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Coup D'état

Coup d'état

A coup d'état (pronounced ), or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a smaller supposedly weaker body that just replaces the top power figures. It may or may not be violent in nature. It is different from a revolution, which is staged by a larger group and radically changes the political system. The term is French for "a (sudden) blow (or stroke) to a state". The term coup can also be used in a casual sense to mean a gain in advantage of one nation or entity over another; e.g. an intelligence coup. By analogy, the term is also applied to corporations, etc; e.g. a boardroom coup. Since the unsuccessful coup attempts of Wolfgang Kapp in 1920, and of Adolf Hitler in 1923, the Swiss German word "Putsch" (originally coined with the Züriputsch of 1839) is often used also, even in France (such as the putsch of November 8, 1942 and the putsch of April 21, 1961, both in Algiers), while the direct German translation is Staatsstreich. Tactically, a coup usually involves control of some active portion of the military while neutralizing the remainder of a country's armed services. This active group captures or expels leaders, seizes physical control of important government offices, means of communication, and the physical infrastructure, such as streets and power plants. The coup succeeds if its opponents fail to dislodge the plotters, allowing them to consolidate their position, obtain the surrender or acquiescence of the populace and surviving armed forces, and claim legitimacy. Coups typically use the power of the existing government for its own takeover. As Edward Luttwak remarks in his Coup d'état: A practical handbook: "A coup consists of the infiltration of a small but critical segment of the state apparatus, which is then used to displace the government from its control of the remainder." In this sense, use of military or other organized force is not the defining feature of a coup d'état. Any seizure of the state apparatus by extra-legal tactics may be considered a coup, according to Luttwak.

History

Coups have long been part of political tradition. Indeed, Julius Caesar orchestrated a coup and was subsequently the victim of another coup. Many Roman emperors, such as Claudius, came to power in coups, as did King Jehu of Israel. In the late 20th century coups occurred most commonly in developing countries, particularly in Latin America (e.g. Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina), Africa and Asia (Pakistan), but also in the Pacific (Fiji) and in Europe (e.g. Greece, Portugal, Spain, and the Soviet Union). Since the 1980s, the coup has been seen somewhat less frequently. A significant reason is the general inability to resolve the economic and political problems of developing nations, which has made armed forces, particularly in Latin America, much more reluctant to intervene in politics. Hence, in contrast to past crises, the armed forces have sat on the sidelines through economic crises such as the Asian financial crisis in Thailand in 1998 or the Argentine crisis of 2002 and have tended to act only when the military perceives itself as institutionally threatened by the civilian government, as occurred in Pakistan in 1999. Coups d'état have often been seen as a means for powerful nations to assure favorable outcomes in smaller foreign states. In particular, the American CIA and Soviet KGB developed a reputation for supporting coups in states such as Chile and Afghanistan, respectively. Such actions are substitutes for direct military intervention which would have been more politically unpopular. The governments of France and Britain have engineered coups as well.

Recent forms of coup

In recent years, the traditional military coup has declined massively in use. A new, more contemporary form of military intervention which some regard as a coup d'état is simple threat of military force to remove a particularly unpopular leader. This has occurred twice in the Philippines. In contrast to previous coups d'état, the military does not directly assume power, but rather serves as an arbiter for civilian leaders. In recent years mass street protests have also often been able to force unpopular and corrupt leaders from office in a coup-like fashion. In situations of this sort, such as in Serbia (2000), Argentina (2001), Bolivia (2003), Ukraine (2004–2005), Lebanon, Ecuador and Bolivia (2005), popular uprisings simply forced the sitting president to resign his office, causing someone new to assume the presidency. This often results in a period of stability and calm, in which an unknown and uncontroversial vice president can rule the nation until new elections can be held. In 2002 the United States allegedly supported a coup in Venezuela against President Hugo Chávez, despite Chávez having been elected by popular vote in two consecutive elections. The coup failed, mainly due to sizable public protests in support of Chávez which dwarfed rallies launched by his opponents. Chávez was returned to office two days after the coup, the provisional military junta was dissolved, and the democratic government survived a referendum on new elections by a large margin. In cases such as these, popular protests have been able to prevent coups and place popular leaders back in office.

Types of coups

Samuel P. Huntington has divided coups into three types (ignoring Luttwak's non-military coups)
- Breakthrough coups - In which a revolutionary army overthrows a traditional government and creates a new bureaucratic elite. Breakthrough coups are generally led by non-commissioned officers (NCOs) or junior officers and only happen once. Examples include China in 1911, Egypt in 1956, Greece in 1967 and Liberia in 1980.
- Guardian coups - These coups have been described as musical chairs. The stated aim of this form of coup is to improve public order, efficiency, or to end corruption. There is usually no fundamental shift in the structure of power, and the leaders of these types of coups generally portray their actions as a temporary and unfortunate necessity. Many nations with guardian coups undergo many shifts between civilian and military governments. Examples include Pakistan, Turkey, and Thailand.
- Veto coups - These coups occur when the army vetoes mass participation and social mobilization. In these cases the army must confront and suppress large-scale and broad-based opposition and as a result they tend to be repressive and bloody. Examples include Chile in 1973 and Argentina in 1976, as well as the overthrow of President Fujimori of Peru in 2000. An abortive and botched veto coup occurred in Venezuela in 2002. Coups can also be classified by the level of the military that leads the coup. Veto coups and guardian coups tend to be led by senior officers. Breakthrough coups tend to be led by junior officers or NCOs. In cases where the coup is led by junior officers or enlisted men, the coup is also a mutiny which can have grave implications for the organizational structure of the military. There is also a category known as bloodless coups in which the mere threat of violence is enough to force the current government to step aside. Bloodless coups are so called because they involve no violence and thus no bloodshed. Napoleon's 18 Brumaire coup is often pointed out as an example of bloodless coup, showing that bloodless coups are not always considered to be "bloodless": on 18 Brumaire, several members of parliament were thrown out the windows of the building where they assembled. More recently, Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan came to power in a bloodless coup in 1999. The term self-coup is used when the current government assumes extraordinary powers not allowed by the legislation. An example is Alberto Fujimori in Peru, who was democratically elected, but later took control of the legislative and judicial powers, or the coup of French President Louis Napoléon Bonaparte in 1851 against the powerful National Assembly.

Post-military-coup governments

After the coup, the military is faced with the issue of the type of government to establish. In Latin America, it was common for the post-coup government to be led by a junta, a committee of the chiefs of staff of the various armed forces. A common form of African post-coup government is the revolutionary assembly, a quasi-legislative body made of members elected by the army. In Pakistan, the military leader typically assumes the title of chief martial law administrator. According to Huntington, most coup leaders act under the concept of right orders: they believe that the best way to solve the problems their country is facing is to issue correct orders. This view of government underestimates the difficulty in implementing government policy and the amount of possible political resistance to certain orders.

Important coups in the 19th century


- 1874: Arsenio Martínez Campos overthrows the First Spanish Republic and install Alfonso XII as king.

Important coups in the 20th century


- 1920: The Kapp Putsch, a failed coup attempt by the Freikorps Ehrhardt.
- 1923: Miguel Primo de Rivera installs a dictatorship without overthrowing the king.
- 1923: The Beer Hall Putsch, a failed coup attempt by Adolf Hitler in Germany.
- 1926: Coup of Jozef Pilsudski in Poland.
- 1926: 28th May military coup of Gomes da Costa in Portugal.
- 1932: The Mäntsälä Rebellion, failed coup attempt by the Lapua Movement in Finland.
- 1932: The May 15th Incident, a military coup in Japan.
- 1933: Failed coup against Franklin D. Roosevelt alleged in the United States (see Business Plot).
- 1934: Coup of Kārlis Ulmanis in Latvia.
- 1934: Coup of Konstantin Päts in Estonia.
- 1935: Coup in Greece.
- 1936: Part of the army seizes control of parts of Spain commencing the Spanish Civil War. Later General Francisco Franco assumes control of the country.
- 1936: The February 26th Incident, a failed coup attempt in Japan by junior military officers that did succeed in installing a militarist government.
- 1937: Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas, governing democratically until then, launches a self-coup and becomes the Dictator of Brazilian Estado Novo.
- 1942: French resistance coup in Algiers, by which 400 Civil French patriots neutralized Vichyst XIXth Army Corps in Algiers during 15 hours, arrested vichyst generals (Juin, Darlan, etc.), and so allowed the immediate success of Operation Torch.
- 1943: Military coup in Argentina leads to the ascent of extremely popular President Juan Perón.
- 1944: The July 20 Plot, a failed attempt to overthrow Hitler in Nazi Germany, led by Claus von Stauffenberg.
- 1945: Getúlio Vargas's government ends due to a coup, led by General Mourão, one of his former supporters.
- 1947: Coup in Thailand.
- 1948: Communist coup in Czechoslovakia.
- 1952: Military coup in Egypt.
- 1952: Fulgencio Batista leads successful and bloodless coup to topple democratically elected government of Cuba.
- 1953: Anglo-American coup in Iran, codenamed Operation Ajax.
- 1954: Military coup in Paraguay.
- 1955: A contra-coup in Brazil led by Marechal Lott grants the presidency to elected one, Juscelino Kubitschek and overtrhown the two-days-long legal government of Carlos Luz.
- 1958: Military coup in Pakistan. Army Chief and Defence Minister Gen. Ayub Khan overthrows the government of Iskander Mirza and becomes President after a winning a rigged referendum.
- 1958: Civic/Military coup in Venezuela, overthrowing Marcos Perez Jimenez.
- 1958: Military coup in Iraq overthrows the monarchy.
- 1960: Military coup in Turkey.
- 1961: The Coup d'état of May Sixteenth in South Korea. Park Chunghee established presidency.
- 1962: Failed Military backed and Catholic action led Coup in Sri Lanka then Ceylon.
- 1963: Military coup in South Vietnam, overthrowing Ngo Dinh Diem.
- 1963: Alleged coup in the United States, overthrowing John F. Kennedy (See Kennedy assassination theories).
- 1963: Military coup in Ecuador.
- 1963: Military coup in Syria.
- 1963: Coup in Iraq, followed by a counter-coup.
- 1964: Military coup in Brazil.
- 1964: Military coup in South Vietnam, overthrowing Duong Van Minh.
- 1966: Military coup in Ghana.
- 1966: Military coup in Nigeria leading to end of first republic.
- 1966: Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan, the ruler of the United Arab Emirates was deposed in a bloodless coup, being replaced by his brother Sheikh Zayed Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan.
- 1967: Military coup in Greece. See Greek military junta of 1967-1974.
- 1967: Military coup in Nigeria. Yakubu Gowon comes to power.
- 1968: Coup in Panama by Omar Torrijos.
- 1968: Coup in Iraq establishes rule of the Ba'ath Party.
- 1969: Colonel Qadhafi overthrows monarchy in Libya.
- 1969: Military coup in Somalia.
- 1970: Military coup in Pakistan, Army Chief Gen. Yahya Khan forces President Field Marshal Ayub Khan (who himself came to power in a coup) to hand over power to him.
- 1970: Coup in Bolivia, soon followed by a leftist countercoup.
- 1971: Military coup in Turkey (Coup by Memorandum).
- 1971: Military coup in Uganda led by Idi Amin.
- 1973: Military coup in Chile. The democratically elected Marxist president Salvador Allende is replaced by the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. See Chilean coup of 1973.
- 1973: The President of Uruguay dissolves Parliament and heads a coup.
- 1974: Military coup in Portugal (Carnation Revolution).
- 1974: Military coup in Cyprus sponsored by Greek colonels overthrows Makarios and triggers invasion by Turkey.
- 1975: Military coup in Ethiopia by the communist junta led by General Aman Andom and Megistu Hailemariam.
- 1975: Military coup in Bangladesh overthrows & kills Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
- 1975: Military coup in Nigeria overthrows Yakubu Gowon. Murtala Ramat Mohammed comes to power.
- 1976: Military coup in Ecuador.
- 1976: Failed coup attempt in Nigeria. Murtala Ramat Mohammed killed but Obasanjo survives and becomes head of state.
- 1976: Military coup in Argentina leads to the Proceso de Reorganización Nacional.
- 1978: Communist coup in Afghanistan.
- 1979: Military coup in Pakistan. Army Chief Gen. Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq overthrows the civilian government and hangs Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto after a sham trial.
- 1979: The Coup d'état of December Twelfth in South Korea. Chun Doo-hwan established presidentship.
- 1980: 'Cocaine Coup' in Bolivia of Luis García Meza Tejada.
- 1980: Military coup in Turkey.
- 1980: Military coup in Liberia.
- 1980: Successful coup in Suriname by military officers led by Dési Bouterse that resulted in military rule until 1988.
- 1981: Failed coup in Spain led by Antonio Tejero.
- 1982: Failed coup in Kenya by some members of the Kenya Air Force.
- 1983: Military palace coup in Nigeria. Second republic overthrown.
- 1985: Military coup in Uganda led by Basilio Okello and Tito Okello.
- 1985: Military coup in Nigeria. Ibrahim Babangida replaces Muhammadu Buhari.
- 1984: Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya raise to power in Mauritania after a coup that overthrow the president Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidallah.
- 1989: Failed coup attempt in the Philippines led by Colonel Gregorio Honasan.
- 1990: Failed coup attempt in Nigeria led by Col. Orkar.
- 1991: Failed coup attempt (the so-called August Putsch) in the Soviet Union.
- 1992: Alberto Fujimori launches a self-coup in Peru.

Recent coups and coup attempts


- 1997: Military coup in Turkey, called Post-modern coup (February 28) overthrows the coalition government
- 1999: Military coup in Pakistan. Army refuses to obey Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's government. General Pervez Musharraf becomes dictator (with the title "Chief Executive") and exiles Nawaz Sharif to Saudi Arabia.
- 1999: Military coup in Côte d'Ivoire
- 2000: Unsuccessful coup in Fiji, under George Speight
- 2000: Coup in Ecuador
- 2000: Overthrow of President Fujimori in Peru
- 2002: Unsuccessful coup to overthrow Hugo Chávez in Venezuela
- 2002: Military coup in Central African Republic
- 2003: Attempted coup in Mauritania
- 2003: Military coup in São Tomé and Príncipe
- 2003: Military coup in Guinea-Bissau
- 2004: Military coup in Haiti
- 2004: Attempted coup in the Democratic Republic of Congo
- 2004: Second attempted coup in the Democratic Republic of Congo (June)
- 2004: Attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea (August)
- 2005: Coup in Togo legalized by parliamentary vote but unrecognized by international community.
- 2005: Coup in Ecuador overthrows Lucio Gutiérrez
- 2005: Coup by Nepalese monarch, overthrows constitutional monarchy. Restoration of absolute monarchy.
- 2005: Military coup in Mauritania overthrows president Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya, who came to power after a coup, in 1984.

Currently-serving leaders who came to power via coups


- Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir, President of Sudan (1989–)
- Muammar al-Qaddafi, leader of Libya (1969–)
- Azali Assoumani, President of the Comoros (1999–)
- Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, President of Tunisia (1987–)
- François Bozizé, President of the Central African Republic (2003–)
- Blaise Compaoré, President of Burkina Faso (1987–)
- Lansana Conté, President of Guinea (1984–)
- Idriss Déby, President of Chad (1990–)
- Yahya Jammeh, President of The Gambia (1994–)
- Gérard Latortue, Interim president of Haiti—not recognized by CARICOM
- Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, President of Equatorial Guinea (1979–)
- Pervez Musharraf, Chief of Army Staff and President of Pakistan (1999–)
- Alfredo Palacio, President of Ecuador (2005–)
- Ely Ould Mohamed Vall, Chairman of the Military Council for Justice and Democracy in Mauritania (2005–)

See also


- Contrast with civilian control of the military
- List of protective service agencies
- List of fictional revolutions and coups

Reference


- Edward Luttwak, Coup d'etat: A practical handbook, Harvard University Press, 1969, 1980. ISBN 06-741-75476.
- Curzio Malaparte, Technique du Coup d'Etat (Published in French), Paris, 1931.
- D. J. Goodspeed, Six Coups d'Etat, Viking Press inc., New-York, 1962. Category:French phrases
- Category:Civil-military relations ko:쿠데타 ja:クーデター

Government

A government is the body that has the power to make and enforce laws within an organization or group. In its broadest sense, "to govern" means to administer or supervise, whether over an area of land, a set group of people, or a collection of assets. The word government is derived the Greek Κυβερνήτης (kubernites), which means "steersman", "governor", "pilot" or "rudder".

Definitions

One approach is to define government as the decision-making arm of the state, and define the latter on the basis of the control it has over violence and the use of force within its territory. Specifically, the state (and by extension the government) has been considered by some to be the entity that holds a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a territory. This view has been taken by the political economist Max Weber and subsequent political philosophers. The exact meaning of it depends on what is understood by “legitimate”. If we use the term in an ethical sense, then this definition would suggest that an organisation might be considered a state by its supporters but not by its detractors. An alternative definition is to take "legitimate" violence to be simply that which has active or tacit acceptance by the vast majority of the population. In this view, the presence of insurrection or civil war against an entity would jeopardise its claim to be a state, provided the insurrection enjoyed significant popular support. Similarly, an entity that shared military or police power with independent militias and bandits could be considered to have a monopoly on “legitimate” violence but to be failing to enforce it, reducing its claim to statehood. In practice, such situations are often described as "failed states". Government can also be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy. Under this definition, a purely despotic organization which controls a territory without defining laws would not be considered a government. Another alternative is to define a government as an organisation that attempts to maintain control of a territory, where "control" involves activities such as collecting taxes, controlling entry and exit to the state, preventing encroachment of territory by neighbouring states and preventing the establishment of alternative governments within the country. In Commonwealth English, the word "Government" can also be used to refer only to the executive branch, in this context being a synonym for the word "administration" in American English (e.g. the Blair Government, the Bush Administration). In countries using the Westminster system, the Government (or party in Government) will also usually control the legislature. The French use of the word gouvernement covers both meanings, whereas Canadian French generally uses it to mean the executive branch. The German word Regierung refers only to government as the executive branch; the wider meaning of the word, government as a system, can be translated as Staatsgewalt.

Forms of government

Various forms of government have been implemented. A government in a developed state is likely to have various sub-organisations known as offices, departments, or agencies, which are headed by politically appointed officials, often called ministers or secretaries. Ministers may in theory act as advisors to the head of state, but in practice have a certain amount of direct power in specific areas. In most modern democracies, the elected legislative assembly has the power to dismiss the government, but in those states that have a separate head of government and head of state, the head of state generally has great latitude in appointing a new one.

Theories

There are a wide range of theories about the reasons for establishing governments. The four major ones are briefly described below. Note that they do not always fully oppose each other - it is possible for a person to subscribe to a combination of ideas from two or more of these theories.

Greed and oppression

Many political philosophies that are opposed to the existence of a government (such as Anarchism, and to a lesser extent Marxism), as well as others, emphasize the historical roots of governments - the fact that governments, along with private property, originated from the authority of warlords and petty despots who took, by force, certain patches of land as their own (and began exercising authority over the people living on that land). Thus, it is argued that governments exist to enforce the will of the strong and oppress the weak.

Order and tradition

The various forms of conservatism, by contrast, generally see the government as a positive force that brings order out of chaos, establishes laws to end the "war of all against all", encourages moral virtue while punishing vice, and respects tradition. Sometimes, in this view, the government is seen as something ordained by a higher power, as in the divine right of kings, which human beings have a duty to obey.

Natural rights

Natural rights are the basis for the theory of government shared by most branches of liberalism (including libertarianism). In this view, human beings are born with certain natural rights, and governments are established strictly for the purpose of protecting those rights. What the natural rights actually are is a matter of dispute among liberals; indeed, each branch of liberalism has its own set of rights that it considers to be natural, and these rights are sometimes mutually exclusive with the rights supported by other liberals.

Social contract

One of the most influential theories of government in the past two hundred years has been the social contract, on which modern democracy and most forms of socialism are founded. The social contract theory holds that governments are created by the people in order to provide for collective needs (such as safety from crime) that cannot be properly satisfied using purely individual means. Governments thus exist for the purpose of serving the needs and wishes of the people, and their relationship with the people is clearly stipulated in a "social contract" (a constitution and a set of laws) which both the government and the people must abide by. If a majority is unhappy, it may change the social contract. If a minority is unhappy, it may persuade the majority to change the contract, or it may opt out of it by emigration or secession.

Operations

Governments concern themselves with regulating and administering many areas of human activity, such as trade, education, medicine, entertainment, and war.

Enforcement of power

Governments use a variety of methods to maintain the established order, such as police and military forces, (particularly under despotism, see also police state), making agreements with other states, and maintaining support within the state. Typical methods of maintaining support and legitimacy include providing the infrastructure for administration, justice, transport, communication, social welfare etc., claiming support from deities, providing benefits to elites, holding elections for important posts within the state, limiting the power of the state through laws and constitutions (see also Bill of Rights) and appealing to nationalism. Different political ideologies hold different ideas on what the government should or should not do.

Territory

The modern standard unit of territory is a country. In addition to the meaning used above, the word state can refer either to a government or to its territory. Within a territory, subnational entities may have local governments which do not have the full power of a national government (for example, they will generally lack the authority to declare war or carry out diplomatic negotiations).

Scale of government

Main articles: government ownership, government spending The scale to which government should exist and operate in the world is a matter of debate. Government spending in developed countries varies considerably but generally makes up between about 30% and 70% of their GDP.

See also


- Conspiracy theories
- Government ownership
- Government simulation
- Minority government
- Political corruption
- Premier
- Statesman

Relevant lists


- List of democracy and elections-related topics
- List of fictional governments Category:Society ko:정부 ms:Kerajaan ja:政府 simple:Government th:รัฐบาล

Revolution

:This article is about revolution in the sense of a drastic change. For other meanings of the word, see revolution (disambiguation). A revolution is a relatively sudden, and absolutely drastic change (a "complete turn-around"). This may be a change in the social or political institutions over a relatively short period of time, or a major change in its culture or economy. Some revolutions are led by the majority of the populace of a nation, others by a small band of revolutionaries. Compare rebellion.

Social and political revolutions

Political revolutions are often characterised by violence, and vast changes in power structures that can often result in further, institutionalised, violence, as in the Russian and French revolutions (with the "Purges" and "the Terror", respectively). A political revolution is the forcible replacement of one set of rulers with another (as happened in France and Russia), while a social revolution is the fundamental change in the social structure of a society, such as the Protestant Reformation or the Renaissance.However, blurring the line between these two categories, most political revolutions wish to carry out social revolutions, and they have basic philosophical or social underpinnings which drive them. The most common revolutions with such underpinnings in the modern world have been liberal revolutions and communist revolutions. In contrast, a coup d'état often seeks to change nothing more than the current ruler. Some political philosophers regard revolutions as the means of achieving their goals. Most anarchists advocate social revolution as the means of breaking down the structures of government and replacing them with non-hierarchal institutions. With Marxist communists, there is a split between those who supported the Soviet Union and other so-called 'communist states' and those who were/are critical of those states (some even rejecting them as non-communist, see state capitalism), for example trotskyists. Social and political revolutions are often "institutionalized" when the ideas, slogans, and personalities of the revolution continue to play a prominent role in a country's political culture, long after the revolution's end. As mentioned, communist nations regularly institutionalize their revolutions to legitimize the actions of their governments. Some non-communist nations, like the United States, France, or Mexico also have institutionalized revolutions, and continue to celebrate the memory of their revolutionary past through holidays, artwork, songs, and other venues.

Ancient revolutions


- Fall of the Qin Dynasty in China, 206 BCE
- Great Jewish Revolt (66-70) and Bar Kokhba's revolt (132-135) against the Roman Empire.
- Popular revolt in late medieval Europe 14th - early 16th century, a series of attempted revolutions against the nobility

Liberal revolutions

(known to Marxists as bourgeois revolutions) :Some of these are Atlantic Revolutions.
- English Revolution – (1642-1653) – Commenced as a civil war between Parliament and King, culminating in the execution of Charles I and the establishment of a republican Protectorate.
- Glorious Revolution – (England in (1688) – Overthrow of King James II and establishment of a Whig-dominated Protestant constitutional monarchy.
- American Revolution – (1774-1783) – Established independence of the 13 colonies from Great Britain, creating the republic of the United States of America
- French Revolution – (1789) – Regarded as one of the most influential of all Revolutions, frequently associated with the rise of the bourgeoisie and the downfall of the aristocracy.
- Irish Rebellion – (1798) – Failed attempt to overthrow British rule in the country.
- Haitian Revolution – (1804) – Successful slave rebellion led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Established Haiti as the first free, black republic.
- July Revolution (1830)
- Belgian Revolution (1830)
- Rebellions of 1837 – (1837-1838) – Failed republican revolutions against British rule in Canada.
- Revolutions of 1848 – (1848) – Wave of failed liberal and republican revolutions that swept Europe.
- Taiping Rebellion – 1851 Rebellion against the Qing Dynasty and Manchu domination.
- Indian rebellion of 1857 Also called the War of Independence of 1857 and popularly known in the West as the Sepoy Mutiny, this rebellion was against British imperialism and marks the end of Mughal rule in India.
- Russian Revolution of 1905 – (1905) – Failed bourgeois-liberal revolution against Tsar Nicholas II
- Mexican Revolution – (1910) – Overthrow of dictator Porfirio Díaz, seizure of power by Institutional Revolutionary Party.
- Xinhai Revolution – (1911) – Overthrow of ruling Qing Dynasty and establishment of the Republic of China.
- February Revolution – (1917) – Liberal revolution against Tsar Nicholas II
- German Revolution – (1918) – Overthrow of the Kaiser by a workers' revolution, establishment of the Weimar Republic.

Socialist and/or Communist revolutions


- The Revolutionnary Commune of Paris – 1871
- Russian Revolution – (1917) – The most famous and influential modern revolution, culminating in the Bolshevik seizure of power and the establishment of the Soviet Union.
- German Revolution – (1919)) – Failed revolution in Germany led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht
- Hungarian revolutions – 1919 and 1949
- Mongolia – 1921
- Spanish Revolution – 1936
- North Korea – 1948
- Chinese Revolution – (1949) – Victory of Communist-led peasant rebellion under Chairman Mao over the ruling Nationalist Party, establishment of People's Republic of China.
- Algerian Revolution – (1954 – 1962) – Revolutionary war of independence against French imperialism.
- North Vietnam – period of 1945-1954
- Cuban Revolution – (1959) – Fidel Castro-led rebellion against U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista; victory of revolutionary government of Fidel Castro.
- The Congo – 1964 and 1968
- The Zanzibar Revolution of 1964, see [http://home.globalfrontiers.com/Zanzibar/zanzibar_revolution.htm]
- Cultural Revolution – (1966-1976) Maoist led turmoil in People's Republic of China.
- South Yemen – 1967
- France, May 1968 – (1968) – Students' and workers' revolt against the Government of Charles de Gaulle.
- Libya – 1969
- Somalia – 1969
- Benin – 1972
- Ethiopia – 1974
- Carnation Revolution – (1974) in Portugal – Left-wing popular overthrow of right-wing dictatorship.
- Guinea-Bissauan Revolution – 1974
- Cambodia – 1975
- South Vietnam – 1975
- Laos – 1975
- Madagascar – 1975
- Cape Verde – 1975
- Mozambique – 1975
- Angola – 1975
- Afghanistan – 1978
- Grenada – 1979
- Nicaraguan Revolution – (1979) – Popular overthrow of the Somoza dictatorship by progressive/Marxist peasant movement.
- Burkina Faso – 1983
- Bolivarian Revolution – (1998) – Venezuela elects populist Hugo Chávez.

Eastern European anti-Communist revolutions


- Hungarian Revolution – (1956) Workers' and peasants' left-wing revolution against the imposed Communist Party-run state dictatorship, suppressed by Soviet forces.
- Singing Revolution – (1988) Bloodless overthrow of Communist Party-run state in Estonia.
- Romanian Revolution – (1989) Violent overthrow of Communist Party-run state in Romania.
- Velvet Revolution – (1989) Bloodless overthrow of Communist Party-run state in Czechoslovakia.

Islamist revolutions


- Iranian Revolution – (1979) – Popular overthrow of US-backed Shah, culminating in an Islamist cleric-led theocracy.
- Taliban – (1996) – Islamist movement in Afghanistan

Color revolutions

Note that some of these (particularly the rose and orange revolutions) only changed one government with another, and did not modify the political or economic systems of their countries. As such, they are purely political revolutions.
- Rose Revolution in Georgia (2003)
- Orange Revolution in Ukraine (2004)
- Cedar Revolution in Lebanon (2005)
- Tulip Revolution or Yellow Revolution in Kyrgyzstan (2005)

Cultural, intellectual, and philosophical revolutions


- Renaissance
- Protestant Reformation
- Scientific revolution
- Sexual revolution
- Quiet Revolution
- Consciousness Revolution

Technological revolutions

(although these revolutions always have an influence on culture)
- Agrarian Revolution
- Digital Revolution
- Neolithic Revolution
- Price revolution
- Industrial Revolution
- Second Industrial Revolution

See also


- Revolt
- Coup d'état
- List of fictional revolutions and coups
- ja:革命

Wolfgang Kapp

Wolfgang Kapp (July 24 1858–June 12 1922) was an East Prussian civil servant and journalist. He was a strict nationalist, and a nominal leader of the so-called Kapp Putsch that took place in Weimar Republic in 1920. When the putsch failed, Kapp was forced to flee the country. He found a place of refuge in Sweden. After two years in exile, he was allowed to return to Germany in April 1922. He died shortly afterwards, of cancer, in Leipzig. Kapp, Wolfgang Kapp, Wolfgang



1923

1923 (MCMXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January-June


- January 1 - Grouping of all UK railway companies into four larger companies
- January 10 - Lithuania seizes and annexes Memel
- January 11 - Troops from France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr area to force Germany to pay its reparation payments
- February 16 - Howard Carter unseals the burial chamber of Pharaoh Tutankhamun
- February 22 - Barcelona (Catalonia): Albert Einstein visits the city, invited by the scientist Esteban Terradas i Illa, as part of the monografics course of High Studies and Exchange organized by the Mancomunitat de Catalunya and conducted by Rafael de Campalans.
- March - Antigone by Jean Cocteau appears on a Paris stage. Settings by Pablo Picasso, music by Arthur Honegger, and costumes by Gabrielle Chanel. Antonin Artaud played the part of Tiresias.
- March 1 - USS Connecticut decommissioned
- March 2 - Time Magazine hits newsstands for the first time
- March 9 - Vladimir Lenin suffers a stroke, his third, which renders him bedridden and unable to speak; consequently he retires his position as Chairman of the Soviet government.
- April - End of Irish Civil War
- April 12 - Kandersteg International Scout Centre came into existence.
- April 23 - Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia Seaport
- April 26 - Wedding of Prince Albert and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in Westminster Abbey
- May 23 - Launch of Belgium's SABENA Airlines
- May 27 - Ku Klux Klan defies law requiring publication of its members
- June 9 - Military coup in Bulgaria - prime minister Aleksandar Stamboliyski is ousted (he is killed June 14)
- June 18 - Etna volcano erupts - 60.000 made homeless

July-September


- July 6 - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics established
- July 10 - Large hailstones kill 23 in Rostow, Soviet Russia
- July 19-20 night - Assassination of Pancho Villa
- July 24 - The Treaty of Lausanne, settling the boundaries of modern Turkey, is signed in Switzerland by Greece, Bulgaria and other countries that fought in the First World War
- August 2 - Warren G. Harding, 29th President of the United States (1921 - 1923) dies in office and is succeeded by Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929).
- August 13 - First major sea-going ship arrives at Gdynia, newly constructed Polish seaport
- August 13 - Gustav Stresemann is named chancellor and founds a coalition government in Weimar Republic Germany
- September 1 - Great Kantō earthquake devastates Tokyo and Yokohama killing 142.807 people
- September 4 - In Lakehurst, New Jersey, the first American airship, the "USS Shenandoah, takes to the sky for the first time
- September 6 - Italian navy occupies Corfu in retaliation of murder of an Italian officer. League of Nations protests and they leave September 29
- September 8 - Honda Point Disaster: Seven US Navy destroyers ran aground off the California coast.
- September 9 - Atatürk founded the CHP.
- September 13 - Military coup in Spain - Miguel Primo de Rivera takes over, setting up a dictatorship.
- September 18-26 - Newspaper printers strike in New York
- September 26 - In Bayern, Gustav von Kuhr declares independence from Berlin

October-December


- October 29 - Turkey becomes a republic following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
- November 8 - Beer Hall Putsch: In Munich, Adolf Hitler leads the Nazis in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government. Police and troops crush the attempt the next day
- November 12- Her Highness Princess Maud of Fife marries Captain Charles Alexander Carnegie in Wellington Barracks, London.
- November 15 - The inflation in Germany reaches its height. One dollar is worth 4,200,000,000,000 Reichsmarks (4.2 trillion). Gustav Stresemann abolishes the old currency
- November 23 - Gustav Stresemann's coalition government collapses
- December 12 - Po river dam bursts - 600 dead
- December 27 - Assassination attempt against the crown prince of Japan in Tokyo

Unknown dates


- Juan de la Cierva invents the autogyro, a rotary-winged aircraft with an unpowered rotor.
- Finnish flag carrier Finnair airline is started in Aero Oy.
- Interpol is set up.
- International Police Conference in Vienna
- Hoda Cha'arawi Association (formerly The Egyptian Feminist Union) is established in Egypt.
- Trade unions banned in Spain for 10 years.
- Police strike in Australia
- Regia Aeronautica, air force of Fascist Italy, is founded.
- American Law Institute established
- Moderation League of New York became part of movement for repeal of prohibition in United States.

Births

January-February


- January 1 - Roméo Sabourin, Canadian World War II spy (d. 1944)
- January 5 - Sam Phillips, American record producer (d. 2003)
- January 6 - Jacobo Timerman, Argentine writer (d. 1999)
- January 7 - Hugh Kenner, Canadian literary critic (d. 2003)
- January 8 - Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985)
- January 16 - Anthony Hecht, American poet (d. 2004)
- January 19 - Jean Stapleton, American actress
- January 25 - Arvid Carlsson, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 26 - Anne Jeffreys, American actress
- January 29 - Paddy Chayefsky, American writer (d. 1981)
- January 31 - Norman Mailer, American writer and journalist
- February 2 - James Dickey, American poet and author (d. 1997)
- February 2 - Liz Smith, American gossip columnist
- February 9 - Brendan Behan, Irish author (d. 1964)
- February 12 - Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film and opera director
- February 13 - Yfrah Neaman, Lebanese-born violinist (d. 2003)
- February 13 - Chuck Yeager, American pilot and NASA official
- February 20 - Forbes Burnham, President of Guyana (d. 1985)
- February 24 - David Soyer, American cellist
- February 27 - Dexter Gordon, American jazz saxophone player (d. 1990)

March-April


- March 6 - Ed McMahon, American television personality
- March 9 - Walter Kohn, Austrian-born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- March 10 - Val Logsdon Fitch, American nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- March 12 - Wally Schirra, astronaut
- March 21 - Shri Mataji Nirmala Shrivastava, Indian founder of Sahaja Yoga
- March 25 - Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003)
- March 26 - Bob Elliott, American comedian
- March 27 - Louis Simpson, Jamaican-born poet
- March 30 - Milton Acorn, Canadian writer (d. 1986)
- April 2 - G. Spencer-Brown, British mathematician
- April 8 - George Fisher, American political cartoonist (d. 2003)
- April 8 - Edward Mulhare, Irish actor (d. 1997)
- April 13 - Don Adams, American actor and comedian (d. 2005)
- April 20 - Mother Angelica, American founder of the Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN)
- April 22 - Bettie Page, American model
- April 22 - Aaron Spelling, American television producer and writer
- April 23 - Dolph Briscoe, Governor of Texas

May-August


- May 1 - Joseph Heller, American novelist (d. 1999)
- May 2 - Patrick Hillery, President of Ireland
- May 3 - Ralph Hall, American politician
- May 5 - Richard Wollheim, British philosopher (d. 2003)
- May 7 - Anne Baxter, American actress (d. 1985)
- May 13 - Bea Arthur, American actress
- May 15 - John Lanchbery, English composer (d. 2003)
- May 16 - Merton Miller, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- May 18 - Hugh Shearer, Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 2004)
- May 21 - Armand Borel, Swiss mathematician (d. 2003)
- May 21 - Dorothy Hewett, writer (d. 2002)
- May 21 - Ara Parseghian, American football coach
- May 26 - James Arness, American actor
- May 27 - Henry Kissinger, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- May 28 - György Ligeti, Hungarian composer
- May 31 - Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (d. 2005)
- July 2 - Wislawa Szymborska, Polish writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 4 - Rudolf Friedrich, Swiss Federal Councilor
- July 8 - Harrison Dillard, American athlete
- July 18 - Jerome H. Lemelson, American inventor (d. 1997)
- July 20 - Stanisław Albinowski, Polish economist and journalist (d. 2005)
- July 21 - Rudolph A. Marcus, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 22 - Robert Joseph Dole, American politician and Presidential candidate
- July 22 - Mukesh, Indian singer (d. 1976)
- July 23 - Witto Aloma, Cuban Major League Baseball player (d. 1997)
- August 5 - Devan Nair, third President of Singapore (d. 2005)
- August 20 - Jim Reeves, American singer (d. 1964)
- August 21 - Shimon Peres, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- August 24 - Arthur Jensen, American educational psychologist
- August 26 - Wolfgang Sawallisch, German conductor and pianist

September-December


- September 1 - Kenneth Roy Thomson, 2nd Baron Thomson of Fleet, Canadian businessman and art collector
- September 1 - Rocky Marciano, American boxer (d. 1969)
- September 3 - Mort Walker, American cartoonist
- September 6 - King Peter II of Yugoslavia (d. 1970)
- September 9 - Daniel Carleton Gajdusek, American virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- September 11 - Dharmsamrat Paramhans Swami Madhavananda, Indian guru (d. 2003)
- September 17 - Hank Williams, American country musician (d. 1953)
- September 20 - Geraldine Clinton Little, Irish-born poet (D. 1997
- September 22 - Dannie Abse, Welsh poet
- September 26 - Dev Anand, Indian actor
- October 3 - Edward Oliver LeBlanc, Dominican politician (d. 2004)
- October 5 - Albert Guðmundsson, Icelandic professional football player and politician (d. 1994)
- October 5 - Glynis Johns, British actress
- October 13 - Faas Wilkes, Dutch football (soccer) player
- October 15 - Italo Calvino, Italian writer (d. 1985)
- October 23 - Frank Sutton, American actor (d. 1974)
- November 1 - Victoria de los Angeles, Catalan soprano (d. 2005)
- November 1 - Gordon R. Dickson, Canadian author (d. 2001)
- November 8 - Jack Kilby, American electrical engineer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics (d. 2005)
- November 20 - Nadine Gordimer, South African writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 22 - Arthur Hiller, Canadian film director
- November 23 - Billy Haughton, American harness driver and trainer (d. 1986)
- November 25 - Mauno Koivisto, President of Finland
- December 2 - Maria Callas, Greek soprano (d. 1977)
- December 12 - Bob Barker, American game show host
- December 13 - Philip Warren Anderson, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 13 - Larry Doby, baseball player (d. 2003)
- December 13 - Antoni Tàpies, Catalan painter
- December 14 - Gerard Reve, Dutch writer
- December 15 - Freeman Dyson, English-born physicist
- December 23 - Claudio Scimone, Italian conductor
- December 23 - James Stockdale, U.S. Navy admiral
- December 24 - George Patton IV, American general (d. 2004)
- December 25 - Sonia Olschanezky, World War II heroine (d. 1944)

Deaths


- Michel-Joseph Maunoury, French general (b. 1847)
- January 9 - Katherine Mansfield, British novelist (b. 1888)
- January 23 - Max Nordau, Hungarian author, philosopher, and Zionist leader (b. 1849)
- February 10 - Wilhelm Röntgen, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1845)
- February 23 - Théophile Delcassé, French statesman (b. 1852)
- March 8 - Johannes Diderik van der Waals, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1837)
- March 26 - Sarah Bernhardt, French actress (b. 1844)
- March 27 - Sir James Dewar, Scottish chemist (b. 1842)
- April 4 - John Venn, British mathematician (b. 1834)
- April 5 - George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, English financier of Egyptian excavations (b. 1866)
- June 9 - Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (b. 1846)
- August 2 - Warren G. Harding, 29th President of the United States (b. 1865)
- October 30 - Andrew Bonar Law, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1858)
- December 12 - Raymond Radiguet, French author (b. 1903)
- December 13 - Théophile Steinlen, Swiss painter (b. 1859)

Nobel Prizes


- Physics - Robert Andrews Millikan
- Chemistry - Fritz Pregl
- Physiology or Medicine - Frederick Grant Banting, John James Richard Macleod
- Literature - William Butler Yeats
- Peace - Not awarded
- ko:1923년 ms:1923 ja:1923年 simple:1923 th:พ.ศ. 2466

Swiss German

Swiss German (Schweizerdeutsch, Schwyzerdütsch, Schwiizerdütsch, Schwyzertütsch, Schwizertitsch) is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken in Switzerland. Occasionally, the Alemannic dialects spoken in other countries are called Swiss German as well, especially the dialects of Liechtenstein which are closely associated to Switzerland's. Linguistically, there is no difference between the Swiss German dialects and the Alemannic dialects spoken in Germany, Austria and France. The reason why they constitute a special group is their almost unrestricted use as a spoken language in practically all situations of daily life, whereas the use of the Alemannic dialects in the other countries is restricted, the standard languages being used in many official situations.

Use

Unlike most dialects in modern Europe, Swiss German is the spoken everyday language of all social levels in industrial cities as well as in the countryside. Using dialect conveys no social or educational inferiority. There are only a few specific settings where speaking Standard German is demanded or polite, e.g. in education (but not during breaks), in multilingual parliaments (the federal parliaments and a few cantonal and municipal ones), in the main news broadcast or in the presence of German-speaking foreigners. This situation has been called a medial diglossia since the spoken language is mainly the dialect whereas the written language is mainly Standard German. Swiss German is intelligible to speakers of other Alemannic dialects, but usually not intelligible to speakers of Standard German (which includes French- or Italian-speaking Swiss who learn Standard German at school). Swiss German speakers on TV or in movies are thus usually dubbed or subtitled if shown in Germany. Dialect rock is a music genre using the language.

Variation and Distribution

Swiss German is a regional, or political, umbrella term, not a linguistic unity. For all dialects, there are idioms spoken outside Switzerland that are more closely related to them than some Swiss German dialects. The main linguistic divisions within Swiss German are those of Low, High and Highest Alemannic. Low Alemannic is only spoken in the northernmost parts of Switzerland, in Basel and around Lake Constance. High Alemannic is spoken in most of the Swiss plateau, and is divided in an eastern and a western group. Highest Alemannic is spoken in the Alps. Distribution of Dialects
Distribution of Swiss German dialects
- Low Alemannic
  - Basel German in Basel (BS), closely related to Alsatian
- High Alemannic
  - eastern
    - Zürich German, in Zürich (ZH)
    - dialects of St. Gallen (SG)
    - dialects of Appenzell (AP)
    - dialects of Thurgau (TG)
    - dialects of Schaffhausen (SH)
    - dialects of parts of Graubünden (GR)
  - western
    - Bernese German, in the Swiss plateau parts of Bern (BE)
    - dialects of Aargau (AG)
    - dialects of Solothurn (SO)
    - dialects of the German-speaking parts of Fribourg (FR).
    - dialects of Lucerne (LU)
    - dialects of Zug (Z)
    - dialects of Schwyz (SZ)
- Highest Alemannic
  - dialects of the Bernese Oberland
  - dialects of Glarus (GL)
  - dialects of Unterwalden (UW) and Uri (UR)
  - Walliser German in parts of the Valais (VS)
  - Walser German: Via the medieval migration of the Walser, Highest Alemannic was spread to pockets of what are now parts of northern Italy (P), the north west of Ticino (T), parts of Graubünden (GR), Liechtenstein and Vorarlberg. Each dialect is separable in numerous local sub-dialects, sometimes down to a resolution of individual villages. Speaking the dialect is an important part of regional, cantonal and national identity. [http://dialects.from.ch/ This website] has a test that figures out what part type of Swiss dialect you have by asking you how you pronounce certain words. In the more urban areas of the Swiss plateau, regional differences are fading due to increasing mobility, and a growing population of non-Alemannic descent.

History

As Alemannic dialects, Swiss German dialects did not participate in the second German vowel shift during medieval times - they use mostly the same vowels as Middle High German. As such, even though the Alemannic dialects belong to High German, their vowels are closer to Low German than other High German dialects or standard German. An exception are certain central Swiss dialects, e.g. the Uri dialect. Examples: Most Swiss German dialects, being High-Alemannic dialects, have completed the High German consonant shift, that is, they have not only changed t to or and p to or but also k to or . Most Swiss dialects have initial or instead of k; there are however exceptions, namely the idioms of Chur and Basel. Basel German is a Low Alemannic dialect (like most, but not all, Alemannic dialects spoken in Germany), and Chur German is basically High Alemannic without initial or . Examples:

Pronunciation

Consonants

Like in all Southern German dialects, Swiss German dialects have no voiced obstruents. Instead, there is a length distinction. Swiss German are not aspirated. Aspirated have (in most dialects) secondarily developed by contractions or by borrowings from other languages (mainly standard German), e.g. 'keep' (standard German behalten); 'tea' (standard German Tee ); 'salary' (standard German Gehalt). In the dialects of Basel and Chur, aspirated /k/ is also present in native words. Unlike Standard German, Swiss German does not have the allophone , but is always , or in many dialects even . The typical Swiss shibboleth features this sound: Chuchichäschtli ('kitchen cupboard'), pronounced . Final hardening (Auslautverhärtung) is not present in Swiss German dialects. Since there are no voiced plosives, foreigners may get impressions similar to Standard German, however. Also, very often, long consonants are preceded by short vowels.

Vowels

Most Swiss German dialects have rounded front vowels, unlike many German dialects. Only in the Low Alemannic dialects of northwest Switzerland (mainly Basel) and in the Walliser dialects, these have been unrounded. Due to influence from other Swiss German dialects, the roundening is spreading. Like Bavarian dialects, Swiss German dialects have preserved the opening diphthongs of Middle High German: , e.g. in 'lovely' (standard German lieb, but pronounced ); 'hat' (standard German Hut ); 'cool' (standard German kühl ). Note that some of those diphthongs have been unrounded in several dialects. Like Low German dialects, Swiss German dialects have preserved the old monophthongs , e.g. 'arrow' (standard German Pfeil ); 'belly' (standard German Bauch ); 'pillar' (standard German Säule ). Western Swiss German dialects (e.g. Bernese German) have preserved the old diphthongs , whereas the other dialects have like Standard German.

Suprasegmentals

In many Swiss German dialects, consonant length and vowel length are independent from each other, whereas they interdepend in the other Germanic languages. Examples from Bernese German: Stress is more often on the first syllable than in standard German, even in French loans such as or "thanks". Note that there are many different stress patterns even within dialects. Bernese German is one of the dialects where many words are stressed on the first syllable, e.g. 'casin