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Crack Cocaine

Crack cocaine

:This article is about the drug Cocaine. For the blues song by J.J. Cale (later covered by Eric Clapton) see Cocaine (song) Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and an appetite suppressant, creating what has been described as a euphoric sense of happiness and increased energy. Though most often used recreationally for this effect, cocaine is also a topical anesthetic that was used in eye and throat surgery in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Cocaine is an addictive substance, and its possession, cultivation, and distribution is illegal for non-medicinal / non-government sanctioned purposes in virtually all of the world.

History

The coca leaf

For thousands of years and still today, South American indigenous peoples have chewed the coca leaf (Erythroxylon coca), a plant which contains vital nutrients as well as numerous alkaloids, including cocaine. The leaf was and is chewed almost universally by some indigenous communities, but there is no evidence that its habitual use ever led to any of the negative consequences generally associated with habitual cocaine use today. It is an important source of nutrition and energy in a region that is lacking in other food sources and oxygen; the vitamins and protein present in the leaves, as well as the cocaine alkaloid, helps provide the energy and strength necessary for steep walks in this mountainous area and days without eating. indigenous communities When the Spaniards conquered South America, they at first ignored Aboriginal claims that the leaf gave them strength and energy, and declared the practice of chewing it the work of the Devil. But after discovering that these claims were true, they legalized and taxed the leaf, taking 10% of the value of each crop. These taxes were for a time the main source of support for the Roman Catholic Church in the region. In 1609 Padre Blas Valera wrote:

Coca protects the body from many ailments, and our doctors use it in powdered form to reduce the swelling of wounds, to strengthen broken bones, to expel cold from the body or prevent it from entering, and to cure rotten wounds or sores that are full of maggots. And if it does so much for outward ailments, will not its singular virtue have even greater effect in the entrails of those who eat it?

Isolation

Although the stimulant and hunger-suppressant properties of coca had been known for many centuries, the isolation of the cocaine alkaloid was not achieved until 1855. Although many scientists had attempted to isolate cocaine, no one had been successful for two reasons: the knowledge of chemistry required was insufficient at the time, and coca does not grow in Europe and is easily ruined during travel. The cocaine alkaloid was first isolated by the German chemist Friedrich Gaedcke in 1855. Gaedcke named the alkaloid “erythroxyline”, and published a description in the journal Archives de Pharmacie. In 1856 Friederich Wöhler asked Dr. Carl Scherzer, a scientist aboard the Novara (an Austrian frigate sent by Emperor Franz Joseph to circle the globe), to bring him a large amount of coca leaves from South America. In 1859 the ship finished its travels and Wöhler received a trunk full of coca. Wöhler passed on the leaves to Albert Niemann, a Ph.D. student at the University of Göttingen in Germany, who then developed an improved purification process. Niemann described every step he took to isolate cocaine in his dissertation entitled On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves, which was published in 1860 — it also earned him his Ph.D. and is now in the British Library. He wrote of the alkaloid's “colourless transparent prisms” and said that, “Its solutions have an alkaline reaction, a bitter taste, promote the flow of saliva and leave a peculiar numbness, followed by a sense of cold when applied to the tongue.” Niemann named the alkaloid “cocaine” — as with other alkaloids its name carried the “-ine” suffix (from Latin -ina).

Popularization

In 1859 an Italian doctor Paolo Mantegazza returned from Peru, where he had witnessed first-hand the use of coca by the natives. He proceeded to experiment on himself and upon his return to Milan he wrote a paper in which he described the effects. In this paper he declared coca and cocaine (at the time they were assumed to be the same) as being useful medicinally, in the treatment of “a furred tongue in the morning, flatulence, [and] whitening of the teeth.” flatulence gold medal to Angelo Mariani.]] A chemist named Angelo Mariani who read Mantegaza’s paper became immediately intrigued with coca, and its economic potential. In 1863 Mariani started marketing a wine called Vin Mariani which had been treated with coca leaves. The ethanol in the wine acted as a solvent and extracted the cocaine from the coca leaves, altering the drink’s effect. It contained 6 mg cocaine per ounce of wine, but Vin Mariani which was to be exported contained 7.2 mg per ounce in order to compete with the higher cocaine content of similar drinks in the United States. A “pinch of coca leaves” was included in John Styth Pemberton's original 1886 recipe for Coca-Cola, though the company began using decocainized leaves in 1906 when the Pure Food and Drug Act was passed. The only known measure of the amount of cocaine in Coca-Cola was determined in 1902 as being as little as 1/400 of a grain (0.2 mg) per ounce of syrup. (6 ppm.) The actual amount of cocaine that Coca-Cola contained during the first twenty years of its production is impossible to determine. In 1879 cocaine began to be used to treat morphine addiction. Cocaine was introduced into clinical use as a local anaesthetic in Germany in 1884, about the same time as Sigmund Freud published his work Über Coca, in which he wrote that cocaine causes:

...exhilaration and lasting euphoria, which in no way differs from the normal euphoria of the healthy person...You perceive an increase of self-control and possess more vitality and capacity for work....In other words, you are simply normal, and it is soon hard to believe you are under the influence of any drug....Long intensive physical work is performed without any fatigue...This result is enjoyed without any of the unpleasant after-effects that follow exhilaration brought about by alcohol....Absolutely no craving for the further use of cocaine appears after the first, or even after repeated taking of the drug...

Über CocaIn 1885 the U.S. manufacturer Parke-Davis sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user’s veins with the included needle. The company promised that its cocaine products would “supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and ... render the sufferer insensitive to pain.” By late Victorian era cocaine use had appeared as a vice in literature, for example as the cucaine injected by Arthur Conan Doyle’s fictional Sherlock Holmes. In 1909 Ernest Shackleton took “Forced March” brand cocaine tablets to Antarctica, as did Captain Scott a year later on his ill-fated journey to the south pole.

Prohibition

By the turn of the twentieth century, the addictive properties of cocaine had become clear to many, and the problem of cocaine abuse began to capture public attention in the United States. The dangers of cocaine abuse became part of a moral panic that was tied to the dominant racial and social anxieties of the day. In 1903 the American Journal of Pharmacy stressed that most cocaine abusers were “bohemians, gamblers, high- and low-class prostitutes, night porters, bell boys, burglars, racketeers, pimps, and casual laborers.” In 1914 Dr. Christopher Koch of Pennsylvania’s State Pharmacy Board made the racial innuendo explicit, testifying that, “Most of the attacks upon the white women of the South are the direct result of a cocaine-crazed Negro brain.” Mass media manufactured an epidemic of cocaine use amongst African-Americans in the Southern United States, although there is little evidence that such an epidemic actually took place, to play upon racial prejudices of the era. In the same year, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act banned the nonprescription use of cocaine-containing products, and it was officially outlawed as a narcotic in 1922.

Modern usage

In most Western countries, cocaine, also known as "coke", "stardust", "snow", "white", and "blow", is a popular recreational drug. In the United States, the introduction of "crack" cocaine introduced it to a generally poorer inner-city market. Use of the powder form has stayed relatively constant, experiencing a new height of use during the late 1990s and early 2000s in the USA, and has become much more popular in the last few years in the UK. Cocaine use is prevalent across all socioeconomic strata, including age, demographics, economic, social, political, religious, and livelihood. Cocaine in its various forms comes in second only to cannabis as the most popular illegal recreational drug in the United States, and is number one in street value sold each year. The estimated U.S. cocaine market exceeded $35 billion in street value for the year 2003, exceeding revenues by corporations such as AT&T and Starbucks. There is a tremendous demand for cocaine in the U.S. market, particularly among those who are making incomes affording luxury spending, such as single adults and various professionals. Cocaine’s status as a club drug shows its immense popularity among the “party crowd”. Cocaine’s high revenues may be due to the drug’s psychologically addictive nature, which makes the cessation of use quite difficult when compared to less addictive drugs such as marijuana. It has become much more popular as a middle class drug in the United Kingdom in recent years.

Pharmacology

Appearance

United Kingdom Cocaine in its purest form is an off-white or pink chunky product. Cocaine appearing in powder form is a salt, typically cocaine hydrochloride (CAS 53-21-4). Cocaine is frequently adulterated or “cut” with various powdery fillers to increase its volume; the substances most commonly used in this process are baking soda, sugars, such as lactose, inositol, and mannitol, and local anesthetics, such as lidocaine. Adulterated cocaine is often a white or off-white powder. The color of “crack” cocaine depends upon several factors including the origin of the cocaine used, the method of preparation — with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate, and the presence of impurities, but will generally range from a light brown to a pale brown. Its texture will also depend on the factors which affect color, but will range from a crumbly texture, which is usually the lighter variety, to hard, almost crystalline nature, which is usually the darker variety.

Forms of cocaine

Cocaine sulfate

Cocaine sulfate is produced by macerating coca leaves along with water that has been acidulated with sulfuric acid. This is often accomplished by putting the ingredients into a vat and stamping on it, in a manner not dissimilar to the traditional method for crushing grapes. After the cocaine is extracted, the water is evaporated to yield a pastey mass of impure cocaine sulfate. The sulfate itself is an intermediate step to producing cocaine hydrochloride. In South America it is commonly smoked along with tobacco, and is known as pasta, basuco, basa, pitillo, or simply paste.

Freebase

As the name implies, “freebase” is the base form of cocaine, as opposed to the salt form of cocaine hydrochloride. Whereas cocaine hydrochloride is extremely soluble in water, cocaine base is insoluble in water and is therefore not suitable for drinking, snorting or injecting. Cocaine hydrochloride is not well-suited for smoking because the temperature at which it vaporizes is very high, and close to the temperature at which it burns; however, cocaine base vaporizes at a low temperature, which makes it suitable for inhalation. Smoking freebase is preferred by many users because the cocaine is absorbed immediately into blood via the lungs, where it reaches the brain in about five seconds. The rush is much more intense than sniffing the same amount of cocaine nasally, but the effects do not last as long. The peak of the freebase rush is over almost as soon as the user exhales the vapor, but the high typically lasts 5–10 minutes afterwards. What makes freebase a particularly dangerous drug is that users typically don't wait that long for their next hit and will continue to smoke freebase until none is left. These effects are similar to those that can be achieved by injecting or “slamming” cocaine hydrochloride, but without the risks associated with intravenous drug use (although there are other serious risks associated with smoking freebase). Freebase cocaine is produced by first dissolving cocaine hydrochloride in water. Once dissolved in water, cocaine hydrochloride (Coc HCl) disassociates into protonated cocaine ion (CocH⁺) and chloride ion (Cl^-). Any solids that remain in the solution are not cocaine (they are part of the cut) and are removed by filtering. A base, typically ammonia (NH₃), is added to the solution to remove the extra proton from the cocaine. The following net chemical reaction takes place:

NH₃ + CocH⁺ + Cl^- → NH₄Cl + Coc

As freebase cocaine (Coc) is insoluble in water, it precipitates and the solution becomes cloudy. To recover the freebase, diethyl ether is added to the solution: Since freebase is highly soluble in ether, a vigorous shaking of the mixture results in the freebase being dissolved in the ether. As ether is insoluble in water, it can be siphoned off. The ether is then left to evaporate, leaving behind the nearly pure freebase. This procedure is dangerous because of the hazards of handling diethyl ether: it is extremely flammable, its vapors are heavier than air and can “creep” from an open bottle, and in the presence of oxygen it can form peroxides which can spontaneously combust. Demonstrative of the dangers of the practice, the famous comedian Richard Pryor used to perform a well known skit in which he pokes fun at himself during a 1980 incident in which he caused an explosion and set himself on fire while attempting to smoke “freebase”, presumably still wet with ether.

Crack cocaine

Richard Pryor Because of the dangers of using ether to produce pure freebase cocaine, cocaine producers began to omit the step of removing the freebase cocaine precipitate from the ammonia mixture. Typically, filtration processes are also omitted. The end result of this process is that the cut, in addition to the ammonium salt (NH₄Cl), remains in the freebase cocaine after the mixture is evaporated. The “rock” which is thus formed also contains a small amount of water. When the rock is heated this water boils, making a crackling sound (hence the name “crack”). Baking soda is now most often used as a base rather than ammonia for reasons of lowered stench and toxicity; however, any weak base can be used to make crack cocaine. Strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide, tend to hydrolyze some of the cocaine into useless ecgonine. The net reaction when using baking soda (also called sodium bicarbonate, with a chemical formula of NaHCO₃) is:

CocH⁺ + Cl^- + NaHCO₃ → Coc + H₂O + CO₂ + NaCl

Crack is unique because it offers a strong cocaine experience in small, low-priced packages. In the United States, crack cocaine is often sold in small, inexpensive dosage units frequently known as “nickels” or “nickel rocks” (referring to the price of $5.00), and also “dimes” or “dime rocks” ($10.00) and sometimes as “twenties” or “solids”, and “forties”. The quantity provided by such a purchase varies depending upon many factors, such as local availability, which is affected by geographic location. A twenty may yield a quarter gram or half gram on average, yielding 30 minutes to an hour of effect if hits are taken every few minutes. After the $20 or $40 mark, crack and powder cocaine are sold in grams or fractions of ounces. Many inner-city addicts with a regular dealer will “work a corner”, taking money from anyone who wants crack, making a buy from the dealer, then delivering part of the product while keeping some for themselves. Although consisting of the same active drug as powder cocaine, crack cocaine in the United States is seen as a drug primarily by and for the inner city poor (the stereotypical "crack head" is a poor, urban, usually homeless person of color). While insufflated powder cocaine has an associated glamour attributed to its popularity among mostly middle and upper class whites (as well as musicians and entertainers), crack is perceived as a skid row drug of squalor and desperation. In many jurisdictions in the US, possession or sale of crack cocaine carries a harsher penalty than an equivalent amount of powder cocaine. Street names for crack include “Devil’s dandruff”, “Devilsmoke”, “Devil drug”, "Devil's Candy", “hard”, “dope”, “work”, “smoke”, “yoda”, “yayo”, “yay”, “bones”, “yola”, "candy", “matter”, "boy", and “food”; but most commonly, it is simply called “rock”. Crack cocaine was extremely popular in the mid- and late 1980s, especially in inner cities, although its popularity declined through the 1990s. In 1998, Gary Webb's book Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion linked the “crack explosion” to the CIA funding of the anti-communism Contras fighting against sandinistas in Nicaragua.

Methods of administration

Chewed/eaten

The simplest way to administer cocaine is to chew on the leaves of the plant. Physical restrictions mean when taken this way, only small amounts of cocaine make it into the bloodstream and the effect is that of a mild stimulant. Mate de coca or coca-leaf tea is also a traditional method of consumption and is often recommended to treat altitude sickness. In 1986 an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association revealed that health food stores were selling coca-leaf tea as “Health Inca Tea”. While the packaging claimed it had been “decocainized”, no such process had taken place—they were selling a controlled substance off the shelves. The article stated that drinking two cups of the tea per day gave a mild stimulation, increased heart rate, and mood elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless. Despite this, the DEA seized several shipments in Hawaii, Chicago, Illinois, Georgia, and several locations on the East Coast of the United States, and the product was removed from the shelves.

Insufflation

Insufflation (known colloquially as “snorting” or “sniffing”) is the most common method of ingestion of recreational powder cocaine in the Western world. Contrary to widespread belief, cocaine is not actually inhaled using this method; rather the drug coats and is absorbed through the mucous membranes lining the sinuses. When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 80%. Any material not directly absorbed through the mucous membranes is collected in mucous and swallowed. Chronic use results in ongoing rhinitis and necrosis of the nasal membranes. Cellulose granulomas from adulterants have also been found in the lungs of recreational “sniffers”. Prior to insufflation cocaine powder must be divided into very fine particles. Cocaine of high purity breaks into smallest dust very easily, except when it's moist(not well stored) and forms “chunks”, which reduce the efficiency of nasal absorption. Rolled up paper currency, hollowed-out pens and cut straws are often used to insufflate cocaine. Such devices are often referred to as 'tooters' by users. The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface (such as a mirror) and divided into "lines" (usually with a razor blade or credit card) which are then insufflated. The amount of cocaine in a line varies widely from person to person and occassion to occassion (the purity of the cocaine is also a factor), but one line is generally considered to be a single dose.

Injected

The intravenous route of administration provides the highest blood levels of drug in the shortest time. It can get to the brain within 15 seconds. Injection of cocaine produces an exhilarating rush so intense that often the user may vomit uncontrollably, although the euphoria passes quickly as the liver rapidly metabolizes the drug. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also danger of circulatory emboli from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. Obviously, there is also a risk of serious infection associated with the use of contaminated needles. An injected mixture of cocaine and heroin, known as “speedball” or “moonrock”, is a particularly popular and dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, particularly in and around Los Angeles, including celebrities such as John Belushi and Chris Farley. Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15262059&query_hl=21] to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction.

Smoked

(see also: Crack cocaine above) Smoking freebase or crack cocaine is most often accomplished using a pipe made from a small glass tube about one quarter-inch (about 6 mm) in diameter and up to several inches long. These are sometimes called “straight shooters”; readily available in convenience stores or smoke shops. They will sometimes contain a small paper flower and are promoted as a romantic gift. Buyers usually ask for a “rose” or a “flower”. An alternate method is to use a small length of a radio antenna or similar metal tube. To avoid burning the user’s fingers and lips on the metal pipe, a small piece of paper or cardboard (such as a piece torn from a matchbook cover) is wrapped around one end of the pipe and held in place with either a rubber band or a piece of adhesive tape. A small piece of steel or copper scouring pad—often called a “brillo” or “chore”, from the scouring pads of the same name—is placed into one end of the tube after having the soapy cleanser coating burned off the metal. It then serves as a crude filter in which the “rock” can melt and boil to vapor. The “rock” is placed at the end of the pipe closest to the filter and the other end of the pipe is placed in the mouth. A flame from a cigarette lighter or handheld torch is then held under the rock. As the rock is heated, it melts and burns away to vapor which the user inhales as smoke. The effects are felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense, and do not last long — usually five to fifteen minutes. Most users will want more after this time, especially frequent users. “Crack houses” depend on these cravings by providing users a place to smoke, and a ready supply of small bags for sale. A heavily used crackpipe tends to fracture at the end from overheating with the flame used to heat the crack as the user obsessively attempts to inhale every bit of the drug on the metal wool filter. The end is often broken further as the user “pushes” the pipe. “Pushing” is a technique used to partially recover crack which hardens on the inside wall of the pipe as the pipe cools. The user pushes the metal wool filter through the pipe from one end to the other to collect the build-up inside the pipe. The ends of the pipe can be broken by the object used to push the filter, frequently a small screwdriver or stiff piece of wire. The user will often remove the most jagged edges and continue using the pipe until it becomes so short that it burns the lips and fingers. To continue using the pipe, the user will sometimes wrap a small piece of paper or cardboard around one end and hold it in place with a rubber band or adhesive tape. Of course, not all people who smoke crack cocaine will let it get that short, and will get a new or different pipe. The tell-tale signs of a used crack pipe are a glass tube with burn marks at one or both ends and a clump of metal wool inside. When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as cannabis; often rolled into a joint or blunt. This combination is known as “primo”, “hype”, B-151er or a “woo”. Crack smokers who are being drug tested may also make their “primo” with cigarette tobacco instead of cannabis, since a crack smoker can test clean within 2 to 3 days of use, if only urine (and not hair) is being tested.

Mechanism of action

Cocaine is a potent blocker of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and a less potent blocker of the norepinephrine transporter (NET) and serotonin transporter (SERT). Cocaine also blocks sodium channels, thereby interfering with the propagation of action potentials; thus, like lidocaine and novocaine, it acts as a local anesthetic. The locomotor enhancing properties of cocaine may be attributable to its enhancement of dopaminergic transmission from the substantia nigra. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12865893&query_hl=16] and clock genes [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15967985&query_hl=18] in behavioral actions of cocaine. After cocaine is introduced to the body it travels to reward areas of the brain: the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the nucleus accumbens and the prefrontal cortex. These areas are saturated with dopamine synapses. Normally, after dopamine is released in the synaptic cleft, it binds to the dopamine receptors; reuptake sites (protein transported structures) will utilize the rest of the neurotransmitter (dopamine). In the presence of cocaine the normal process of reuptaking is breached. Cocaine binds to the uptake sites, which leaves a higher concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft. The higher activation of dopamine receptors in the post-synaptic cell causes various intracellular changes, which ultimately lead to changes in firing patterns. Since nicotine increases the levels of dopamine in the brain, many cocaine users find that consumption of tobacco products during cocaine use enhances the euphoria. This, however, may have undesirable consequences, such as uncontrollable chain smoking during cocaine use (even users who don't normally smoke cigarettes have been known to chain smoke when using cocaine), in addition to the detrimental health effects and the additional strain on the cardiovascular system caused by tobacco.

Metabolism and excretion

Cocaine is extensively metabolized, primarily in the liver, with only about 1% excreted unchanged in the urine. It is mostly eliminated as benzoylecgonine, the major metabolite of cocaine, and is also excreted in lesser amounts as ecgonine methyl ester and ecgonine. If taken with alcohol, cocaine combines with the ethanol in the liver to form cocaethylene, which is both more euphorigenic and has higher cardiovascular toxicity than cocaine by itself. Cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine for up to four days after cocaine is used. Benzoylecgonine can be detected in urine within four hours after cocaine inhalation and remains detectable in concentrations greater than 1000 ng/ml for as long as 48 hours. Detection in hair is possible in regular users until the sections of hair grown during use are cut or fall out.

Effects and health issues

Cocaine is a potent central nervous system stimulant. Its effects can last from 20 minutes to several hours, depending upon the dosage of cocaine taken and its purity. The initial signs of stimulation are hyperactivity, restlessness, increased blood pressure, increased heart rate and euphoria. The euphoria is sometimes followed by feelings of discomfort and depression and a craving to re-experience the drug. Side effects can include twitching and paranoia, which usually increase with frequent usage. With excessive dosage the drug can produce hallucinations, paranoid delusions, tachycardia, itching, and delusional parasitosis . Overdose causes tachyarrhythmias and a marked elevation of blood pressure. These can be life threatening, especially if the user has existing cardiac problems. Cocaine consumed by “snorting” very rarely causes overdose. Cocaine raises the amount of dopamine and serotonin in the nucleus accumbens; the "crash" experienced after the initial high is marked by an undershooting of normal levels afterwards. This is because neurons run out of dopamine and serotonin neurotransmittors. Receptors disappear as a response mechanism to too much neurotransmitter. This contributes to the rise in an abuser's tolerance thus requiring a larger dosage to achieve the same effect. The lack of normal amounts of serotonin and dopamine in the brain is the cause of the dysphoria and depression felt after the initial high. The diagnostic criteria for cocaine withdrawal is characterized by a dysphoric mood, fatigue, unpleasant dreams, insomnia or hypersomnia, increased appetite, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and anxiety. The LD₅₀ of Cocaine when administered to mice is 95.1 mg/kg. Toxicity results in seizures, followed by respiratory and circulatory depression of medullar origin. This may lead to death from respiratory failure, stroke, cerebral hemorrhage, or heart-failure. Cocaine is also highly pyrogenic, because the stimulation and increased muscular activity cause greater heat production. Heat loss is inhibited by the intense vasoconstriction. Cocaine-induced hyperthermia may cause muscle cell destruction and myoglobinuria resulting in renal failure. There is no specific antidote for cocaine overdose. Cocaine abuse is associated with a lifetime risk of heart attack that is seven times that of non-users. During the hour after cocaine is used, heart attack risk rises 24-fold. It accounts for 25% of the heart attacks in the 18–45 year-old age group. Side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include chest pain, lung trauma, shortness of breath, sore throat, hoarse voice, dyspnea, and an aching, flu-like syndrome. A common misconception is that the smoking of cocaine breaks down tooth enamel and causes tooth decay. Although this is not true, the lifestyle of frequent cocaine users may include poor dental hygiene, which often results in tooth decay. In addition, cocaine often causes involuntary tooth grinding, known as bruxism, which can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to gingivitis. Chronic intranasal usage can degrade the cartilage separating the nostrils (the Septum nasi), leading eventually to its complete disappearance.

Cocaine as a local anesthetic

Cocaine was historically useful as a topical anesthetic in eye and nasal surgery. The major disadvantages of this use are cocaine's intense vasoconstrictor activity and potential for cardiovascular toxicity. Cocaine has since been replaced in Western medicine by synthetic local anaesthetics such as benzocaine, proparacaine, and tetracaine. If vasoconstriction is desired for a procedure (as it reduces bleeding), the anesthetic is combined with a vasoconstrictor such as phenylephrine or epinephrine. In Australia it is currently prescribed for use as a local anesthetic for conditions such as mouth and lung ulcers. Some Australian ENT specialists occasionally use cocaine within the practice when peforming procedures such as nasal cauterization. In this scenario dissolved cocaine is soaked into a ball of cotton wool, which is placed in the nostril for the 10-15 minutes immediately prior to the procedure, thus performing the dual role of both numbing the area to be cauterized and also vasoconstriction.

Cocaine addiction

Cocaine addiction is the obsessive or uncontrollable abuse of cocaine. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) shows promising results. Spiritual based Twelve-step programs such as Cocaine Anonymous (modeled on Alcoholics Anonymous) have some success combatting this problem. A cocaine vaccine is also being tested which may prevent the recipient from feeling the desirable effects of the drug, although a similar effort to develop a heroin vaccine was abandoned as ineffective in the 1970s. Cocaine has positive reinforcement effects, which refers to the effect that certain stimuli have on behavior. Good feelings become associated with the drug, causing a frequent user to take the drug as a response to bad news or mild depression. This activation strengthens the response that was just made. If the drug was taken by a fast acting route such as injection or inhalation, the response will be the act of taking more cocaine, so the response will be reinforced. Powder cocaine, being a club drug is most commonly available in the evening and night hours. Since cocaine is a stimulant, a user will often drink large amounts of alcohol during and after usage in order to sleep. These several hours of temporary relief and pleasure will further reinforce the positive response. Other downers such as heroin and various pharmaceuticals are often used for the same purpose, further increasing addiction potential and harmfulness. It is speculated that cocaine's addictive properties stem from its DAT-blocking effects (in particular, increasing the dopaminergic transmission from ventral tegmental area neurons). However, a study has shown that mice with no dopamine transporters still exhibit the rewarding effects of cocaine administration [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/13/7699]. Later work demonstrated that a combined DAT/SERT knockout eliminated the rewarding effects [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/9/5300]. The rewarding effects of cocaine are influenced by circadian rhythms [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=23], possibly by involving a set of genes termed "clock genes" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16094306&query_hl=18].

Treatment

GVG

ventral tegmental area Studies have shown that gamma vinyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid (gamma vinyl-GABA, or GVG), a drug normally used to treat epilepsy, blocks cocaine's action in the brains of primates. GVG increases the amount of the neurotransmitter GABA in the brain and reduces the level of dopamine in the region of the brain which is thought to be involved in addiction. In January 2005 the US Food and Drug Administration gave permission for a Phase I clinical trial of GVG for the treatment of addiction. Another drug currently tested for anti-addictive properties is the cannabinoid antagonist rimonabant.

GBR 12909

GBR 12909 (Vanoxerine) is a selective dopamine uptake inhibitor. Because of this, it reduces cocaine's effect on the brain, and may help to treat cocaine addiction. Studies have shown that GBR, when given to primates, suppresses cocaine self-administration.

Venlafaxine

Venlafaxine (Effexor), although not a dopamine re-uptake inhibitor, is a potent serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor which has been successfully used to combat the depression caused by cocaine and to a lesser extent, the addiction associated with the drug itself. Venlafaxine has been shown to have significant withdrawal problems itself, and can lead to lifetime use due to these withdrawal effects. A statistically significant number of people prescribed Effexor have committed suicide (2 attempts per 1000 patients, vs 156 suicides per 1000 untreated depressives).

Legal status

The production, the distribution and the sales of cocaine products are restricted (and illegal in most contexts) in most countries.

Africa

- In Nigeria, it is a crime to be seen with cocaine.
- In South Africa, it is a crime to have cocaine in your posession.

Asia

- In Pakistan, use and possession of cocaine is illegal.
- In Singapore, possession of more than 15 grams of cocaine results in a mandatory death sentence.

Middle east

- Saudi Arabia, use and possession of cocaine is punishable by death.

Australia & Oceania

- Australia: Cocaine is a Schedule 8 (controlled) drug permitting some medical use, but is otherwise outlawed.
- New Zealand: Cocaine is a Class A drug. The coca leaf and preparations of cocaine containing no more than 0.1% cocaine base, in such a way that the cocaine cannot be recovered, are both classified as Class C

Europe

- The United Kingdom: Cocaine is a Class A drug, controlled by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. However some medical use is permitted

North America

- Canada: Cocaine is a Schedule I drug.
- The United States of America: Cocaine is classified as a Schedule II stimulant.

South America

- Peru and Bolivia: Limited cultivation of coca is legal in Peru and Bolivia, where chewing the leaves and drinking coca tea are considered cultural practices, in particular in the mountaineous regions. Processed cocaine is illegal.

Usage

In the United States

Overall usage

The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) reported in 1999 that cocaine was used by 3.7 million Americans, or 1.7 percent of the household population aged 12 and over. Estimates of the current number of those who use cocaine regularly (at least once per month) vary, but 1.5 million is a widely accepted figure within the research community. Although cocaine use had not significantly changed over the six years prior to 1999, the number of first-time users went from 574,000 in 1991, to 934,000 in 1998 — an increase of 63%. While these numbers indicated that cocaine is still widely present in the United States, cocaine use was significantly less prevalent than it was during the early 1980s. Cocaine use peaked in 1982 when 10.4 million Americans (5.6 percent of the population) reportedly used the drug.

Usage among youth

The 1999 Monitoring the Future (MTF) survey found the proportion of American students reporting use of powder cocaine rose during the 1990s. In 1991, 2.3 percent of eighth-graders stated that they had used cocaine in their lifetime. This figure rose to 4.7 percent in 1999. For the older grades, increases began in 1992 and continued through the beginning of 1999. Between those years, lifetime use of cocaine went from 3.3 percent to 7.7 percent for tenth-graders and from 6.1 percent to 9.8 percent for twelfth-graders. Lifetime use of crack cocaine, according to MTF, also increased among eighth-, tenth-, and twelfth-graders, from an average of 2 percent in 1991 to 3.9 percent in 1999. Perceived risk and disapproval of cocaine and crack use both decreased during the 1990s at all three grade levels. The 1999 NHSDA found the highest rate of monthly cocaine use was for those aged 18–25 at 1.7 percent, an increase from 1.2 percent in 1997. Rates declined between 1996 and 1998 for ages 26–34, while rates slightly increased for the 12–17 and 35+ age groups. Studies also show people are experimenting with cocaine at younger ages. NHSDA found a steady decline in the mean age of first use from 23.6 years in 1992 to 20.6 years in 1998.

Availability

Cocaine is readily available in all major U.S. metropolitan areas. According to the Summer 1998 Pulse Check, published by the U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy, cocaine use had stabilized across the country, with a few increases reported in San Diego, Bridgeport, Miami, and Boston. In the West, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be because some users were switching to methamphetamine, which was cheaper and provides a longer-lasting high. Numbers of cocaine users are still very large, with a concentration among city-dwelling youth.

Sources

In 1999, Colombia was the world's leading producer of cocaine. Three-quarters of the world's annual yield of cocaine was produced there, both from cocaine base imported from Peru and Bolivia, and from locally grown coca. There was a 28 percent increase in the amount of potentially harvestable coca plants in Colombia in 1998. This, combined with crop reductions in Bolivia and Peru, made Colombia the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation. Attempts to eradicate coca fields through the use of defoliants have devastated the farming economy of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are immune to their use. Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. The combination of the destruction of non-drug farms and the spread of new strains of the coca plant have made the cultivation of coca an even more attractive, and in some cases necessary, economic decision.

Distribution

Cocaine shipments from South America transported through Mexico or Central America are generally moved over land or by air to staging sites in northern Mexico. The cocaine is then broken down into smaller loads for smuggling across the U.S.–Mexico border. The primary cocaine importation points in the United States are in Arizona, southern California, southern Florida, and Texas. Typically, land vehicles are driven across the U.S.-Mexico border. Cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as “mules” (or “burros”), who enter the United States either legally through ports of entry or illegally through undesignated points along the border. Colombian traffickers have also started using a new concealment method whereby they add chemical compounds to cocaine hydrochloride to produce “black cocaine”. The cocaine in this substance is not detected by standard chemical tests or drug-sniffing canines. Cocaine traffickers from Colombia, and recently Mexico, have also established a labyrinth of smuggling routes throughout the Caribbean, the Bahama Island chain, and South Florida. They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the Dominican Republic to transport the drug. The traffickers use a variety of smuggling techniques to transfer their drug to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of 500–700 kg in the Bahama Islands or off the coast of Puerto Rico, mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500–2,000 kg, and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami. Bulk cargo ships are also used to smuggle cocaine to staging sites in the western Caribbean–Gulf of Mexico area. These vessels are typically 150–250 foot (50–80 m) coastal freighters that carry an average cocaine load of approximately 2.5 tonnes. Commercial fishing vessels are also used for smuggling operations. In areas with a high volume of recreational traffic, smugglers use the same types of vessels, such as go-fast boats, as those used by the local populations.

Works concerning cocaine

Books about cocaine

- Cocaine: an unauthorized biography by Dominic Streatfeild
- Novel, With Cocaine, by M. Ageyev
- Über Coca by Sigmund Freud
- The Triumph of Surgery by Jürgen Thorwald - Ch. 6 - The second battle against Pain (The early use of cocaine solution in eye surgery)
- More, Now, Again by Elizabeth Wurtzel
- Snowblind by Robert Sabbag
- Celerino III Castillo & Dave Harmon (1994). Powderburns: Cocaine, Contras & the Drug War, Sundial. ISBN 0889625786 (paperback) ISBN 0809548550 (hardcover; Borgo Pr; 3rd ed.; 1995).
- Alexander Cockburn & Jeffrey St. Clair (1999). Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press, Verso. ISBN 1859841392 (cloth), ISBN 1859842585 (paperback). Cites 116 books.
- Frederick P. Hitz (1999). Obscuring Propriety: The CIA and Drugs, International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 12(4): 448-462 DOI:10.1080/088506099304990
- Robert Parry (1999). Lost History: Contras, Cocaine, the Press & “Project Truth”, Media Consortium. ISBN 1893517004.
- Richard Smart (Hard Cover 1985). The Snow Papers The Atlantic Monthly Press ISBN 0-87113-030-0
- Peter Dale Scott & Jonathan Marshall (1991). Cocaine Politics: Drugs, Armies, and the CIA in Central America, University of California Press. ISBN 0520214498 (paperback, 1998 reprint), ISBN 0520073126 (hardcover, 1991), ISBN 0520077814 (paperback, 1992 reprint).
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J.J. Cale

J.J. Cale (born December 5, 1938) is an American songwriter and musician, best known for writing two songs that Eric Clapton made famous, "After Midnight" and "Cocaine" as well as many songs recorded by other artists. Cale has a reputation for being reclusive and for intentionally avoiding the spotlight, although he has a diehard following and many admirers in the music industry. He is one of many artists that play the Tulsa Sound. He was born John W. Cale in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma in 1938. Some sources incorrectly give his real name as "Jean Jacques Cale".

Partial discography

- To Tulsa and Back (2004)
- Anyway the Wind Blows (1997)
- Guitar Man (1996)
- Closer To You (1994)
- Number 10 (1992)
- Travel Log (1990)
- Number 8 (1983)
- Grasshopper (1982)
- Shades (1981)
- 5 (1979)
- Troubadour (1976)
- Okie (1974)
- Really (1973)
- Naturally (1972)

Cover songs

Songs by Cale have been covered by the following artists:
- Brad Absher: "The Sensitive Kind"
- The Allman Brothers Band: "Call Me The Breeze"
- Chet Atkins: "After Midnight"
- The Band: "Crazy Mama"
- The Barcodes: "Don't Go To Strangers"
- Bob Wilber Quintet: "After Midnight"
- Clarence Gatemouth Brown: "Don't Cry Sister"
- Captain Beefheart: "Same Old Blues"
- Larry Carlton: "Crazy Mama"
- Johnny Cash: "Call Me The Breeze"
- Eric Clapton: "After Midnight", "Cocaine" (on Slowhand), "I'll Make Love To You Anytime", "Travelin' Light", "Tulsa Time"
- David Allen Coe: "Call Me The Breeze"
- Randy Crawford: "Cajun Moon"
- Daddy's Favorite: "Let Me Do It To You"
- Deep Purple: "Magnolia"
- Dr. Feelgood: "No Time"
- Dr. Hook: "Call Me The Breeze"
- Jose Feliciano: "Magnolia"
- Bryan Ferry: "Same Old Blues"
- Waylon Jennings: "Call Me The Breeze"
- Kansas: "Bringing It Back"
- Freddie King: "Same Old Blues"
- Lynyrd Skynyrd: "Bringing It Back", "Call Me The Breeze", "Same Old Blues"
- John Mayall: "The Sensitive Kind"
- Sergio Mendes: "After Midnight"
- Maria Muldaur: "Cajun Moon"
- Nazareth: "Cocaine"
- Brother Phelps: "Anyway The Wind Blows"
- Poco: "Cajun Moon", "Magnolia"
- Toni Prince: "Like You Used To"
- Redbone: "Crazy Mama"
- Johnny Rivers: "Crazy Mama", "Don't Go To Strangers"
- Santana: "The Sensitive Kind"
- Merl Saunders with Jerry Garcia: "After Midnight"
- Seldom Scene: "After Midnight"
- Chris Smither: "Magnolia"
- Spiritualized: "Call Me The Breeze"
- Pat Travers: "Magnolia"
- Widespread Panic: "Ride Me High" (on "Live in the Classic City"), "Travelin' Light"
- Bill Wyman and The Rhythm Kings: "Anyway The Wind Blows"

External links

- [http://www.jjcale.com/ Official website]
- VH1: [http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/cale_j_j_/bio.jhtml Biography]
- NPR: [http://www.npr.org/display_pages/features/feature_1924087.html June 2004 story] Cale, J.J. Cale, J.J. Cale, J.J. Cale, J.J.

Eric Clapton

Eric Patrick “Slowhand” Clapton CBE (born 30 March, 1945) is a Grammy Award winning British composer, singer and guitarist who became one of the most respected and influential artists of the rock era, garnering an unprecedented three inductions into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Clapton is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential guitarists in popular music history. Clapton's musical style has undergone multiple changes during his career, but has always remained rooted in the blues. Clapton is credited as an innovator in several phases of his career, which have included blues-rock (with John Mayall's Bluesbreakers and The Yardbirds), blues-hard rock (with Cream), and work as a sideman and a solo artist.

Musical Career & Personal Life

Clapton's Early Years

“Slowhand”, as he is nicknamed, was born in The Green, Ripley, Surrey, England, UK, as the illegitimate son of 16 year old Patricia Molly Clapton and Edward Walter Fryer - a 24 year old Canadian pilot. Fryer returned to his wife in Canada before Clapton was born. Young Clapton grew up with his grandparents, believing they were his parents, and that his mother was his older sister. Years later his mother married another Canadian soldier, moved to Canada and left Eric with his grandparents. When Clapton was 9 years old he discovered this family secret, and the experience became a defining moment in his life. His first job was as a postman Clapton grew up a self-confessed "nasty kid". In his high school years he attended the Hollyfield School in Surbiton. He then studied stained-glass design at Kingston Art School and started teaching himself how to play the guitar at age 15. Influenced by the blues from an early age, he joined his first band at 17, and stayed with this band - the early British R&B outfit The Roosters - from January to August 1963. During his time with the band, Clapton frequently jammed in London clubs with future members of the Rolling Stones. Clapton did a seven-gig stint with Casey Jones and the Engineers, a Top 40 band, in September 1963.

The Yardbirds & John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers

Clapton joined The Yardbirds, a blues-influenced rock and roll band in 1963 and stayed with them until 1965. Synthesising influences from Chicago blues and leading blues guitarists such as B.B. King and Freddie King, Clapton forged a distinctive style and rapidly became one of the most talked-about guitarists in the British music scene. The band initially played all strict blues covers of Chess/Checker/Vee-Jay material and began to attract a large cult following when they took over the Rolling Stones' residency at the Crawdaddy club in Richmond. They soon toured Europe with American bluesman Sonny Boy Williamson; a joint LP under both their names was issued in 1966. In August 1965, the band's first solo album For Your Love yielded the eponymous pop hit "For Your Love." For Your Love Still obstinately dedicated to his roots in blues, Clapton took strong exception to the Yardbirds' new pop-orientated direction, partly because "For Your Love" had been written by pop songwriter-for-hire Graham Gouldman, who had also written hits for teen pop outfit Herman's Hermits and harmony pop band The Hollies. He reportedly refused to play on the single and quit the band as soon as it had been recorded in 1965. He recommended his friend Jimmy Page as his replacement, but Page was at that time unwilling to relinquish his lucrative career as a freelance studio musician, and Page in turn recommended Clapton's successor, Jeff Beck, although Page would also eventually join the band. After a spell working in a laboring job and months of intensive practice, Clapton joined John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. His emotional playing on their hugely influential first album (which features Clapton reading a copy of the Beano on the cover) established his name as a blues player par excellence, and it inspired a short-lived craze of graffiti that deified him with the famous slogan "Clapton is God".

Cream

Clapton left the Bluesbreakers in mid-1966 (to be replaced by Peter Green ) and then formed Cream, one of the earliest examples of a supergroup. Cream was also one of the earliest "power trios", with Jack Bruce (also of Bluesbreakers and Manfred Mann) and Ginger Baker (of the Graham Bond Organisation). During his time with Cream he began to develop as a singer as well as guitarist, though Bruce, one of rock's most powerful singers, took most of the lead vocals and wrote most of their songs along with lyricist Pete Brown. Debuting at the Windsor Jazz and Blues Festival, Cream established an enduring legend on the high-volume blues jamming and extended solos of its live shows but its studio work was more sophisticated original rock. In early 1967, Clapton's status as Britain's top guitarist was shaken by the arrival of Jimi Hendrix. Hendrix attended a performance by Clapton's newly formed Cream at the Central London Polytechnic on October 1, 1966, during which Hendrix sat in on a shattering double-timed version of Killing Floor. Clapton immediately realized that he had a new and almost unbeatable competitor, whose dazzling showmanship was matched by his staggering ability as a guitarist. Hendrix's early club performances were avidly attended by top UK stars including Clapton, Pete Townshend and The Beatles. Hendrix's arrival had an immediate and major effect on the next phase of Clapton's career. Cream's repertoire varied from pop soul ("I Feel Free") to lengthy blues-based instrumental jams ("Spoonful") and featured Clapton's searing psychedelic guitar lines, Bruce's soaring vocals and prominent, fluid bass playing, and Baker's powerful, polyrhythmic jazz-influenced drumming. In a mere three years Cream had immense commercial success and sold 15 million records and played to SRO crowds throughout the U.S. and Europe. They redefined the instrumentalist's role in rock and were one the first bands to emphasize virtuosity, skill and flash. Their U.S. hit singles include "Sunshine Of Your Love" (#5, 1968) from the Disraeli Gears album, "White Room" (#6, 1968) and "Crossroads" (#28,1969) which was a live version cover of Robert Johnson's country blues "Crossroads", both those songs from Wheels of Fire album. The lurid psychedelic covers of both these albums were created by Australian artist Martin Sharp, who lived in the same building as Clapton at the time of the Chelsea artists colony The Pheasantry. At their first meeting in a London club, Clapton mentioned that he had some music that needed lyrics, so Sharp wrote out a poem he had composed on a napkin and gave it to Clapton, who recorded it as Tales Of Brave Ulysses. The Pheasantry]] Although Cream was hailed as one of the greatest groups of its day, and the adulation of Clapton as guitar hero reached new heights, the band was destined to be shortlived. The legendary in-fighting; especially between Bruce and Baker; and growing tensions between all three members eventually led to Cream's demise. Another significant factor was a strongly critical Rolling Stone review of a concert of the group's second headlining U.S. tour, which affected Clapton profoundly. By this time he had also deeply fallen under the spell of the music of The Band after they had released the album Music From Big Pink and began to believe that rock music was heading in a new direction. He was so infatuated with them that he even asked to join them but Clapton was turned down. The valedictory Goodbye album featured live performances from Cream's farewell performance at the Royal Albert Hall; it was released shortly after Cream disbanded in 1968, and also featured the studio single "Badge", co-written by Clapton and his friend, Beatle George Harrison. "Badge" served as the basis for Harrison's later Beatles composition, "Here Comes the Sun", which Harrison reportedly composed in Clapton's back garden. Since their 1968 breakup, Cream briefly reunited in 1993 to perform at the ceremony inducting them into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (Clapton is a three-time inductee, for his work with Cream, the Yardbirds and for his solo career). A full-scale reunion of the legendary trio took place in May 2005, with Clapton, Bruce and Baker playing 4 sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall, scene of their 1968 farewell shows, and 3 more at New York's Madison Square Garden that October. The London shows were released on DVD in September 2005. The close friendship between Clapton and Harrison resulted in Clapton playing on "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" from the Beatles' White Album; a tactic by Harrison to make the other band members take his song seriously during a particularly difficult period in the group's career. But the Clapton-Harrison friendship was later sorely tested when Clapton fell in love with Harrison's wife, model Pattie Boyd-Harrison, and she eventually left him for Clapton. Clapton's love for Pattie, who had turned him down at first, was his inspiration for the album Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs and most notably the hit single "Layla". He got the concept from the Persian classical poet Nizami Ganjavi's masterpiece "The Story of Layla and Majnun," a copy of which a friend had given him; Clapton found a strong similarity between the situation of Layla and Majnun and the one between him and Pattie. After Clapton got married to Pattie in 1979 (she divorced Harrison in 1977), he wrote another famous song, "Wonderful Tonight." (Clapton and Pattie eventually divorced in 1988.)

Blind Faith & Delaney and Bonnie and Friends

A desultory spell in a second supergroup, the overhyped and shortlived Blind Faith (1969), which was composed of Baker (who had been in Cream with Clapton), Steve Winwood of Traffic and Rick Grech of Family, resulted in one patchy LP and one arena-circuit tour. The supergroup debuted before 100,000 fans in London's Hyde Park on June 7, 1969, and began a sold-out American tour in July before its one and only album had been released. The LP was recorded in such haste that side two consisted of just two songs, one of them a 15 minute jam entitled "Do What You Like." Nevertheless, Blind Faith did include two classics: Winwood's "Can't Find My Way Home" and Clapton's "Presence of the Lord." Its jacket featured a prepubescent nude girl and was deemed controversial in the U.S. and was replaced by a photograph of the band. Winwood went on to a highly successful solo career but by now Clapton was tired of the spotlight, and the hype that had surrounded Cream and Blind Faith, and wanted to make music that more closely resembles that of The Band. Clapton decided to step into the background for a time, and he toured as a sideman with the American group Delaney and Bonnie and Friends. He moved to New York in late 1969 and worked with the band through early 1970. He became close friends with Delaney Bramlett, who encouraged him in his singing and writing which would show determined growth in his next effort. Using the Bramletts' backing group and an all-star cast of session players including Leon Russell and Stephen Stills whose solo albums Clapton played on, he then released his first solo album in 1970 fittingly named Eric Clapton, which included the Bramlett composition "Bottle Of Red Wine," and one of Clapton's best songs from this period, "Let It Rain". It also yielded an unexpected U.S. #18 hit, the J.J. Cale song "After Midnight."

Derek & the Dominos

Taking over Delaney & Bonnie's rhythm section — Bobby Whitlock (keyboards, vocals), Carl Radle (bass) and Jim Gordon (drums) — Clapton formed a new band which was similarly intended to counteract the 'star' cult that had grown up around him and show Clapton as an equal member of a fully-fledged group. This was made evident in the choice of name Derek and the Dominos; which derived from an announcer's mispronunciation of the group's provisional name -- Eric & The Dynamos -- at their first concert appearance. Working at Criteria Studios in Miami with legendary Atlantic Records producer Tom Dowd, the band recorded a brilliant double-album which is now widely regarded as Clapton's masterpiece — Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs. Most of the material, including the title track (which soon became an FM radio staple) was inspired by Clapton's unrequited love for Patti Harrison. The two-part "Layla" was recorded in separate sessions; the opening guitar section was recorded first, and for the second section, laid down several months later, drummer Jim Gordon composed and played the elegiac piano part. Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs The Layla LP was actually recorded by a five-piece version of the group, thanks to the unforeseen inclusion of guitarist Duane Allman of The Allman Brothers Band. A few days into the Layla sessions, Dowd -- who was also producing the Allmans -- invited Clapton to an Allman Brothers outdoor concert in Miami . The two guitarists — who previously knew each other only by reputation — met backstage after the show, and then both bands repaired to the studio to jam (an impromptu session which, happily, was captured on tape). Clapton and Allman 'fell in love' with each other's playing and became instant friends, so Allman was immediately invited to become the fifth member of The Dominos. (These studio jams were eventually released as part of the 3-CD 20th-anniversary edition of the Layla album.) When Allman and Clapton met, The Dominos had already recorded three tracks ("I Looked Away", "Bell Bottom Blues" and "Keep On Growing"); Allman debuted on the fourth cut, "Nobody Knows You When You're Down And Out", and contributed some of his most sublime slide-guitar playing to the remainder of the LP. The album was heavily blues-influenced and featured a winning combination of the twin guitars of Allman and Clapton, with Allman's incendiary slide-guitar a key ingredient of the sound. It showcased some of Clapton's strongest material to date, as well as arguably some of his best guitar playing, with Whitlock also contributing several superb numbers, and his powerful, soul-influenced voice. But tragedy dogged the group throughout its brief career. During the sessions, Clapton was devastated by news of the death of Jimi Hendrix; eight days previously the band had cut a blistering version of Little Wing as a tribute to him which was added to the album. One year later, on the eve of the group's first American tour, Duane Allman was killed in a motorcycle accident. Adding to Clapton's woes, the Layla album received only lukewarm reviews on release. The shattered group undertook a US tour. Despite Clapton's later admission that the tour took place amidst a veritable blizzard of drugs and alcohol, it resulted in the surprisingly strong live double album In Concert. But Derek and the Dominos disintegrated messily in London just as they commenced recording for their second LP. Although Radle worked with Clapton for several more years, the split between Clapton and Whitlock was apparently a bitter one, and they never worked together again. Another tragic footnote to the Dominos story was the fate of drummer Jim Gordon, who was an undiagnosed schizophrenic — some years later, during a psychotic episode, he murdered his mother with a hammer and was confined to a mental institution, where he remains today.

Full Throttle Solo Career

Despite his success, Clapton's personal life was in a mess by 1972. In addition to his (temporarily) unrequited and intense romantic longing for Pattie Boyd-Harrison, he withdrew from recording and touring and became addicted to heroin, resulting in a career hiatus interrupted only by the Concert for Bangladesh (where he passed out on stage,was revived, and continued the show). In 1973 (see 1973 in music), the "Rainbow Concert" was organized by The Who's Pete Townshend to help Clapton kick the drug. Clapton returned the favour by playing 'The Preacher' in Ken Russell's film version of The Who's Tommy in 1975; his appearance in the film (performing "Eyesight To The Blind") is notable for the fact that he is clearly wearing a fake beard in some shots — the result of him unthinkingly shaving off his beard between takes! Relatively clean again, Clapton put together a strong new touring band that included Radle, Miami guitarist George Terry, drummer Jamie Oldaker and vocalists Yvonne Elliman and Marcy Levy (later better known as Marcella Detroit of 1980s pop duo Shakespear's Sister). They toured the world and subsequently released the 1975 live LP, E.C. Was Here. Clapton released 461 Ocean Boulevard (1974), an album with the emphasis on songs rather than musicianship. His cover-version of "I Shot The Sheriff" was a major hit and was important in bringing reggae and the music of Bob Marley to a wider audience. He also championed the work of singer-songwriter-guitarist J.J.Cale. The 1975 album There's One In Every Crowd continued this trend. Its original intended title The World's Greatest Guitar Player (There's One In Every Crowd) was altered, as it was felt the ironic intention would be missed. He continued to release albums sporadically and toured regularly, but much of his output from this period was deliberately low-key and failed to find the wide acceptance of his earlier work.
Bad Luck, Clapton
In 1976, Clapton was the centre of controversy, and accusations of racism, when he spoke out against increasing immigration, during a concert in Birmingham. Clapton said that England had "become overcrowded", and implored the crowd to vote for Enoch Powell to stop Britain becoming "a black colony". These comments (along with equally ill-advised comments by David Bowie) led to the creation of the Rock Against Racism movement in the UK. Despite the damage to his career and reputation the remarks caused, Clapton has always steadfastly refused to distance himself from the remarks and denied there was any contradiction between his political views and his career based on an essentially black musical form. At about this time, his name appeared on albums distributed in Japan as Eric Crapton[http://www.engrish.com/detail.php?imagename=CDCover.jpg&category=Music&date=2002-02-18], though this is most probably a case of Engrish rather than innuendo. The late 1970s saw Clapton struggle to come to terms with the changes in popular music, and a relapse into alcoholism that eventually saw him hospitalised and then spending a period of convalescence in Antigua, where he would later support the creation of a drugs and alcohol rehabilitation centre, The Crossroads Centre. As Clapton came back from his addictions, his album output continued in the 1980s, including two produced with Phil Collins, 1985's Behind the Sun and 1986's August. The latter, a polished, pop-oriented album suffused with Collins' trademark drum/horn sound, became his biggest seller in the UK to date and matched his highest chart position, number 3. The album's first track, the hit "It's In The Way That You Use It," was also featured in the Tom Cruise-Paul Newman movie The Color of Money. But only 1989's Journeyman achieved much critical acclaim, featuring a strong return to his blues roots. Clapton did, however, win much acclaim and a British Academy Television Award for his collaboration with Michael Kamen on the score for the critically-acclaimed 1985 BBC television thriller serial Edge of Darkness. In 1985 Clapton met Yvonne Khan Kelly, with whom he started a relationship. They had a daughter, Ruth, in the same year. Clapton divorced Pattie Boyd in 1988. The early 1990s saw tragedy enter Clapton's life again on two occasions. On August 27, 1990 guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan, who was touring with Clapton, and two members of their road crew were killed in a helicopter crash between concerts. Clapton was originally supposed to be a passenger on the helicopter but gave his seat to Vaughan. Then, on March 20 1991, at 11 a.m., Clapton's four-and-a-half-year-old son Conor (whose mother was Italian model Lori Del Santo) died when he fell from a 53rd-story window in a New York City apartment. He landed on the roof of an adjacent four-story building. A fraction of Clapton's grief was heard on the song "Tears in Heaven" (on the soundtrack to the 1991 movie Rush), co-written with Will Jennings, which, like the MTV Unplugged album that followed it, won a Grammy award.
Slowhand Re-Emerging
MTV Unplugged, 22 January 2005]] Like Unplugged, his 1994 album From The Cradle, featured a number of versions of old blues standards, and highlighted his economical acoustic guitar style. In 1997 he recorded Retail Therapy, an album of electronic music under the pseudonym TDF, and he finished the twentieth century with critically-acclaimed collaborations with Carlos Santana and B. B. King. Clapton's 1996 recording of the Wayne Kirkpatrick/ Gordon Kennedy/Tommy Sims tune "Change the World" won a Grammy award for song of the year in 1997. In 1999 Clapton, then 54, met 25 year old graphic artist Melia McEnery in Los Angeles while working on an album with B.B. King. They married in 2002 at St Mary Magdalen church in Clapton's birthplace, Ripley, and they have three daughters, Julia Rose (2001), Ella May (2003), and Sophie (2005).
Eric's Axes
Clapton's choices of electric guitars have been as notable as the man himself, and alongside Hank Marvin, The Beatles and Jimi Hendrix, Clapton has exerted a crucial influence in popularising particular models of electric guitar. Early in his career, he used a late 1950s Gibson Les Paul, and he was partially responsible for Gibson's reintroduction of the original Les Paul body style. During his stint in Cream, Clapton continued to use Gibson guitars, including the Les Paul (which was later stolen) and a Gibson ES-335 but his most famous guitar in this period was a 1961 Gibson SG. The guitar was noted both for its distinctive singing tone -- which Clapton once described as the "woman tone" -- and for its remarkable appearance. In early 1967, just before their first US promotional tour, Clapton's SG, Bruce's Fender VI and Baker's drum head were repainted in eye-popping psychedelic designs created by the visual art collective known as "The Fool". Clapton either played the SG or a Les Paul on "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". (Guitar World magazine, March 1999, page 117 says it was a Les Paul, as do most other references.) He later loaned the SG to singer Jackie Lomax, who subsequently sold it to musician Todd Rundgren for US$500 in 1972. Rundgren restored the guitar and nicknamed "Sunny", after "Sunshine Of Your Love", on which it featured. He played the guitar extensively on record and in concert in the mid-1970s, eventually retiring it in 1977. He retained it until 2000, when he sold it at an auction for US$150,000. After the dissolution of Derek and the Dominos, during Clapton's heroin addiction nursing from 1971 to 1973, Clapton began to sell his collection of guitars to pay for his heroin. After seeing Clapton selling his most treasured possessions, Pete Townshend assisted him until 1974, when he finally quit the habit. Later, (and probably due to Hendrix's influence) Clapton began using Fender Stratocasters. Most famous of all Clapton's guitars was "Blackie", a concoction of favorite parts from several other 'Strats' and which he used until the late 1980s when it literally wore out. During 1988 Clapton was honored by guitar manufacturer Fender by the introduction of his signature Eric Clapton Stratocaster along with fellow Strat player Yngwie J. Malmsteen's signature series. These were the first two artist models in the famous Stratocaster range and since then the artist series range has grown including models from some of Clapton's contemporaries like Jeff Beck and some of his influences, Buddy Guy. The late Stevie Ray Vaughan also has an artist series model. Clapton has also been honoured with a signature-model acoustic guitar made by the famous American firm of C.F. Martin & Co.. In 1999 Clapton auctioned off some of his guitar collection to raise money for his Crossroads Centre he founded in Antigua in 1997. The Crossroads Centre is a treatment base for addictive disorders like drugs and alcohol. The total revenue raised by the auction at Christie's was US$7,438,624.
Discography

- 1964 Five Live Yardbirds (with The Yardbirds)
- 1965 For Your Love (with The Yardbirds)
- 1965 Having a Rave Up (with The Yardbirds)
- 1966 Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton (with John Mayall)
- 1966 Fresh Cream (with Cream)
- 1967 Disraeli Gears (with Cream)
- 1968 Wheels of Fire (with Cream)
- 1969 Goodbye (with Cream)
- 1969 Blind Faith (with Blind Faith)
- 1970 Live Cream (with Cream)
- 1970 Eric Clapton #17 UK, #13 US
- 1970 Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs (with Derek and the Dominos) #16 US
- 1972 Live Cream Volume II (with Cream)
- 1972 The History of Eric Clapton (compilation) #20 UK, #6 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 1972 Eric Clapton at His Best (compilation) #87 US
- 1973 Clapton (compilation) #67 US
- 1973 Live at the Fillmore (with Derek and the Dominos) (Live 1970) #36 UK, #20 US
- 1973 Eric Clapton's Rainbow Concert (Live 1972) #18 US
- 1974 461 Ocean Boulevard #3 UK, #1 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 1975 There's One in Every Crowd #15 UK, #21 US
- 1975 E.C. Was Here (Live 1975) #14 UK, #20 US
- 1976 No Reason to Cry #8 UK, #15 US
- 1977 Slowhand #23 UK, #2 US, US Sales: 3,000,000
- 1978 Backless #18 UK, #8 US, US Sales: 1,000,000
- 1980 Just One Night (Live 1979, Double Disc Set) #3 UK, #2 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 1981 Another Ticket #18 UK, #7 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 1982 Time Pieces: Best Of Eric Clapton (1970-1978) #20 UK, #101 US, US Sales: 7,000,000
- 1983 Money and Cigarettes #13 UK, #16 US
- 1984 Too Much Monkey Business
- 1984 Backtrackin' #29 UK
- 1985 Behind the Sun #8 UK, #34 US, US Sales: 1,000,000
- 1986 August #3 UK, #37 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 1987 The Cream of Eric Clapton #3 UK, #80 US, US Sales: 1,000,000
- 1988 Crossroads (Box Set) #34 US, US Sales: 2,000,000
- 1989 Homeboy
- 1989 Journeyman #2 UK, #16 US, US Sales: 2,000,000
- 1990 The Layla Sessions (with Derek and the Dominos) (20th Anniversary Edition, Box Set)
- 1991 24 Nights (Live 1990) #17 UK, #38 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 1992 Rush #24 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 1992 Unplugged (Live 1992) #2 UK, #1 US, US Sales: 10,000,000
- 1994 From the Cradle #1 UK, #1 US, US Sales: 3,000,000
- 1995 Strange Brew: The Very Best of Cream (with Cream, compilation)
- 1996 Crossroads 2: Live in the Seventies (Live from 1974 to 1978, Quadruple CD Set) #137 US
- 1997 Those Were The Days (with Cream, Box Set)
- 1998 Pilgrim #6 UK, #4 US, US Sales: 1,000,000
- 1999 The Blues (Double Disc Set) #52 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 1999 Clapton Chronicles: The Best of Eric Clapton #6 UK, #20 US, US Sales: 1,000,000
- 2000 Riding With the King (with B.B. King) #15 UK, #3 US, US Sales: 2,000,000
- 2001 Reptile #7 UK, #5 US, US Sales: 500,000
- 2002 One More Car, One More Rider (Live 2001) #43 US
- 2003 Cream: The BBC Sessions (with Cream, compilation)
- 2004 Me and Mr. Johnson (an album of Robert Johnson covers) #10 UK, #6 US
- 2004 Sessions for Robert J. (official CD/DVD of tour auditions)
- 2005 Cream Gold (with Cream, compilation)
- 2005 Back Home #19 UK; #13 US
- 2005 Royal Albert Hall, London, May 2-3, 5-6, 2005 (with Cream)

Band

Current Band

Here are the current members of Eric's band.
- Eric Clapton - guitar, vocals
- Doyle Bramhall II - guitar, backing vocals
- Andy Fairweather Low - guitar
- Paulinho Da Costa - percussion
- Nathan East - bass guitar, backing vocals
- Steve Gadd - drums
- Dave Sancious - keyboards, guitar, harmonica, backing vocals
- Chris Stainton - piano, keyboards
- Billy Preston - Hammond B3 Organ

Previous Band Members

- Phil Collins - drums, vocals
- Ray Cooper - percussion
- Yvonne Elliman - backing vocals
- Andy Fairweather Low - guitar, backing vocals
- Steve Ferrone - drums
- Katie Kissoon - backing vocals
- Ricky Lawson - drums
- Chuck Leavell - keyboards
- Marcy Levy - backing vocals
- Tessa Niles - backing vocals
- Jamie Oldaker - drums
- Alan Palmer - guitar
- Pino Palladino - bass guitar
- Greg Phillinganes - keyboards, Hammond organ, backing vocals
- Billy Preston - Hammond organ, lead vocals
- Carl Radle - bass guitar
- George Terry - guitar, backing vocals

Singles discography

See Eric Clapton singles discography.

Trivia

- According to Rolling Stone's rankings, Clapton is rivaled among living guitarists only by B.B. King.
- Although many sources give his surname at birth as Clapp, this is incorrect. Though his grandmother's second husband's name was Clapp, his mother's name was Clapton; his grandparents never legally adopted him.
- Eric Clapton is credited on the Dire Straits' Brothers in Arms album due to the fact that he loaned Mark Knopfler one of his guitars for the album.
- Clapton was banned from driving in France and had his British driver license confiscated after being clocked driving at 216 km/h (134mph) in a Porsche 911 Turbo on a French motorway in October 2004.
- Clapton claims to have slept with over 1,000 women. He once ordered a fellow musician to let him have sex with his girlfriend. See The Times [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2088-1592846_2,00.html profile] for more details.
- Minor Planet 4305 is named 4305 Clapton to honor him. It is an asteroid between Mars and Jupiter.
- Once while playing a Cream concert, he suddenly stopped playing, and neither Ginger Baker