establishes a protectorate over Morocco.
April-September
- April 15 - Sinking of the RMS Titanic.
- April 17 - Solar eclipse in Europe.
- April 19 - United States Senate inquiry into the Titanic sinking begins.
- May 2 - British Board of Trade inquiry into the sinking of Titanic begins.
- May 3 - The first victims of the RMS Titanic are buried in Halifax, Nova Scotia.
- May 5 - The 1912 Summer Olympics open in Stockholm, Sweden.
- May 13 - In the United Kingdom, the Royal Flying Corps (forerunner of the Royal Air Force) is established.
- June 4 - Fire in Constantinople - 1120 buildings destroyed
- June 5 - US Marines land on Cuba
- June 6-June 8 - Eruption of Novarupta in Alaska, second largest volcanic eruption in historic time.
- June 8 - Carl Laemmle incorporated Universal Pictures.
- July 12 - Greek island of Icana declares independence (Greece annexes it in November)
- July 19 - A meteorite with an estimated mass of 190 kg exploded over the town of Holbrook in Navajo County, Arizona causing approximately 16,000 pieces of debris to rain down on the town.
- July 30 - the Meiji Emperor of Japan, dies. He is succeeded by his son Yoshihito, the Taisho Emperor. In Japanese History, the event marks the end of the Meiji period and the beginning of the Taisho Era.
- August 12 - Sultan Abd al-Hafiz of Morocco abdicates.
- August 25 - Kuomintang, the Chinese nationalist party is founded.
- September 25 - Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism founded in New York,_New York.
October-November
- October 8 - First Balkan War begins: Montenegro declares war against Turkey.
- October 14 - While campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, former president Theodore Roosevelt is shot by saloonkeeper William Schrank. With a fresh flesh wound and the bullet still in him, Roosevelt still delivers his scheduled speech.
- October 16 - Bulgarian pilots Radul Minkov and Prodan Toprakchiev perform the first bombing with an airplane in history at the railway station of Karaagac near Edirne against Turkey.
- November 5 - U.S. presidential election, 1912: Democratic challenger Woodrow Wilson wins a landslide victory over Republican incumbent William Howard Taft. Taft's base was undercut by Progressive Party candidate (and former Republican) Theodore Roosevelt, who finished second, ahead of Taft.
- November 7 - The Deutsche Opernhaus (now Deutsche Oper Berlin) opened in the Berlin neighborhood of Charlottenburg with a production of Beethoven's Fidelio.
- November 11 - Chios declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire.
- November 24 - Mine explosion in Hokkaido, Japan - 245 dead
- November 27 - Spain declares a protectorate over the north shore of Morocco.
- November 28 - Albania declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire.
December
- December 3 - First Balkan War ends temporarily - Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia (the Balkan League) sign an armistice with Turkey, ending the two-month long war.
Unknown dates
- Sea Scouting begins under the aegis of the Boy Scouts of America.
- Kazimierz Funk identifies vitamins.
- The first blues song, "The Memphis Blues," is published.
- Alfred Wegener proposes the theory of continental drift.
- Mount Katmai in Alaska explodes.
- Piltdown Man presented in Britain.
- British treasure hunters try to drain Lake Guatavita to find gold – they find nothing.
- African National Congress
Births
January-February
- January 1 - Kim Philby, British spy (d. 1988)
- January 3 - Armand Lohikoski, Finnish director (d. 2005)
- January 6 - Jacques Ellul, French philosopher (d. 1994)
- January 7 - Charles Addams, American cartoonist (d. 1988)
- January 8 - José Ferrer, Puerto Rican actor (d. 1992)
- January 19 - Leonid Kantorovich, Russian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)
- January 21 - Konrad Emil Bloch, German-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2000)
- January 28 - Jackson Pollock, American painter (d. 1956)
- January 30 - Barbara W. Tuchman, American historian (d. 1989)
- February 4 - Erich Leinsdorf, Austrian conductor (d. 1993)
- February 6 - Eva Braun, Adolf Hitler's mistress (d. 1945)
- February 11 - Roy Fuller, English poet and novelist (d. 1991)
- February 19 - Stan Kenton, American musician (d. 1979)
- February 20 - Pierre Boulle, French author (d. 1994)
- February 27 - Lawrence Durrell, British writer (d. 1990)
March-April
- March 5 - David Astor, British newspaper publisher (d. 2001)
- March 8 - Preston Smith, Governor of Texas (d. 2003)
- March 12 - Irving Layton, Canadian poet
- March 14 - Les Brown, American band leader (d. 2001)
- March 15 - Lightnin' Hopkins, American musician (d. 1982)
- March 16 - Pat Nixon, First Lady of the United States (d. 1993)
- March 17 - Bayard Rustin, American civil rights activist (d. 1987)
- March 18 - Lucien Laurin, Canadian horse trainer (d. 2000)
- March 22 - Karl Malden, American actor
- March 23 - Betty Astell, British actress (d. 2005)
- March 23 - Wernher von Braun, German-born physicist and engineer (d. 1977)
- March 27 - James Callaghan, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2005)
- April 8 - Sonja Henie, Norwegian figure skater (d. 1969)
- April 12 - Walt Gorney, American actor (d. 2004)
- April 15 - Kim Il Sung, President of North Korea (d. 1994)
- April 19 - Glenn T. Seaborg, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
- April 22 - Kathleen Ferrier, British contralto (d. 1953)
- April 26 - A. E. van Vogt, Canadian-born writer (d. 2000)
- April 28 - Odette Sansom, French World War II heroine (d. 1995)
May-July
- May 3 - Virgil Fox, American organist (d. 1980)
- May 9 - Pedro Armendáriz, Mexican actor (d. 1963)
- May 9 - Per Imerslund, "The aryan idol" (d. 1943)
- May 11 - Foster Brooks, American actor and comedian (d. 2001)
- May 12 - Archibald Cox, Watergate special prosecutor (d. 2001)
- May 14 - Ben Hogan, American golfer (d. 1997)
- May 16 - Studs Terkel, American writer and broadcaster
- May 18 - Perry Como, American singer (d. 2001)
- May 18 - Walter Sisulu, South African anti-apartheid activist (d. 2003)
- May 21 - Monty Stratton, baseball player (d. 1982)
- May 22 - Herbert C. Brown, English-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)
- May 23 - Jean Françaix, French composer (d. 1997)
- May 23 - John Payne, American actor (d. 1989)
- May 25 - Princess Dukhye of Korea (d. 1989)
- May 27 - Sam Snead, American golfer (d. 2002)
- May 28 - Patrick White, Australian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990)
- May 30 - Julius Axelrod, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
- May 31 - Alfred Deller, English countertenor (d. 1979)
- June 6 - Maria Montez, Dominican actress (d. 1951)
- June 23 - Alan Turing, British mathematician (d. 1954)
- June 25 - William T. Cahill, American politician (d. 1996)
- June 26 - Jay Silverheels, American actor (d. 1980)
- June 27 - Chen Kenmin, Japanese chef (d. 1990)
- June 30 - Ludwig Bölkow, German aeronautical engineer (d. 2003)
- July 1 - David R. Brower, American environmentalist (d. 2000)
- July 14 - Woody Guthrie, American folk musician (d. 1969)
- July 17 - Art Linkletter, American television host
- July 31 - Milton Friedman, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 31 - Irv Kupcinet, American newspaper columnist (d. 2003)
August-November
- August 9 - Anne Brown, American soprano
- August 10 - Jorge Amado de Faria, Brazilian author (d. 2001)
- August 11 - Thanom Kittikachorn, Prime Minister of Thailand (d. 2004)
- August 11 - Norman Levinson, American mathematician (d. 1975)
- August 13 - Salvador Luria, Italian-born biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1991)
- August 15 - Julia Child, American chef (d. 2004)
- August 16 - Ted Drake, English footballer (d. 1995)
- August 16 - Wendy Hiller, English actress (d. 2003)
- August 23 - Gene Kelly, American actor (d. 1996)
- August 25 - Erich Honecker, East German leader (d. 1994)
- August 30 - Edward Mills Purcell, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
- August 30 - Nancy Wake, New Zealand World War II heroine
- September 5 - John Cage, American composer (d. 1992)
- September 11 - David Packard, American electrical engineer (d. 1996)
- September 19 - Kurt Sanderling, German conductor
- September 21 - Chuck Jones, American animator (d. 2002)
- September 22 - Martha Scott, American actress (d. 2003)
- September 24 - Don Porter, American actor (d. 1997)
- September 29 - Michelangelo Antonioni, Italian film director
- October 5 - Karl Hass, Nazi war criminal (d. 2004)
- October 5 - Kristina Söderbaum, German actress (d. 2001)
- October 17 - Pope John Paul I (d. 1978)
- October 21 - Georg Solti, Hungarian conductor (d. 1997)
- October 22 - Johan Hendrik Weidner, Belgian World War II resistance fighter (d. 1994)
- October 25 - Minnie Pearl, American commedienne (d. 1996)
- October 27 - Conlon Nancarrow, American composer (d. 1997)
- November 4 - Vadim Salmanov, Russian composer (d. 1978)
- November 10 - Birdie Tebbetts, baseball player and manager (d. 1999)
- November 11 - Larry LaPrise American songwriter (d. 1996)
- November 14 - Barbara Hutton, American socialite (d. 1979)
- November 14 - T. Y. Lin, Chinese-born civil engineer (d. 2003)
- November 19 - George Emil Palade, Romanian cell biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- November 21 - Eleanor Powell, American actress and dancer (d. 1982)
- November 26 - Eugene Ionesco, Romanian-born playwright (d. 1994)
December
- December 11 - Carlo Ponti, Italian film producer
- December 12 - Henry Armstrong, American boxer (d. 1988)
- December 25 - Natalino Otto, Italian singer (d. 1969)
- December 27 - Conroy Maddox, British painter (d. 2005)
Deaths
- January 28 - Gustave de Molinari, Belgian economist (b. 1819)
- February 16 - Nikolai of Japan, Eastern Orthodox monk and saint (b. 1836)
- February 25 - Guillaume IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (b. 1852)
- March 1 - George Grossmith, English actor and comic writer (b. 1847)
- March 29 - Robert Falcon Scott, British Antarctic explorer (froze to death) (b. 1868)
- March 30 - Karl May, German author (b. 1842)
- April 15 - Victims of the sinking of the RMS Titanic:
- Edward J. Smith, ship's captain (b. 1850)
- John Jacob Astor IV, American businessman (b. 1864)
- Archibald Butt, American presidential aide (b. 1865)
- Benjamin Guggenheim, American businessman (b. 1865)
- William Thomas Stead, English journalist (b. 1849)
- Isidor Straus, German-American owner of Macy's (b. 1845)
- Thomas Andrews, Jr., Titanic shipbuilder (b.1873)
- May 14 - August Strindberg, Swedish playwright and painter (b. 1849)
- May 14 - Frederick VIII, King of Denmark (b. 1843)
- May 25 - Austin Lane Crothers, American politician (b. 1860)
- May 30 - Wilbur Wright, American aviation pioneer (b. 1867)
- June 12 - Frédéric Passy, French economist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1822)
- July 1 - Harriet Quimby, American pilot (b. 1875)
- July 2 - Tom Richardson, English cricketer (b. 1870)
- July 30 - Meiji Emperor of Japan (b. 1852)
- August 7 - François-Alphonse Forel, Swiss hydrologist (b. 1841)
- August 8 - Ross Winn, American anarchist writer and publisher (b. 1871)
- October 6 - Auguste Marie Francois Beernaert, Belgian statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1829)
- October 24 - Mykola Lysenko, Ukrainian composer (b. 1842)
- October 30 - James S. Sherman, Vice President of the United States (b. 1855)
- November 10 - Louis Cyr, Canadian strongman (b. 1863)
- November 28 - Walter Benona Sharp, American oil pioneer (b. 1870)
- December 23 - Otto Schoetensack, German anthropologist (b. 1850)
Nobel Prizes
- Physics - Nils Gustaf Dalén
- Chemistry - Victor Grignard, Paul Sabatier
- Medicine - Alexis Carrel
- Literature - Gerhart Johann Robert Hauptmann
- Peace - Elihu Root
Category:1912
ko:1912년
ms:1912
ja:1912年
simple:1912
th:พ.ศ. 2455
Dynasties in Chinese historyBelow is a table of the dynasties in Chinese history.
Overview
In most cases the dates given in the table are the commonly used conventional dates marking the generally agreed point at which power in China changed hands.
There is, however, still much dispute about dates in the Western Zhou period and earlier. It should also be noted that history is rarely as neat as it is portrayed and it was rare indeed for one dynasty to end calmly and give way quickly and smoothly to a new one. Dynasties were often established before the overthrow of an existing regime, or continued for a time after they had been defeated. In addition, China was divided for long periods of its history, with different regions being ruled over by different groups. At times like these there was no dynasty ruling a unified China.
One example of the potential for confusion will suffice. The conventional date 1644 marks the year in which the Manchu Qing dynasty armies occupied Beijing and brought Qing rule to China proper, succeeding the Ming dynasty. However, the Qing dynasty itself was established in 1636 (or even 1616, albeit under a different name), while the last Ming dynasty pretender was not disposed of until 1662. The change of ruling houses was a messy and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost twenty years to extend their control over the whole of China. To pretend that everything changed all at once all over China in the year 1644 would make a nonsense of what actually happened.
For more details on the dynasties listed here and their emperors, follow the relevant links in the table. Click on H for the history of the dynasty, and E for a table of its emperors (or other rulers).
Table of dynasties
Mnemonics
One version
Another version
(Compare with British monarchs mnemonics.)
See also
- History of China
- Timeline of Chinese history
- Table of Chinese monarchs
Category:China
Ancient EgyptAncient Egypt was a civilization along the Lower Nile extending from as far south as Jebel Barkal, Napata [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05329b.htm], and then northward to the Mediterranean Sea, though varying in size throughout its history between circa 3200 BC and 343 BC, ending with the conquest of Alexander the Great. As a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire.
Geography
Most of Egypt is in North Africa; though the Sinai Peninsula is in Southwest Asia. The country has shorelines on the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea; it borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip, Palestine and Israel to the east. Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. Somewhat counter-intuitively, Upper Egypt was in the south and Lower Egypt in the north, named according to the flow of the Nile. The Nile river flows northward from a southerly point to the Mediterranean rather than southward from a northerly point. The Nile river, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the Stone Age and Naqada cultures.
Two kingdoms formed Kemet ("the black land", in Ancient Egyptian Kmt), the name for the dark soil deposited by the Nile floodwaters. The desert was called Deshret ("the red land"), c.f. Herodotus: "Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that Libya is a redder earth" (Histories, 2:12).
People
Libya]]
A recent genetic study links the maternal lineage of a traditional population from Upper Egypt to Eastern Africa . A separate study further narrows the genetic lineage to Northeast Africa () and reveals also that modern day Egyptians "reflect a mixture of European, Middle Eastern, and African."
Champollion the Younger, who deciphered the Rosetta Stone, claimed in Expressions et Termes Particuliers ("Expression of Particular Terms") that Kmt did not actually refer to the soil but to a negroid population in the sense of "Black Nation." Modern day professional Egyptologists, linguists and historians, however, overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the soil rather than the people. Herodotus wrote, "the Colchians are Egyptians... on the fact that they are black-skinned (melanchrôs) and wooly-haired (oulothrix)" (Histories Book 2:104). Later authors, including Aristotle and Diodorus Siculus, repeated Herodotus' description of "black-skinned". Melanchros is also used of the sunburnt complexion of Odysseus (Od. 16.176).
Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet , mummies from circa 3200 BC show signs of severe anemia and hemolitic disorders .
A few teams of European scientists reported that cocaine, hashish and nicotine have been found in the skin and hair of Egyptian mummies . The results of these studies have been harshly criticized (e.g., ref. ) by mainstream scientists and Egyptologists as flawed and inaccurate.
History
:Main article: History of ancient Egypt
The ancient Egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called Punt, or "Ta Nteru" ("Land of the Gods"). Once commonly thought to be located on what is today the Somali coast, Punt now is thought to have been in either southern Sudan or Eritrea. The history of ancient Egypt proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3000 BC. Though archaeological evidence indicates a developed Egyptian society may have existed for a much longer period (see Predynastic Egypt).
Along the Nile, in 10th millennium BC, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering peoples using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border, before 8000 BC. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara (c.2500 BC), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society (see Nile: History). There is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the 7th millennium BC. By 6000 BC ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Mortar (masonry) was in use by 4000 BC. The Predynastic Period continues through this time, variously held to begin with the Naqada culture. Some authorities however begin the Predynastic Period earlier, in the Lower Paleolithic (see Predynastic Egypt).
Egypt unified as a single state circa 3000 BC. Egyptian chronology involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's Aegyptaica.
- List of pharaohs: The pharaohs stretch from before 3000 BC to around 30 BC.
- Dynasties (see also: List of Egyptian dynasties):
- Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. 27th century BC)
- Old Kingdom (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries BC)
- First Intermediate Period (7th to 11th Dynasties)
- Middle Kingdom of Egypt (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th to 17th centuries BC)
- Second Intermediate Period (14th to 17th Dynasties)
- Hyksos (15th to 16th Dynasties)
- New Kingdom of Egypt (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC)
- Third Intermediate Period (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC)
- Late Period of Ancient Egypt (26th to 31st Dynasties; 7th century BC to 332 BC)
- Achaemenid Dynasty
- Graeco-Roman Egypt (332 BC to AD 639)
- Ptolemaic Dynasty
- Roman Empire
Government
Nomes were the subnational administrative divisions of Upper and Lower Egypt. The pharaoh was the ruler of these two kingdoms and headed the ancient Egyptian state structure. The pharaoh served as monarch, spiritual leader and commander-in-chief of both the army and navy. The pharaoh was supposed to be divine, a connection between men and gods. Below him in the government, were the viziers (one for Upper Egypt and one for Lower Egypt) and various officials. Under him on the religious side were the high priest and various other priests. Generally, the position was handed down from father to eldest son. Sometimes this rule was broken, and occasionally a woman assumed power.
Language
The ancient Egyptians spoke an Afro-Asiatic language related to Chadic, Berber and Semitic languages. Records of the ancient Egyptian language have been dated to about 3200 BC. Scholars group the Egyptian language into six major chronological divisions:
- Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC)
- Old Egyptian (2600–2000 BC)
- Middle Egyptian (2000–1300 BC)
- Late Egyptian (1300–700 BC)
- Demotic Egyptian (7th century BC–4th century AD)
- Coptic (3rd–12th century AD)
Writing
For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the Narmer Palette, found during excavations at Hierakonpolis (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to c.3200 BC. However recent archaeological findings reveal that symbols on Gerzean pottery, c.4000 BC, resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms . Also in 1998 a German archeological team under Gunter Dreyer excavating at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) uncovered tomb U-j, which belonged to a Predynastic ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto-hieroglyphics dating to the Naqada IIIA period, circa 33rd century BC , .
Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as hieroglyphs, today standing as the world's earliest known writing system. The hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic, partly ideographic. Hieratic is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC – c. 2775 BC). The term Demotic, in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the Nubian 25th dynasty until its marginalization by the Greek Koine in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Coptic language survived into the Middle Ages as the liturgical language of the Christian minority.
Beginning from around 2700 BC, Egyptians used pictograms to represent vocal sounds -- both vowel and consonant vocalizations (see Hieroglyph: Script). By 2000 BC, 26 pictograms were being used to represent 24 (known) main vocal sounds. The world's oldest known alphabet (c. 1800 BC) is only an abjad system and was derived from these uniliteral signs as well as other Egyptian hieroglyphs.
The hieroplyphic script finally fell out of use around the 4th century and began to be rediscovered after the 15th century (see Hieroglyphica).
Literature
- c. 2500 BC: Westcar Papyrus
- c. 1800 BC: Story of Sinuhe
- c. 1800 BC: Ipuwer papyrus
- c. 1800 BC: Papyrus Harris I
- c. 1000 BC: Story of Wenamun
Culture
The Egyptian religions, embodied in Egyptian mythology, were the succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, until the coming of Christianity and Islam. These were conducted by Egyptian priests or magicians, but the use of magic and spells is questioned. The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the arts of the ancient world. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. Ancient Egyptian art in general is characterized by the idea of order.
Evidence of mummies and pyramids outside ancient Egypt indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other prehistoric cultures, transmitted in one way over the Silk Road.
Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are sexually symbolic.
Ancient achievements
symbolic
See Predynastic Egypt for inventions and other significant achievements in the Sahara region before the Protodynastic Period.
The art and science of engineering was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as surveying). These skills were used to outline pyramid bases. The Egyptian pyramids took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. Hydraulic Cement was first invented by the Egyptians. The Al Fayyum Irrigation (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the First dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai Peninsula.
The earliest evidence (circa 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri. The roots of the Scientific method may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known alphabet, decimal system and complex mathematical formularizations, in the form of the Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri. An awareness of the golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the Egyptian pyramids.
Timeline
(All dates are approximate.)
Predynastic
See main article and timeline: Predynastic Egypt.
- 3500 BC: Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
- 3500 BC: Faience, world's earliest known earthenware
Dynastic
- 3300 BC: Bronze works (see Bronze Age)
- 3200 BC: Egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed (see First dynasty of Egypt)
- 3200 BC: Narmer Palette, world's earliest known historical document
- 3100 BC: Decimal system, , world's earliest (confirmed) use
- 3100 BC: Wine cellars, world's earliest known
- 3100 BC: Mining, Sinai Peninsula
- 3050 BC: Shipbuilding in Abydos,
- 3000 BC: Exports from Nile to Israel: wine (see Narmer)
- 3000 BC: Copper plumbing (see Copper: History)
- 3000 BC: Papyrus, world's earliest known paper
- 3000 BC: Medical Institutions
- 2900 BC: possible steel: carbon-containing iron,
- 2700 BC: Surgery, world's earliest known
- 2700 BC: precision Surveying
- 2700 BC: Uniliteral signs, forming basis of world's earliest known alphabet
- 2600 BC: Sphinx, still today the world's largest single-stone statue
- 2600s–2500 BC: Shipping expeditions: King Sneferu and Pharaoh Sahure. See also , .
- 2600 BC: Barge transportation, stone blocks (see Egyptian pyramids: Construction)
- 2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser, world's earliest known large-scale stone building
- 2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid & Red Pyramid, world's earliest known works of carved granite
- 2600 BC: Red Pyramid, world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid granite work
granite]
- 2580 BC: Great Pyramid of Giza, the world's tallest structure until AD 1300
- 2500 BC: Beekeeping,
- 2400 BC: Astronomical Calendar, used even in the Middle Ages for its mathematical regularity
- 2200 BC: Beer,
- 1860 BC: possible Nile-Red Sea Canal (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt)
- 1800 BC: Alphabet, world's oldest known
- 1800 BC: Berlin Mathematical Papyrus, , 2nd order algebraic equations
- 1800 BC: Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, generalized formula for volume of frustum
- 1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: geometry, cotangent analogue, algebraic equations, arithmetic series, geometric series
- 1600 BC: Edwin Smith papyrus, medical tradition traces as far back as c. 3000 BC
- 1550 BC: Ebers Medical Papyrus, traditional empiricism; world's earliest known documented tumors (see History of medicine)
- 1500 BC: Glass-making, world's earliest known
- 1258 BC: Peace treaty, world's earliest known (see Ramesses II, )
- 1160 BC: Turin papyrus, world's earliest known geologic and topographic map
- 5th–4th century BC (or perhaps earlier): battle games petteia and seega; possible precursors to Chess (see Origins of chess)
Other
- c.2500 BC: Westcar Papyrus
- c.1800 BC: Ipuwer papyrus
- c.1800 BC: Papyrus Harris I
- c.1400 BC: Tulli Papyrus
- c.1300 BC: Brugsch Papyrus
- Unknown date: Rollin Papyrus
Open problems
There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian Iron Age nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using iron. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked granite. The exact date the Egyptians started producing glass is debated.
Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if the Egyptians used engines or batteries. The relief at Dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the Saqqara Bird is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of aerodynamics. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had kites or gliders.
Beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several Roman writers — Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro and Columella. It is unknown whether Egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from Southern Asia.
See also
- List of Ancient Egyptians
- Egyptology
- Unsolved problems in Egyptology
- History of Egypt
- List of Ancient Egyptian sites
- Egyptian Museum
- Race of the Ancient Egyptians
- Egypt in the European imagination
Further reading
- John Baines & Jaromir Malek, The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt, revised edition, Facts on File, 2000. ISBN 0816040362
- Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, Routledge, 1991. ISBN 0415063469
- Bill Manley (ed.), The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0500051232
- Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0192804588
External links
- [http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/ Ancient Egypt] - maintained by the British Museum, this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents
- [http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientegypt/ Ancient Egypt and Egyptians] articles and resources from About Archaeology
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ BBC History: Egyptians] - provides a reliable general overview and further links
- [http://www.ancientneareast.net/egypt.html Ancientneareast.net: Ancient Egypt] - provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt
- [http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/egypt/ Egyptology Resources] - maintained by Dr Nigel Strudwick, offers one reliable guide to online documentation of Ancient Egypt
- [http://www.kv5.com/ The Theban Mapping Project] - although focusing on the Theban region (modern Luxor), this site holds much of general interest relating to Ancient Egypt
Notes
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Category:Ancient Egypt
ja:古代エジプト
ms:Mesir purba
Carolingian
The Carolingians (also known as the "Carlovingians") were a dynasty of rulers that eventually controlled the Frankish realm and its successors from the 8th to the 10th century, officially taking over the kingdoms from the Merovingian dynasty in 751. The name Carolingian itself comes from Charles Martel, who defeated the Moors at Poitiers in 732. The dynasty's most prominent member is Charlemagne (in Latin: Carolus Magnus).
The dynasty is usually considered to have been founded by Arnulf of Metz, Bishop of Metz in the late 7th century, who wielded a great deal of power and influence in the Merovingian kingdoms. Pippin of Herstal, Mayor of the Palace of the Kingdom of Austrasia, was succeeded by his son Charles Martel as Mayor, who in turn was the father of Pippin III, called "the Short". Pippin had become king after having used his position as Mayor to garner support among many of the leading Franks, as well as Pope Zacharias, in order to depose the last Merovingian king, Childeric in 751. Charlemagne, Pippin's son, became King of the Franks in 768 and was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800.
After the division of the empire among Charlemagne's three grandsons with the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the Carolingians initially continued to hold the throne in all three sections that were created.
- In the West, which was the nucleus of later France, they continued to be the ruling dynasty until a minor branch of the family, the Capetians, ascended the (by that time) French throne in 987.
- In the Middle, with the empty title of "Emperor" and the kingdom of Lotharingia which included Northern Italy, the major branch of the family ruled till 887, but further division was based on the Treaty of Mersen in 870.
- In the East, the kernel of the later Holy Roman Empire, the Carolingians ruled only until 911, the death of Louis the Child. Here, the dukes of the stem duchies eventually acclaimed a Saxon dynasty, commonly referred to as the Ottonians, who consciously modelled themselves as Carolingian successors.
See also
- Franks (main history of Frankish empire)
- List of Frankish Kings
- List of French monarchs
- List of German monarchs
- List of Holy Roman Emperors
- Kings of France family tree
- Carolingian minuscule
- Carolingian Renaissance
Category:French monarchy
Category:German nobility
Category:Matter of France
Carolingian
Category:Franks
Category:History of France
ja:カロリング朝
Capetian
The direct Capetian Dynasty followed the Carolingian rulers of France from 987 to 1328. From 1328 to 1830, with the interruption of the revolution, France was ruled by kings from the Valois and Bourbon, cadet branches of the dynasty.
List of Capetian kings of France
- 987–996, Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, crowned King of France
- 996–1031, Robert II, the Pious
- 1031–1060, Henri I
- 1060–1108, Philippe I
- 1108–1137, Louis VI, the Fat
- 1137–1180, Louis VII
- 1180–1223, Philippe II Auguste
- 1223–1226, Louis VIII
- 1226–1270, Louis IX (Saint Louis)
- 1270–1285, Philippe III the Bold
- 1285–1314, Philippe IV the Fair
- 1314–1316, Louis X
- 1316–1316, Jean I
- 1316–1322, Philippe V
- 1322–1328, Charles IV
See also
- List of French monarchs
- Kings of France family tree
- France in the Middle Ages
Capetian
Category:History of France
ko:카페 왕조
ja:カペー朝
Habsburg.]]
Habsburg (sometimes spelled Hapsburg, but never so in official use) was one of the major ruling houses of Europe.
Their principal roles were as:
- Holy Roman Emperors (several centuries to 1806), and
- Rulers of Austria (as dukes 1282–1453, archdukes 1453–1804, and emperors 1804–1918),
- Kings of Croatia (1527–1918),
- Kings of Hungary (1437–1918),
- Kings of Spain (1516–1700),
- Kings of Portugal (1580–1640),
- Kings of Bohemia (1526–1618 and 1621–1918) and
- Great Princes of Transylvania (1690–1867).
A brief history of the House of Habsburg
From Counts of Habsburg to Holy Roman Emperors
The name is derived from the Swiss Habichtsburg (Hawk Castle), the family seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries at Habsburg, Switzerland (Switzerland did not then exist in its present form, and the Swiss lands were part of the mainly Germanic Holy Roman Empire). From South-East-Germany the family extended its influence and holdings to the eastern reaches of the Holy Roman Empire, roughly today's Austria (1278 - 1382). Within only two o | | |
