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Corruption

Corruption

Corruption can refer to:
- Official corruption, the misuse of an offical position for private advantage
- Political corruption, corruption of the polical system through bribery, intimidation, extortion, vote buying, destabilization, or influence peddling
- Police corruption
- Corporate crime
- Data corruption, the receiving of data which is different from that which was transmitted or otherwise intended
- Corruption (linguistics) of language or a text into a broken form or a different meaning

Political corruption

This article needs a complete rewrite for the reasons listed on the talk page.
:This article is about political corruption. For other uses, see Corruption (disambiguation) In broad terms, political corruption is the misuse of public (governmental) power for illegitimate, usually secret, private advantage. All forms of government are susceptible to political corruption. Forms of corruption vary, but the most common are patronage, bribery, extortion, influence peddling, fraud, embezzlement, and nepotism. While corruption often facilitates criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and criminal prostitution, it is not restricted to these organized crime activities, and it does not always support or shield other crimes. What constitutes corruption differs depending on the country or jurisdiction. Certain political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some countries, police and prosecutors have broad discretion over who to arrest and charge, and the line between discretion and corruption can be difficult to draw, as in racial profiling. In countries with strong interest group politics, practices that could easily constitute corruption elsewhere are sometimes sanctified as official group preferences.

Negative effects

Effects on politics, administration, and institutions

Corruption poses a serious development challenge. In the political realm, it undermines democracy and good governance by flouting or even subverting formal processes. Corruption in elections and in legislative bodies reduces accountability and distorts representation in policymaking; corruption in the judiciary compromises the rule of law; and corruption in public administration results in the unfair provision of services. More generally, corruption erodes the institutional capacity of government as procedures are disregarded, resources are siphoned off, and public offices are bought and sold. At the same time, corruption undermines the legitimacy of government and such democratic values as trust and tolerance. See also: Good governance

Economic effects

Corruption also undermines economic development by generating considerable distortions and inefficiency. In the private sector, corruption increases the cost of business through the price of illicit payments themselves, the management cost of negotiating with officials, and the risk of breached agreements or detection. Although some claim corruption reduces costs by cutting red tape, the availability of bribes can also induce officials to contrive new rules and delays. Where corruption inflates the cost of business, it also distorts the playing field, shielding firms with connections from competition and thereby sustaining inefficient firms. Corruption also generates economic distortions in the public sector by diverting public investment into capital projects where bribes and kickbacks are more plentiful. Officials may increase the technical complexity of public sector projects to conceal or pave way for such dealings, thus further distorting investment. Corruption also lowers compliance with construction, environmental, or other regulations, reduces the quality of government services and infrastructure, and increases budgetary pressures on government. Economists argue that one of the factors behind the differing economic development in Africa and Asia is that in the former, corruption has primarily taken the form of rent extraction with the resulting financial capital moved overseas rather invested at home (hence the stereotypical, but sadly often accurate, image of African dictators having Swiss bank accounts). Corrupt administrations in Asia like Suharto's have often taken a cut on everything (requiring bribes), but otherwise provided more of the conditions for development, through infrastructure investment, law and order, etc. University of Massachusetts researchers estimated that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 sub-Saharan countries totalled $187bn, exceeding those nations' external debts.[http://www.newstatesman.com/Economy/200503140015] (The results, expressed in retarded or suppressed development, have been modelled in theory by economist Mancur Olson.) In the case of Africa, one of the factors for this behaviour was political instability, and the fact that new governments often confiscated previous government's corruptly-obtained assets. This encouraged officials to stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of any future expropriation.

Types of abuse

Bribery: Bribe-takers and bribe-givers

It takes two to create corruption: giving and taking bribes. In some countries the culture of corruption extends to every aspect of public life, making it extremely difficult to stay in business without resorting to bribes.

Graft

Graft is the act of a politician personally benefitting from public funds in a way other than prescribed by law. Graft is comparable to insider trading in business. New York's Senator George Washington Plunkitt once famously claimed that there was a difference between "honest" and "dishonest" graft. The classical example of graft is a politician using his knowledge of zoning and decision making to purchase land which he knows his political organization is interested in developing on, and then selling it at a significant profit to that organization. Large gifts from parties within the government also qualify as graft, and most countries have laws against it. (For example, any gift over $200 value made to the President of the United States is considered to be a gift to the Office of the Presidency and not to the President himself. The outgoing President must buy it if he wants to take it with him.)

Campaign contributions and soft money

In the political arena, it is difficult to prove corruption, but impossible to prove its absence. For this reason, there are often rumors about many politicians. Politicians are placed in apparently compromising positions because of their need to solicit financial contributions for their campaigns. Often, they then appear to be acting in the interests of those parties that fund them, giving rise to talk of political corruption. Supporters of politicians assert that it is entirely coincidental that many politicians appear to be acting in the interests of those who fund them. Cynics wonder why these organizations fund politicians at all, if they get nothing for their money. It should be noted that in the United States, firms, especially large ones, often fund both the Democratic and Republican parties, though most of them favor one party over the other. Because of the implications of corporations funding politicians, such as the perceived threat that these corporations are simply buying the votes of elected officials, certain countries, such as France, ban altogether the corporate funding of political parties. Because of the possible circumvention of this ban with respect to the funding of political campaigns, France also imposes maximum spending caps on campaigning; candidates that have exceeded those limits, or that have handed misleading accounting reports, risk having their candidacy ruled invalid, or even be prevented from running in future elections. In addition, the government funds political parties according to their successes in elections. In some countries, political parties are run solely off subscriptions (membership fees). Even legal measures such as these have been argued to be legalised corruption, in that they often favor the political status quo. Minor parties and independents often argue that efforts to rein in the influence of contributions do little more than protect the major parties with guaranteed public funding while constraining the possibility of private funding by outsiders. In these instances, officials are legally taking money from the public coffers for their election campaigns to guarantee that they will continue to hold their well-paid and influenctial positions.

Conditions favorable for corruption


- Adverse governance structures
  - Concentration of power in decision makers who are not practically accountable to the people.
  - Democracy absent or dysfunctional. See illiberal democracy.
- Information deficits
  - Lack of government transparency (Freedom of information) in decision making.
  - Contempt for or negligence of exercising freedom of speech or freedom of the press.
- Opportunities and incentives
  - Large investments of public capital.
  - Poorly-paid government officials.
- Social conditions
  - Self-interested closed cliques and "old-boy" networks.
  - Illiterate, apathetic or ignorant populace, with inadequate public discernment of political choices. See bounded rationality and rational ignorance.
- Deficits of law
  - Weak rule of law.
  - Weak legal profession.
- Imperfect electoral processes
  - Costly political campaigns, with expenses exceeding normal sources of political funding.
  - Absence of adequate controls to prevent bribery or "campaign donations".

Measuring corruption

Measuring corruption - in the statistical sense, to compare countries - is naturally not a straight-forward matter, since the participants are generally unforthcoming in regards to it. Transparency International, the leading anti-corruption NGO, provides three measures, updated annually: a Corruption Perceptions Index (based on experts' opinions of how corrupt different countries are); a Global Corruption Barometer (based on a survey of general public attitudes toward and experience of corruption); and a Bribe Payers Survey, looking at the willingness of foreign firms to pay bribes. Transparency International also publishes the [http://www.globalcorruptionreport.org/ Global Corruption Report]. The World Bank collects [http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/datatools.htm a range of data on corruption], including a set of [http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/data.html Governance Indicators]. The Transparency International has held perception surveys from time to time. The 10 least corrupt countries, according to one held in 2005, are (in alphabetical order): Australia, Austria, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, Sweden, and Switzerland According to the same survey, the 9 most corrupt countries are (in alphabetical order): Angola, Bangladesh, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Haiti, Myanmar, Nigeria, and Turkmenistan However, the value of that survey is disputed, as it is based on subjective perceptions. Sophistication of technology may be available to those countries considered by the public as "least corrupt" to conceal corruption beyond public purview or disguise it as legitimate dealings. Within the United States Mississippi, North Dakota and Louisiana are the top three corrupt states. New Hampshire, Oregon and Nebraska have the least amount of corruption. The largest states, California and Texas, are ranked in the middle, California ranking 25th and Texas in 29th. Nebraska, which is listed last on the corruption rank is only .52 and thats out of 100,000 people.

See also

Forms or aspects of corruption


- Cronyism and crony capitalism
- Bribery
- Nepotism
- Rent seeking
- Lobbying without public scrutiny

Good governance


- Good governance
- Rule of law
- Transparency
- Accountability

Theoretical aspects


- Principal-agent problem
- Rent seeking
- Conflict of interest

Anti-corruption authorities and measures


- Independent Commission Against Corruption
- United Nations Convention against Corruption

Examples of Corruption


- Political scandals of the United States
- Corruption scandals in the Paris region
- Illegal Logging
- Tangentopoli
- Bettino Craxi
- Manuel Fraga
- Corruption in Mumbai
- Sponsorship scandal

Corruption in fiction


- Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939)
- Henry Adams's novel Democracy (1880)
- Carl Hiaasen's novel Sick Puppy (1999)
- Christopher Largen's novel [http://www.waronjunk.com JUNK] (2005)

References


- Axel Dreher, Christos Kotsogiannis, Steve McCorriston (2004), [http://econwpa.wustl.edu:8089/eps/pe/papers/0406/0406004.pdf Corruption Around the World: Evidence from a Structural Model].

External links

Official sites


- [http://law-ref.org/CORRUPTION/index.html United Nations Convention against Corruption at Law-Ref.org] - fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
- [http://www.oecd.org/topic/0,2686,en_2649_37447_1_1_1_1_37447,00.html OECD: Corruption]
- [http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/ World Bank anti-corruption page]
- [http://www.unodc.org UN Office on Drugs and Crime] - Has sub-section dealing with corruption worldwide.
- [http://topics.developmentgateway.org/governance The Development Gateway's virtual library and online community on anti-corruption and good governance]
- [http://www.transparency.org/ Transparency International]

Research


- [http://www.transparency.org/surveys/index.html Corruption surveys] by Transparency International
- [http://www.againstcorruption.org/ UNICORN: A Global Trade Union Anti-corruption Network], based at Cardiff University
- [http://www.icgg.org/ Internet Center For Corruption Research]
- [http://www.ex.ac.uk/~RDavies/arian/scandals/political.html A collection of links to reports of alleged political corruption]
- [http://www.publicintegrity.org/ga/default.aspx Global Integrity Report] - Extensive analysis of openness and accountability of governments by the Center for Public Integrity.
- [http://www.orangutansonline.com/articles/article79.htm Rainforest Destruction in Indonesia, 2002]
- [http://samvak.tripod.com/nm089.html A typology of corrupt practices]
- [http://www.thecornerhouse.org.uk/subject/corruption/ Corner House: UK and anti-corruption]
- [http://www.institutionalreform.org/ Tool to analyze anti-corruption and institutional reform]
- [http://washingtontimes.com/national/20040118-114320-9103r.htm[States ranked as most corrupt - The Washington Times: Nation/Politics]

General


- [http://www.iwpr.net/home_index_new.html Regular Country Updates from Institute for War and Peace Reporting] Category:Political corruption Category:Fraud ms:Korupsi ja:汚職

Corporate crime

Corporate crime refers to criminal practices by individuals that have the legal authority to speak for a corporation or company. These can include presidents, CEOs, managers, directors and chairmen, sales people, agents, or anyone within a company that has authority to act on behalf of the firm. Examples of criminal behaviour in most jurisdictions include: antitrust violations, fraud, damage to the environment in violation of environmental legislation, exploitation of labour in violation of labour laws, and failure to maintain a fiduciary responsibility towards shareholders. Corporate accountability refers to being accountable to the stakeholders of the organization. These stakeholders may include shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, the local community, and the country(s) that the firm operates in. In most jurisdictions, a body of corporate law has been developed to formalize these requirements. Details of criminal activities conducted by corporations are available from organisations such as Corporate Watch, Corporate Watch UK and [http://www.pyramidschemealert.org/ Pyramid Scheme Alert]. Also, a Corporation Watch Wiki will be an integral part of the growing [http://www.knowmore.org/ Knowmore.org community]. Joel Bakan argued that as corporations increase profitability, they often engage in criminal activity.

See also


- Business ethics
- Anti-globalization movement
- Accounting scandals
- Investment bank
- Misleading financial analysis
- Mark Thomas & Billy Bragg - British campaigners for corporate accountability and manslaughter laws.
- Corporate abuse
  - Enron - notorious offenders.
  - Amway or Quixtar - controversial MLM-type offenders.

External links


- [http://www.corporations.org/ Corporate Accountability Project]
- [http://reclaimdemocracy.org/corporate_accountability/ford_firestone_manslaughter.html "Killing for Capital" (notable article)]
- [http://www.corporatecrimereporter.com/ Corporate Crime Reporter]
- [http://www.corporateaccountability.org/ Centre for Corporate Accountability]
- [http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/corporateresponsibility/ U.S. President on Corporate Responsibility]
- [http://www.business-ethics.com/ Business Ethics Magazing]
- [http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/ Corporate Watch] Category:Business ethics Category:Core issues in ethics

Data corruption

Data corruption refers to computer data that when transmitted, arrives at its destination as different than when it was transmitted from the source. This difference often makes the data unusable at its destination. This corruption can have a wide variety of causes. Some causes include interruption in the transmission of data, where the data has holes in it or is incomplete. Environmental conditions can often interfere with data transmission, especially when dealing with wireless transmission methods. Heavy clouds can sometimes block satellite transmissions. Wireless networks are susceptible to interference from devices such as microwave ovens. Data corruption can also occur during storage as well as during transmission of data. In cases where data corruption behaves as a Poisson process, where each individual bit of data has independently some low probability of being corrupted, data corruption can generally be detected by the use of checksums. This relies on the checksum being evaluated at intervals over which there is a negligibly small probability of multiple bits being corrupted in a way which has no net effect on the checksum. The longer the checksum, the smaller this probability becomes. The simplest form of checksum is a single parity bit, which can detect a single flipped bit in a given set (typically a byte) but not detect two (or any even number of) bit-flips. In the event that data corruption is detected, it can hopefully be re-transmitted (as occurs in the TCP protocol) or re-copied from backups. A special case is disk RAID arrays, where parity bits are commonly evaluated and stored (summed over the disk set for each given offset), and can be used to reconstruct the corrupted data in the event of the failure of a known single disk. Therefore, if appropriate mechanisms are employed to detect and remedy data corruption, the effects can be minimized. This is particularly important in banking, where an undetected bit-flip in a highly significant position could drastically affect an account balance, and in the use of encrypted or compressed data, where a bit-flip can make an extensive dataset unusable.

Corruption (linguistics)

A corruption of a word is the change of its spelling through errors and gradual changes in comprehension, transcription, and hearing. This is especially common with words borrowed from another language. For example Guangzhou was formerly known as Canton, which is a French language corruption of Guangdong. Language corruption may refer to two similar things:
- Corruption of words, as described above.
- Deviation from the "purity" of standard language. For example, the split infinitive has long been disputed over as either a corruption or norm of English language.

History

In the past, with unstandardized spelling for English and other languages, a word would be ignorantly mispronounced. Eventually such changes would become standardized. Such words have been created throughout recorded history, but a large number occurred during the 19th century. English is now highly standardized with some dialectal variation. It is less common for word corruption with increasing levels of education. The mass written communication of the Internet promotes even greater standardization, however its informal nature often encourages intentional corruption, known sometimes as bastardization. In online interactive games, chat rooms and other situations, common typos and attempts at humor have created a large amount of new alternate spellings (see below).

Examples

Some commonly known words that are corrupted versions of their predecessor include:
- pwn (a typo of own, which would mean "to defeat" or "to conquer")
- teh ("the")
- noob or n00b (alteration of newbie)
  - "Newbie" is a slur derived from "new boy"
- vamoose (Spanish verb with Western connotation)
- Cajun (brutal slur of Acadian or Acadien).
- Véi (fem: Vea, Slang Portuguese noun from Oldy (Velho) means guy in teen grups or old in all ages) The first two examples are common of virtual communities.

See also


- Portmanteau
- Neologism
- Morphology (linguistics) Category:Linguistics

Genappe

Geografio > Eŭropo > Belgio > Valonio > Valona Brabanto > Genappe ---- Genappe (france:[ĵeNAP'] aŭ nederlande:Genepiën) estas komunumo en Belgio. Ekde 1976, la komunumoj Baisy-Thy, Bousval, Loupoigne, Vieux-Genappe, Glabais, Ways kaj Houtain-le-Val apartenas al Genappe, la ĉefa komunumo. (france)

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