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Columns

Columns

A column in architecture and structural engineering is part of a structure whose purpose is to transmit through compression the weight of the structure. Other compression members are often termed columns because of the similar stress conditions. Columns can be either compounded of parts or made as a single piece. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest.

History

In the architecture of ancient Egypt as early as 2600 BC the architect Imhotep made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds; in later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of Persia especially the massive stone columns erected in Persepolis. They included double-bull structures in their capitals. The Hall of Hundred Columns at Persepolis, measuring 70 x 70 meters was built by the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes I (465-424). Many of the ancient Persian columns are standing. The impost (or pier) is the topmost member of a column. The bottom-most part of the arch, called the springer, rests on the impost.

The classical orders in Europe

The Roman author Vitruvius, relying on the writings (now lost) of Greek authors, tells us that the ancient Greeks believed that their Doric order developed from techniques for building in wood in which the earlier smoothed tree trunk was replaced by a stone cylinder. This myth of the transformation of wood into stone still causes controversy today - did the ancient Greeks invent columns this way for themselves, or did they imitate the stone construction of neighboring civilization?

Doric order

The Doric, or Tuscan, order is the oldest and simplest of the classical order. It is composed of a vertical cylinder that is wider at the bottom. It generally has neither a base nor a capital. It is often referred to as the masculine order because it is represented in the bottom level of the Colosseum, and was therefore considered to be able to hold more weight. The height-to-thickness ratio is about 4:1. Colosseum, Athens, 421-407 BC]]

Ionic order

The Ionic column is considerably more complex than the Doric. It usually has a base and the shaft is often fluted (it has grooves carved up its length). On the top is a capital in the characteristic shape of a scroll, called a volute, at the four corners. The height-to-thickness ratio is around 6:1.

Corinthian order

The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, to which it was connected in the period. However, according to the Greek architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus, probably an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket. In fact, the oldest known Corinthian capital was found in Bassae, dated at 427 BC. It is sometimes called the feminine order because it is on the top level of the Colosseum and holding up the least weight. It is similar to the Ionic order, but rather than a scroll, the Corinthian capital consists of rows of acanthus leaves. Many variations have been made on the Corinthian capital. For instance, the capitals of the Capitol building in Washington, DC are made up partially of wheat stalks.

Notable columns


- Persepolis's columns
- Trajan's Column
- Monument to the Great Fire of London
- Nelson's Column
- Sigismund's Column

See also


- Forms in architecture
- Colonnade
- Persian column
- Pilaster
- Buckling Category:Architectural elements category:Architectural history Category:Buildings and structures ja:柱

Architecture

Architecture (in Greek αρχή = start and τέχνη = craftsmanship) is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. A wider definition would include within its scope the design of the total built environment, from the macrolevel of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the microlevel of furniture. furniture, Athens, Greece]] However, the widest definition in modern use refers to the organization, articulation, and interfaces of any built (or To Be Built— TBB) entity, whether a building or a communications' network. That is, an architecture, in its broadest sense, shows how the components of a built or TBB entity fit together. An architecture may be considered a translation between a user's needs and a builder's building instructions, or requirements. The components of an architecture may be already built items, or specified items (items whose building requirements have been completed), or To Be Specified items (items whose building requirements have not yet been been completed, and for which only user or builder needs may be assigned).

Introduction

The skills of the architect are used in complex building types such as the skyscraper, hospital, stadium, airport, etc. to less complicated projects such as commercial and residential buildings and development. Many pieces of architecture can be seen as cultural and political symbols. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes unsuccessful) design and implementation of the built environment in which we live.

Scope and intentions

According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject, Vitruvius' De architectura, good buildings satisfy three core principles: Firmness, Commodity, and Delight; architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. A modern day definition sees architecture as addressing aesthetic, structural and functional considerations. However, looked at another way, function itself is seen as encompassing all criteria, including aesthetic and psychological ones. Architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, including within its fold mathematics, science, art, technology, social sciences, politics, history, philosophy, and so on. In Vitruvius' words: "Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts". He adds that an architect should be well versed in fields such as music, astronomy, etc. Philosophy is a particular favourite; in fact the approach of an architect to their subject is often called their philosophy. Rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology are some topics from philosophy that have influenced architecture. phenomenology, Italy]] # Translation of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html] due to Henry Wotton, 1624 [http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3].

Theory and practice

Architecture and buildings

The difference between architecture and building is a subject matter that has engaged the attention of many. According to Nikolaus Pevsner, European historian of the early 20th century, "A bicycle shed is a building, Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of architecture". In current thinking, the division is not too clear. Bernard Rudofsky's famous Architecture Without Architects consolidated a whole range of structures designed by ordinary people into the realm of architecture. Architecture is also the art of designing the human built environment. Buildings, landscaping, and street designs may be used to impart both functional as well as aesthetic character to a project. Siding and roofing materials and colors may be used to enhance or blend buildings with the environment. Building features such as cornices, gables, entrances, window treatments and borders may be used to soften or enhance portions of a building. Landscaping may be used to create privacy and block direct views from or to a site and enhance buildings with colorful plants and trees. Street side features such as decorative lighting, benches, meandering walkways, and bicycle lanes may enhance a site for passersby, pedestrians, and cyclists.

Architectural history

Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). Prehistoric and primitive architecture constitute this early stage. As humans progressed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions and practices, architecture evolved into a craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Vernacular architecture, India]] Early human settlements were essentially rural. As surplus of production began to occur, rural societies transformed into urban ones and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians' architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural. However, the architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilisations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from more civic ideas and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed and texts on architecture began to be written. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are the works of Vitruvius, the Kaogongji of ancient China and Vaastu Shastra in ancient India. In Europe in the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individual architects who remained anonymous. Guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged. Islamic architecture has a long and complex history beginning in the 7th century CE. Examples can be found throughout the countries that are, or were, Islamic - from Morocco and Spain to Iran, and Indonesia. Other examples can be found in areas where Muslims are a minority. Islamic architecture includes mosques, madrasas, caravansarais, palaces, and mausolea of this large region. With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - Michaelangelo, Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved were within the scope of the generalist. With the consolidation of knowledge in scientific fields such as engineering and the rise of new materials and technology, the architect began to lose ground on the technical aspects of building. He therefore cornered for himself another playing field - that of aesthetics. There was the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes. In the 19th century Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, the training was toward producing quick sketch schemes involving beautiful drawings without much emphasis on context. France, USA]] Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass consumption and aesthetics started becoming a criterion even for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Industrial Revolution, India]] The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that in architecture served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology. When Modern architecture first began to be practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Truth was sought by rejecting history and turning to function as the generator of form. Architects became prominent figures and were termed masters. Later modern architecture moved into the realm of mass production due to its simplicity and economy. However, a reduction in quality of modern architecture was perceived by the general public from the 1960s. Some reasons cited for this are its lack of meaning, sterility, ugliness, uniformity, and psychological effects. The architectural profession responded to this partly by attempting a more populist architecture at the visual level, even if at the expense of sacrificing depth for shallowness, a direction called Postmodernism. Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are considered together) gives an idea of this approach. Another part of the profession, and also some non-architects, responded by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Chris Jones, Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-orientated designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioural, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process. As many other concerns began to be recognised and complexity of buildings began to increase in terms of aspects such as services, architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture now required a team of professionals in its making, an architect being one among the many, sometimes the leader, sometimes not. This is the state of the profession today. However, individuality is still cherished and sought for in the design of buildings seen as cultural symbols - the museum or fine arts centre has become a showcase for new experiments in style: today Deconstructivism, tomorrow maybe something else.

See also

Deconstructivism, including the egg-shaped Swiss Re tower. In 2004 this building won the Stirling Prize for its architects Foster and Partners ]] Foster and Partners]
- Architect
- Architectural history
- Architectural style
  - Classical architecture
  - Ideological architecture
    - Nazi architecture
    - Stalinist architecture
  - Byzantine architecture
  - Persian (Iranian) architecture
  - List of house styles
  - Modern architecture
  - Religious architecture
    - Cathedral architecture
    - Synagogue architecture
  - Vastu
  - Vernacular architecture
- Architectural theory
  - Mathematics and architecture
  - Pattern language
  - Proportion (architecture)
  - Space syntax
- Architecture timeline
- Building code
- Building construction
- Building material
- Environmental design
- Energy efficient building (Green building)
- Forms in architecture
- Interior design
- Landscape architecture
- List of architects
- List of architecture firms
- List of architecture prizes
  - Pritzker Prize
  - Stirling Prize
- List of buildings
  - Skyscraper
- Russian architecture
- Structural engineering
- Sustainable design
- Sustainable architecture
- Urban planning
- World Heritage Sites

External links


- [http://www.pygmies.info/camps.html African Pygmies Architecture]
- [http://www.aia.org/ American Institute of Architects]
- [http://www.architectsindex.com/ ArchitectsIndex - Directory of UK Architects along with work examples]
- [http://www.architypes.net/ Architypes - Wiki of architecture design principles and patterns]
- [http://www.architecture.com/ Architecture.com - Courtesy of the Royal Institute of British Architects]
- [http://www.archpedia.com/ Archpedia - architecture encyclopedia]
- [http://www.vernarch.com/ Center for vernacular Architecture-Bangalore-India]
- [http://st-takla.org/Gallery/Gallery-Coptic-Orthodox-Architecture-01.html Christian Coptic Orthodox Architecture] at http://St-Takla.org
- [http://www.cupola.com/bldgstr1.htm Cupola - Building and Structure Photo Galleries]
- [http://www.danda.be/ Danda - News and reviews on architecture]
- [http://www.iab.org.br/ Instituto de Arquitetos do Brasil]
- [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org Islamic Architecture]
- [http://www.archinform.net/ Archinform - International Architecture Database]
- [http://architect.architecture.sk Famous architects]
- [http://www.galinsky.com/ Galinsky - People enjoying buildings worldwide]
- [http://www.glasssteelandstone.com/ Global Architecture Encyclopedia - Glass Steel and Stone]
- [http://www.thehopkinscompany.com/glossary/glossary.html Glossary of Architectural Terms]
- [http://www.greatbuildings.com/ Great Buildings Collection]
- [http://www.nyc-architecture.com/ New York architecture images]
- [http://www.riba.org Royal Institute of British Architects]
- [http://www.sah.org/ Society of Architectural Historians]
- [http://www.vitruvio.ch/ Vitruvio]
- [http://worldheritage-forum.net/de/ Worldheritage-Forum: Weblog and Information on UNESCO World Heritage topics] Category:Applied sciences Category:Arts ko:건축 ms:Seni bina ja:建築学 simple:Architecture th:สถาปัตยกรรมศาสตร์

Structural engineering

Structural engineering is the field of civil engineering particularly concerned with the design of load-bearing structures. In practice, it is largely the implementation of mechanics to the design of structures, such as buildings, bridges, walls (including retaining walls), dams, tunnels, etc. Structural engineers need to design structures so that while serving their useful function, they do not reach collapse (structural failure or ultimate limit), and do not bend, twist, sag or vibrate in undesirable ways (serviceability limit). This is usually done using limit state design. In addition, structural engineers are responsible for making efficient use of funds and materials to achieve these structural goals. Typically, apprentice structural engineers may design simple beams, columns, and floors of a new building, including calculating the loads on each member and the load capacity of various building materials (steel, timber, masonry, concrete). An experienced engineer would tend to design more complex structures, such as multi-story buildings (including skyscrapers), or bridges. In the United States, the structural engineering field is often subdivided into bridge engineering and structural engineering for buildings. Additionally, structural engineers often further specialize into special structure manufacture or construction, such as pipeline engineering or industrial structures. Of the many project design team members (architect, structural, civil, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, fire protection, cladding systems), the structural engineer is the person who typically needs to be in closest coordination with the architect. Loads are generally classified as: live loads such as the weight of occupants and furniture in a building, the forces of wind or weights of water, and the forces due to an earthquake; or dead loads including the weight of the structure itself and all major architectural components. Traditionally, structural engineering used careful placement of coordinate axes to simplify complex equations associated with tensor quantities such as stress and resulting deflection of structural elements, such as beams. This simplification was essential to being able to solve problems. A successful engineer must design a structure to withstand the loads specified to be placed upon it. As long as the design loads are not exceeded the structure should spring back when the load is lifted, or hold steady indefinitely. The advance of computer software has allowed many of the more complicated calculations to be carried out more accurately and quickly. One of the most important structural analysis methods is static analysis. The sum of the forces acting on the structure are equal to the sum of the supporting reactions - the forces acting on the structure are in equilibrium. Static analysis can be performed manually or by using computer and other methods including finite element analysis software. Due to the complexity and time constraints imposed in modern projects, computer analysis will commonly be used as a primary tool for structural analysis. Manual checks will only be performed on global structural behaviour and critical elements. The materials that make up the structure are often assumed to be homogeneous and to deform elastically. In practice, structural materials are not actually perfectly homogenous or elastic. Certain design procedures, such as plastic design or nonlinear analysis take advantage of non-elastic behavior. Another analytical method is called dynamic analysis. It involves calculating the dynamic properties, such as vibration periods and vibration shapes of the structure, to determine the maximum internal forces of all structural members when they response to external shaking. Dynamic analysis is very common in seismic design due to the dynamic nature of earthquake. Since only the maximum forces of each structural members can be calculated, the analytical result will no longer be in equilibrium. A simple method called Equivalent Static Method has been created to overcome this issue by simulating a set of static forces. However this method gives meaningful result only when the structure is regular and mass is uniformly distributed, which rarely occur in real project.

See also


- Architects
- Civil engineering
- Dynamics
- Engineering mechanics
- Hurricane proof building
- Permissible stress design
- Statics
- Stress analysis
- Structural analysis
- Structural design
- Landscape Architecture
- Limit state design

External links


- [http://www.istructe.org.uk Institution of Structural Engineers]
- [http://www.seaint.org Structural Engineering Association - International]
- [http://www.seaonc.org Structural Engineering Association of Northern California]
- [http://www.seaocc.org Structural Engineering Association of Central California]
- [http://www.seaint.org/seaosc Structural Engineering Association of Southern California] Category:Civil engineering Engineer, Structural ja:構造力学

Beam (structure)

A beam is a structural element that carries load primarily in bending (flexure). Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e. loads due to a gust of wind or an earthquake). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls or girders, which in turn transfer the force to adjacent structural members. Beams are characterized by their profile (the shape of their cross-section), their length, and their material. In contemporary construction, beams are typically made of steel, reinforced concrete, or wood. One of the most common types of steel beam is the I-beam or wide-flange beam (also known as a "universal beam" or, for stouter sections, a "universal column"). This is commonly used in steel-frame buildings and bridges. Other common beam profiles are the C-channel, the hollow structural section beam, the pipe, and the angle. Internally, beams experience both compressive and tensile stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Under gravity loads, the top of the beam is under compression while the bottom of the beam is under tension, leaving the middle of the beam relatively stress-free. However, there are some reinforced concrete beams that are entirely in compression. These beams are known as prestressed beams. High strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has begun to cure, the tendons are released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are commonly used on highway bridges. The I-beam is so common because it makes efficient use of material for carrying loads in bending—it maximizes material at the top and bottom of the beam where the bulk of the load is carried. The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation. Other mathematical methods for determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual work" and the "slope deflection method." Engineers are interested in determining deflections because the beam may be in direct contact with a brittle material such as glass. Beam deflections are also minimised for aesthetic reasons. A visibly sagging beam, though perhaps safe, is unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high modulus of elasticity and high moment of inertia) produces less deflection. Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment distribution method," the "force or flexibility method," and the "stiffness method." Category:Structural engineering ja:梁 (建築)

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a civilization along the Lower Nile extending from as far south as Jebel Barkal, Napata [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05329b.htm], and then northward to the Mediterranean Sea, though varying in size throughout its history between circa 3200 BC and 343 BC, ending with the conquest of Alexander the Great. As a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire.

Geography

Most of Egypt is in North Africa; though the Sinai Peninsula is in Southwest Asia. The country has shorelines on the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea; it borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip, Palestine and Israel to the east. Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. Somewhat counter-intuitively, Upper Egypt was in the south and Lower Egypt in the north, named according to the flow of the Nile. The Nile river flows northward from a southerly point to the Mediterranean rather than southward from a northerly point. The Nile river, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the Stone Age and Naqada cultures. Two kingdoms formed Kemet ("the black land", in Ancient Egyptian Kmt), the name for the dark soil deposited by the Nile floodwaters. The desert was called Deshret ("the red land"), c.f. Herodotus: "Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that Libya is a redder earth" (Histories, 2:12).

People

Libya]] A recent genetic study links the maternal lineage of a traditional population from Upper Egypt to Eastern Africa . A separate study further narrows the genetic lineage to Northeast Africa () and reveals also that modern day Egyptians "reflect a mixture of European, Middle Eastern, and African." Champollion the Younger, who deciphered the Rosetta Stone, claimed in Expressions et Termes Particuliers ("Expression of Particular Terms") that Kmt did not actually refer to the soil but to a negroid population in the sense of "Black Nation." Modern day professional Egyptologists, linguists and historians, however, overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the soil rather than the people. Herodotus wrote, "the Colchians are Egyptians... on the fact that they are black-skinned (melanchrôs) and wooly-haired (oulothrix)" (Histories Book 2:104). Later authors, including Aristotle and Diodorus Siculus, repeated Herodotus' description of "black-skinned". Melanchros is also used of the sunburnt complexion of Odysseus (Od. 16.176). Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet , mummies from circa 3200 BC show signs of severe anemia and hemolitic disorders . A few teams of European scientists reported that cocaine, hashish and nicotine have been found in the skin and hair of Egyptian mummies . The results of these studies have been harshly criticized (e.g., ref. ) by mainstream scientists and Egyptologists as flawed and inaccurate.

History

:Main article: History of ancient Egypt The ancient Egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called Punt, or "Ta Nteru" ("Land of the Gods"). Once commonly thought to be located on what is today the Somali coast, Punt now is thought to have been in either southern Sudan or Eritrea. The history of ancient Egypt proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3000 BC. Though archaeological evidence indicates a developed Egyptian society may have existed for a much longer period (see Predynastic Egypt). Along the Nile, in 10th millennium BC, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering peoples using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border, before 8000 BC. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara (c.2500 BC), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society (see Nile: History). There is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the 7th millennium BC. By 6000 BC ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Mortar (masonry) was in use by 4000 BC. The Predynastic Period continues through this time, variously held to begin with the Naqada culture. Some authorities however begin the Predynastic Period earlier, in the Lower Paleolithic (see Predynastic Egypt). Egypt unified as a single state circa 3000 BC. Egyptian chronology involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's Aegyptaica.
- List of pharaohs: The pharaohs stretch from before 3000 BC to around 30 BC.
- Dynasties (see also: List of Egyptian dynasties):
  - Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. 27th century BC)
  - Old Kingdom (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries BC)
  - First Intermediate Period (7th to 11th Dynasties)
  - Middle Kingdom of Egypt (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th to 17th centuries BC)
  - Second Intermediate Period (14th to 17th Dynasties)
    - Hyksos (15th to 16th Dynasties)
  - New Kingdom of Egypt (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC)
  - Third Intermediate Period (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC)
  - Late Period of Ancient Egypt (26th to 31st Dynasties; 7th century BC to 332 BC)
    - Achaemenid Dynasty
  - Graeco-Roman Egypt (332 BC to AD 639)
    - Ptolemaic Dynasty
    - Roman Empire

Government

Nomes were the subnational administrative divisions of Upper and Lower Egypt. The pharaoh was the ruler of these two kingdoms and headed the ancient Egyptian state structure. The pharaoh served as monarch, spiritual leader and commander-in-chief of both the army and navy. The pharaoh was supposed to be divine, a connection between men and gods. Below him in the government, were the viziers (one for Upper Egypt and one for Lower Egypt) and various officials. Under him on the religious side were the high priest and various other priests. Generally, the position was handed down from father to eldest son. Sometimes this rule was broken, and occasionally a woman assumed power.

Language

The ancient Egyptians spoke an Afro-Asiatic language related to Chadic, Berber and Semitic languages. Records of the ancient Egyptian language have been dated to about 3200 BC. Scholars group the Egyptian language into six major chronological divisions:
- Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC)
- Old Egyptian (2600–2000 BC)
- Middle Egyptian (2000–1300 BC)
- Late Egyptian (1300–700 BC)
- Demotic Egyptian (7th century BC–4th century AD)
- Coptic (3rd–12th century AD)

Writing

For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the Narmer Palette, found during excavations at Hierakonpolis (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to c.3200 BC. However recent archaeological findings reveal that symbols on Gerzean pottery, c.4000 BC, resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms . Also in 1998 a German archeological team under Gunter Dreyer excavating at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) uncovered tomb U-j, which belonged to a Predynastic ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto-hieroglyphics dating to the Naqada IIIA period, circa 33rd century BC , . Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as hieroglyphs, today standing as the world's earliest known writing system. The hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic, partly ideographic. Hieratic is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC – c. 2775 BC). The term Demotic, in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the Nubian 25th dynasty until its marginalization by the Greek Koine in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Coptic language survived into the Middle Ages as the liturgical language of the Christian minority. Beginning from around 2700 BC, Egyptians used pictograms to represent vocal sounds -- both vowel and consonant vocalizations (see Hieroglyph: Script). By 2000 BC, 26 pictograms were being used to represent 24 (known) main vocal sounds. The world's oldest known alphabet (c. 1800 BC) is only an abjad system and was derived from these uniliteral signs as well as other Egyptian hieroglyphs. The hieroplyphic script finally fell out of use around the 4th century and began to be rediscovered after the 15th century (see Hieroglyphica).

Literature


- c. 2500 BC: Westcar Papyrus
- c. 1800 BC: Story of Sinuhe
- c. 1800 BC: Ipuwer papyrus
- c. 1800 BC: Papyrus Harris I
- c. 1000 BC: Story of Wenamun

Culture

The Egyptian religions, embodied in Egyptian mythology, were the succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, until the coming of Christianity and Islam. These were conducted by Egyptian priests or magicians, but the use of magic and spells is questioned. The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the arts of the ancient world. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. Ancient Egyptian art in general is characterized by the idea of order. Evidence of mummies and pyramids outside ancient Egypt indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other prehistoric cultures, transmitted in one way over the Silk Road. Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are sexually symbolic.

Ancient achievements

symbolic See Predynastic Egypt for inventions and other significant achievements in the Sahara region before the Protodynastic Period. The art and science of engineering was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as surveying). These skills were used to outline pyramid bases. The Egyptian pyramids took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. Hydraulic Cement was first invented by the Egyptians. The Al Fayyum Irrigation (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the First dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai Peninsula. The earliest evidence (circa 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri. The roots of the Scientific method may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known alphabet, decimal system and complex mathematical formularizations, in the form of the Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri. An awareness of the golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the Egyptian pyramids.

Timeline

(All dates are approximate.)

Predynastic

See main article and timeline: Predynastic Egypt.
- 3500 BC: Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
- 3500 BC: Faience, world's earliest known earthenware

Dynastic


- 3300 BC: Bronze works (see Bronze Age)
- 3200 BC: Egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed (see First dynasty of Egypt)
- 3200 BC: Narmer Palette, world's earliest known historical document
- 3100 BC: Decimal system, , world's earliest (confirmed) use
- 3100 BC: Wine cellars, world's earliest known
- 3100 BC: Mining, Sinai Peninsula
- 3050 BC: Shipbuilding in Abydos,
- 3000 BC: Exports from Nile to Israel: wine (see Narmer)
- 3000 BC: Copper plumbing (see Copper: History)
- 3000 BC: Papyrus, world's earliest known paper
- 3000 BC: Medical Institutions
- 2900 BC: possible steel: carbon-containing iron,
- 2700 BC: Surgery, world's earliest known
- 2700 BC: precision Surveying
- 2700 BC: Uniliteral signs, forming basis of world's earliest known alphabet
- 2600 BC: Sphinx, still today the world's largest single-stone statue
- 2600s–2500 BC: Shipping expeditions: King Sneferu and Pharaoh Sahure. See also , .
- 2600 BC: Barge transportation, stone blocks (see Egyptian pyramids: Construction)
- 2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser, world's earliest known large-scale stone building
- 2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid & Red Pyramid, world's earliest known works of carved granite
- 2600 BC: Red Pyramid, world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid granite work granite]
- 2580 BC: Great Pyramid of Giza, the world's tallest structure until AD 1300
- 2500 BC: Beekeeping,
- 2400 BC: Astronomical Calendar, used even in the Middle Ages for its mathematical regularity
- 2200 BC: Beer,
- 1860 BC: possible Nile-Red Sea Canal (Twelfth dynasty of Egypt)
- 1800 BC: Alphabet, world's oldest known
- 1800 BC: Berlin Mathematical Papyrus, , 2nd order algebraic equations
- 1800 BC: Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, generalized formula for volume of frustum
- 1650 BC: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: geometry, cotangent analogue, algebraic equations, arithmetic series, geometric series
- 1600 BC: Edwin Smith papyrus, medical tradition traces as far back as c. 3000 BC
- 1550 BC: Ebers Medical Papyrus, traditional empiricism; world's earliest known documented tumors (see History of medicine)
- 1500 BC: Glass-making, world's earliest known
- 1258 BC: Peace treaty, world's earliest known (see Ramesses II, )
- 1160 BC: Turin papyrus, world's earliest known geologic and topographic map
- 5th–4th century BC (or perhaps earlier): battle games petteia and seega; possible precursors to Chess (see Origins of chess)

Other


  - c.2500 BC: Westcar Papyrus
  - c.1800 BC: Ipuwer papyrus
  - c.1800 BC: Papyrus Harris I
  - c.1400 BC: Tulli Papyrus
  - c.1300 BC: Brugsch Papyrus
  - Unknown date: Rollin Papyrus

Open problems

There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian Iron Age nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using iron. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked granite. The exact date the Egyptians started producing glass is debated. Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if the Egyptians used engines or batteries. The relief at Dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the Saqqara Bird is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of aerodynamics. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had kites or gliders. Beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several Roman writers — Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro and Columella. It is unknown whether Egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from Southern Asia.

See also


- List of Ancient Egyptians
- Egyptology
- Unsolved problems in Egyptology
- History of Egypt
- List of Ancient Egyptian sites
- Egyptian Museum
- Race of the Ancient Egyptians
- Egypt in the European imagination

Further reading


- John Baines & Jaromir Malek, The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt, revised edition, Facts on File, 2000. ISBN 0816040362
- Barry Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, Routledge, 1991. ISBN 0415063469
- Bill Manley (ed.), The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0500051232
- Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0192804588

External links


- [http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/ Ancient Egypt] - maintained by the British Museum, this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents
- [http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientegypt/ Ancient Egypt and Egyptians] articles and resources from About Archaeology
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ BBC History: Egyptians] - provides a reliable general overview and further links
- [http://www.ancientneareast.net/egypt.html Ancientneareast.net: Ancient Egypt] - provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt
- [http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/egypt/ Egyptology Resources] - maintained by Dr Nigel Strudwick, offers one reliable guide to online documentation of Ancient Egypt
- [http://www.kv5.com/ The Theban Mapping Project] - although focusing on the Theban region (modern Luxor), this site holds much of general interest relating to Ancient Egypt

Notes

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # Category:Ancient Egypt ja:古代エジプト ms:Mesir purba

2600 BC

(27th century BC - 26th century BC - 25th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) ----

Events


- 2900 - 2334 BC – Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period.
- 2580 BC – Estimated date of completion of the Great Pyramid of Giza.
- 2500 BC – The legendary line of Sanhuangwudi rulers of China is founded by Huang Di (approximate date).
- 2500 BC – approximate beginning of New Stone Age (Neolithic) in Britain
- 2500 BC – the construction of the stone circle at Stonehenge begins and continues for the next five hundred years.

Significant persons


- Pharaoh Khufu (aka Cheops) of Egypt's Fourth Dynasty ruled from around 2589 to 2566 BC.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions


- 2575 BC – A foot defined as 26.45 cm by Sumerian ruler Gudea of Lagash.
- Rock drawings at Rødøy in Norway show the use of skis.
- Bactrian Camel and Dromedary are domesticated Category:26th century BC

Imhotep

Imhotep (sometimes spelt Immutef, Ȧmhotep, or Ii-em-Hotep, Egyptian ii-m-ḥtp) was a vizier, wizard, and the first architect and physician known by name to written history. As the Pharaoh Djosèr's Vizier, he designed the Pyramid of Djzosèr (Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC, during the 3rd Dynasty. He may also have been responsible for the first known use of columns in architecture. His name means the one who comes in peace. Imhotep also served as chancellor to the pharaoh and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. He was said to be a son of Ptah, his mother being a mortal named Khredu-ankh. He was revered as a genius and showered with titles. The full list of titles is: Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, First after the King of Upper Egypt, Administrator of the Great Palace, Hereditary nobleman, High Priest of Heliopolis, Builder, Sculptor and Maker of Vases in Chief. Imhotep is credited as the founder of Egyptian medicine, and as author of the Edwin Smith papyrus, detailing cures, ailments and anatomical observations. The Edwin Smith Papyrus was probably written around 1700 BC but may perhaps go back to texts written around 1000 years earlier. Two thousand years after his death, his status was raised to that of a god. Imhotep became the god of medicine and healing. He was linked to Asclepius by the Greeks. As the son of Ptah, his mother was sometimes said to be Sekhmet, who was often said to be married to Ptah, since she was the patron of Upper Egypt. As he was thought of as the inventor of healing, he was also sometimes said to be the one who held Nuit (deification of the sky) up, as the separation of Nuit and Geb (deification of the earth) was said to be what held chaos back. Due to the position this would have placed him in, he was also sometimes said to be Nuit's son. In artwork he is also linked with Hathor, who was the wife of Ra, Maat, which was the concept of truth and justice, and Amenhotep son of Hapu, who was another deified architect. The location for Imhotep's tomb is still unknown. Many egyptologists have tried locating it but so far haven't succeeded. The general consensus is that his tomb is located at Saqqara.

Fringe theories

One fringe theory, supported by a very few amateur egyptologists, is that Imhotep has a similarity to Joseph (Hebrew Bible) son of Jacob (also known as Israel). [http://www.s8int.com/joseph.html]

Modern cultural impact

Imhotep is also the name of a fictional character played by Boris Karloff in the 1932 movie The Mummy, and of a similar character played by Arnold Vosloo in the 1999 movie The Mummy and its sequel The Mummy Returns. The architect Imhotep most likely provided the name (but just the name) for the character. 'Imhotep' is also the name of the mortuary priest in Agatha Christie's novel 'Death Comes as the End'. 'Imhotep' is also the name of wide receiver Imhotep Durham for the Virginia Cavaliers football team for the year of 2004. 'Imhotep' is also the name of a well-known French rapper from the group Iam. The name Imhotep was used by a minor Goa'uld in the Stargate SG-1 episode 'The Warrior'. Imhotep pretended to be a Jaffa, and led an army of Jaffa in order to kill other Goa'uld and gain power. He was killed by SG-1 'Imhotep' was used as a continuing in-joke in the BBC series Look Around You, portrayed as an Easter Island monolith.

See also


- List of Egypt-related topics
  - History of Ancient Egypt
    - Old Kingdom
    - Third dynasty of Egypt
  - Pharaoh
  - Pyramid of Djoser
  - Ptah
- Other lists
  - List of people known by one name
  - List of deities
  - List of architects
- Timeline of medicine and medical technology
- Column Category:Ancient Egyptians Category:Egyptian gods Imhotep Category:Wisdom gods ms:Imhotep

Persepolis

:Alternate meanings: Persepolis (football), Persepolis (graphic novel) ---- Persepolis was an ancient capital of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, situated some 70 km northeast of Shiraz, not far from where the small river Pulwar flows into the Kur (Kyrus). Shiraz The largest and most complex building in Persepolis was the audience hall or Apadana with 36 columns, accessible by two monumental stairs.

Site

The site is marked by a large terrace with its east side leaning on Kuh-e Rahmet ("the Mount of Grace"). The other three sides are formed by a retaining wall, varying in height with the slope of the ground from 5 to 13 meters on the west side a magnificent double stair, of very easy steps, which leads to the top. On this terrace are the ruins of a number of colossal buildings, all constructed of dark-grey marble from the adjacent mountain. Especially striking are the huge pillars, of which a number still stand erect. Several of the buildings were never finished. F. Stolze has shown that in some cases even the mason's rubbish has not been removed. These ruins, for which the name Kizil minare or Chihil menare ("the forty columns or minarets"), can be traced back to the 13th century, are now known as Takhti Jamshid ("the throne of Jamshid"). That they represent the Persepolis captured and partly destroyed by Alexander of Macedon has been beyond dispute at least since the time of Pietro della Valle. Behind Takhti Jamshid are three sepulchres hewn out of the rock in the hillside. The facades, one of which is incomplete, being richly ornamented with reliefs. About 13 km NNE, on the opposite side of the Pulwar, rises a perpendicular wall of rock, in which four similar tombs are cut, at a considerable height from the bottom of the valley. The modern Persians call this place Naksh-i Rustam ("the picture of Rustam"), from the Sassanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to be a representation of the mythical hero Rustam. That the occupants of these seven tombs were kings might be inferred from the sculptures, and one of those at Nakshi Rustam is expressly declared in its inscription to be the tomb of Darius Hystaspis, concerning whom Ctesias relates that his grave was in the face of a rock, and could only be reached by means of an apparatus of ropes. Ctesias mentions further, with regard to a number of Persian kings, either that their remains were brought "to the Persians," or that they died there. CtesiasCtesias

Tombs of kings

Now we know that Cyrus the Great was buried at Pasargadae and if there is any truth in the statement that the body of Cambyses II was brought home "to the Persians" his burying-place must be sought somewhere beside that of his father. In order to identify the graves of Persepolis we must bear in mind that Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence the kings buried at Nakshi Rustam are probably, besides Darius the Great, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I and Darius II. Xerxes II, who reigned for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus (Secydianus). The two completed graves behind Takhti Jamshid would then belong to Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III. The unfinished one is perhaps that of Arses of Persia, who reigned at the longest two years, or, if not his, then that of Darius III (Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have been brought "to the Persians." Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the village of Hajjiäbäd, on the Pulwar, a good hour's walk above Takhti Jamshid. These formed a single building, which was still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the mosque of the then existing city of Istakhr. Istakhr] Since Cyrus the great was buried in Pasargadae, which is mentioned by Ctesias as his own city, and since, to judge from the inscriptions, the buildings of Persepolis commenced with Darius I, it was probably under this king, with whom the sceptre passed to a new branch of the royal house, that Persepolis became the capital of Persia proper. As a residence, however, for the rulers of the empire, a remote place in a difficult alpine region was far from convenient, and the real capitals were Susa, Babylon and Ecbatana. This accounts for the fact that the Greeks were not acquainted with the city until it was taken and plundered by Alexander the Great. It has been universally admitted that "the palaces" or "the palace" burned down by Alexander are those now in ruins at Takhti Jamshid. From Stolze's investigations it appears that at least one of these, the castle built by Xerxes, bears evident traces of having been destroyed by fire. The locality described by Diodorus after Cleitarchus corresponds in important particulars with Takhti Jamshid, for example, in being supported by the mountain on the east.

Ancient texts

The relevant passages from ancient scholars on the subject are set out below: :(Diod. 17.70.1-73.2) 17.70 (1) Persepolis was the capital of the Persian kingdom. Alexander described it to the Macedonians as the most hateful of the cities of Asia, and gave it over to his soldiers to plunder, all but the palaces. (2) +It was the richest city under the sun and the private houses had been furnished with every sort of wealth over the years. The Macedonians raced into it slaughtering all the men whom they met and plundering the residences; many of the houses belonged to the common people and were abundantly supplied with furniture and wearing apparel of every kind…. :72 (1) Alexander held games in honour of his victories. He performed costly sacrifices to the gods and entertained his friends bountifully. While they were feasting and the drinking was far advanced, as they began to be drunken a madness took possession of the minds of the intoxicated guests. (2) At this point one of the women present, Thais by name and Attic by origin, said that for Alexander it would be the finest of all his feats in Asia if he joined them in a triumphal procession, set fire to the palaces, and permitted women's hands in a minute to extinguish the famed accomplishments of the Persians. (3) This was said to men who were still young and giddy with wine, and so, as would be expected, someone shouted out to form up and to light torches, and urged all to take vengeance for the destruction of the Greek temples. (4) Others took up the cry and said that this was a deed worthy of Alexander alone. When the king had caught fire at their words, all leaped up from their couches and passed the word along to form a victory procession [epinikion komon] in honour of Dionysius. :(5) Promptly many torches were gathered. Female musicians were present at the banquet, so the king led them all out for the komos to the sound of voices and flutes and pipes, Thais the courtesan leading the whole performance. (6) She was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As the others all did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed, so great was the conflagration. It was most remarkable that the impious act of Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the acropolis at Athens should have been repaid in kind after many years by one woman, a citizen of the land which had suffered it, and in sport. :(Curt. 5.6.1-7.12) 5.6 (1) On the following day the king called together the leaders of his forces and informed them that "no city was more mischievous to the Greeks than the seat of the ancient kings of Persia . . . by its destruction they ought to offer sacrifice to the spirits of their forefathers."… :7 (1) But Alexander's great mental endowments, that noble disposition, in which he surpassed all kings, that intrepidity in encountering dangers, his promptness in forming and carrying out plans, his good faith towards those who submitted to him, merciful treatment of his prisoners, temperance even in lawful and usual pleasures, were sullied by an excessive love of wine. (2) At the very time when his enemy and his rival for a throne was preparing to renew the war, when those whom he had conquered were but lately subdued and were hostile to the new rule, he took part in prolonged banquets at which women were present, not indeed those whom it would be a crime to violate, but, to be sure, harlots who were accustomed to live with armed men with more licence than was fitting. :(3) One of these, Thais by name, herself also drunken, declared that the king would win most favour among all the Greeks, if he should order the palace of the Persians to be set on fire; that this was expected by those whose cities the barbarians had destroyed. (4) When a drunken strumpet had given her opinion on a matter of such moment, one or two, themselves also loaded with wine, agreed. The king, too, more greedy for wine than able to carry it, cried: "Why do we not, then, avenge Greece and apply torches to the city?" 5) All had become heated with wine, and so thy arose when drunk to fire the city which they had spared when armed. The king was the first to throw a firebrand upon the palace, then the guests and the servants and courtesans. The palace had been built largely of ceder, which quickly took fire and spread the conflagration widely. (6) When the army, which was encamped not far from the city, saw the fire, thinking it accidental, they rushed to bear aid. (7) But when they came to the vestibule of the palace, they saw the king himself piling on firebrands. Therefore, they left the water which they had brought, and they too began to throw dry wood upon the burning building. :(8) Such was the end of the capital of the entire Orient. . . . :(10) The Macedonians were ashamed that so renowned a city had been destroyed by their king in a drunken revel; therefore the act was taken as earnest, and they forced themselves to believe that it was right that it should be wiped out in exactly that manner. :(Cleitarchus, FGrHist. 137, F. 11 (= Athenaeus 13. 576d-e)) :And did not Alexander the Great have with him Thais, the Athenian hetaira? Cleitarchus speaks of her as having been the cause for the burning of the palace at Persepolis. After Alexander's death, this same Thais was married to Ptolemy, the first king of Egypt. There is, however, one formidable difficulty. Diodorus says that the rock at the back of the palace containing the royal sepulchres is so steep that the bodies could be raised to their last resting-place only by mechanical appliances. This is not true of the graves behind Takhti Jamshid, to which, as F. Stolze expressly observes, one can easily ride up; on the other hand, it is strictly true of the graves at Nakshi Rustam. Stolze accordingly started the theory that the royal castle of Persepolis stood close by Nakshi Rustam, and has sunk in course of time to shapeless heaps of earth, under which the remains may be concealed. The vast ruins, however, of Takhti Jamshid, and the terrace constructed with so much labour, can hardly be anything else than the ruins of palaces; as for temples, the Persians had no such thing, at least in the time of Darius and Xerxes. Moreover, Persian tradition at a very remote period knew of only three architectural wonders in that region, which it attributed to the fabulous queen Humgi (Khumái)--the. grave of Cyrus at Murgab, the building at HäjjIãbãd, and those on the great terrace. It is safest therefore to identify these last with the royal palaces destroyed by Alexander. Cleitarchus, who can scarcely have visited the place himself, with his usual recklessness of statement, confounded the tombs behind the palaces with those of Nakshi Rustam; indeed he appears to imagine that all the royal sepulchres were at the same place.

After the fall of Ancient Persia

In 316 BC Persepolis was still the capital of Persia as a province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diod. xix, 21 seq., 46 ; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia, who was living about 316). The city must have gradually declined in the course of time; but the ruins of the Achaemenidae remained as a witness to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighbourhood. About AD 200 we find there the city Istakhr (properly Stakhr) as the seat of the local governors. There the foundations of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and Istakhr acquired special importance as the centre of priestly wisdom and orthodoxy. The Sassanian kings have covered the face of the rocks in this neighbourhood, and in part even the Achaemenian ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions, and must themselves have built largely here, although never on the same scale of magnificence as their ancient predecessors. The Romans knew as little about Istakhr as the Greeks had done about Persepolis--and this in spite of the fact that for four hundred years the Sassanians maintained relations, friendly or hostile, with the empire. At the time of the Arabian conquest Istakhr offered a desperate resistance, but the city was still a place of considerable importance in the 1st century of Islam, although its greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis Shiraz. In the 10th century Istakhr had become an utterly insignificant place, as may be seen from the descriptions of Istakhr, a native (c. 950), and of Mukaddasi (c. 985). During the following centuries Istakhr gradually declines, until, as a city, it ceased to exist. This fruitful region, however, was covered with villages till the frightful devastations of the 18th century; and even now it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The "castle of Istakhr" played a conspicuous part several times during the Mahommedan period as a strong fortress. It was the middlemost and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the valley of the Kur, at some distance to the west or north-west of Nakshi Rustam. We learn from Asian writers that one of the Buyid (Buwaihid) sultans in the 10th century of the Flight constructed the great cisterns, which may yet be seen, and have been visited, amongst others, by James Morier and E. Flandin. W. Ouseley points out that this castle was still used in the 16th century, at least as a state prison. But when Pietro della Valle was there in 1621 it was already in ruins. This entry was originally from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, modified with quotations from sources.

See also


- David Stronach, the world's top western expert on Pasargadae.

External links


- http://www.livius.org/pen-pg/persepolis/persepolis.html
- http://www.livius.org/a/iran/persepolis/persepolis.html
- http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Archaeology/Hakhamaneshian/persepolis.htm Persepolis in Details
- http://www.persepolis3d.com 3D reconstructed pictures and movies of Persepolis
- http://tinypic.com/903s78.jpg Persian Soldier, Colored by Sassan Yazadanparast. Category:Archaeological sites in Iran Category:World Heritage Sites in Iran Category:Archaeological sites Category:Achaemenid dynasty Category:Iranian culture ja:ペルセポリス

Achaemenid

The Achaemenid Dynasty (Hakamanishiya in the Old Persian (Avestan ??) language - transliterated Hakamanshee in Modern Persian) - was a dynasty in the ancient Persian Empire. At the height of their power, around 500 BC, the Achaemenid rulers of Persia ruled over territories roughly encompassing parts of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, Turkey, Bulgaria, small part of Greece, Egypt, Syria, Northern India/Pakistan, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Caucasia, Central Asia, Arabia, and Libya. Darius I ("Darius the Great") was the first to speak of Achaemenes, who he claimed was an ancestor of Cyrus II ("Cyrus the Great", ca. 576 - 529 BC), and therefore the progenitor of the entire line of Achaemenid rulers. However, some scholars hold that Achaemenes was a fictional character used to legitimize Darius' rule, and that Darius I usurped the Persian throne. In any case, the name Achaemenid has been commonly accepted for the line of Persian kings beginning at least with Darius I. When the name refers to the entire line of early Persian rulers, including Cyrus II and his son Cambyses, the Achaemenid era stretches from about 650 to 330 BC. At different times, the Achaemenids also ruled Egypt, although the Egyptians twice regained their independence from Persia. After the practice of Manetho, Egyptian historians refer to the period in Egypt when the Achaemenid dynasty ruled as the Twenty-Seventh (525 BC - 404 BC) and Thirty-First Dynasties (343- 332 BC). The last Achaemenid king was Darius III (336 BC - 330 BC), who was defeated by Alexander III of Macedon. After the Macedonian conquest, the Persian Empire was annexed by Alexander (See "Achaemenid rulers" below for full list of rulers).

History

Macedon The founder of this dynasty was supposedly Achaemenes (Old Persian Haxāmaniš "Of Friendly Mind"). He was succeeded by his son Teispes (Cišpi), who first took the title King of Anšān after seizing that city from the Elamites. Inscriptions indicate that when Teispes died, two of his sons shared the throne as Cyrus I (Kūru), king of Anšān, and Ariaramnes (Ariyāramna "Having the Iranians at Peace"), king of Parsua (later called Pārsa "Persia", hence Fārsi, the native name for modern Persian). They were succeeded by their respective sons Cambyses I of Anshan (Kambūjiya, "the Elder"), and Arsames (Aršāma "Having a Hero's Might") of Persia. In 559 BC, Cambyses I the Elder was succeeded as king of Anšān by his son Cyrus II the Great, who also succeeded the still-living Arsames as King of Persia, thus reuniting the two realms. Cyrus II is considered to be the first king of the Achaemenid dynasty to be properly called so, as his predecessors were subservient to Media. Cyrus II conquered Media, Lydia and Babylon. His successors were less successful. Cyrus' unstable son Cambyses II conquered Egypt, but died in July 522 BC as the result of either accident or suicide, during a revolt led by a priest, Gaumata. Gaumata usurped the throne by pretending to be Smerdis (Pers. Bardiya; Cambyses' brother whom he had secretly had assassinated in 525, before starting out for his Egyptian campaign) until he was overthrown in 522 BC by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenid family, Darius I (Old Persian Dārayawuš "Who Holds Firm the Good", also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). According to Herodotus, the native leadership then debated the best form of government for the Empire. He reports that it was decided that oligarchy would divide them against one another, and democracy would bring about mob rule resulting in a charismatic leader resuming the monarchy. Therefore, they decided a new monarch was in order, particularly since they were in a position to choose him. Darius I was chosen monarch from amongst the leaders. He was cousin to Cambyses II and Smerdis, claiming Ariaramnes as his ancestor. Darius attacked the Greek mainland, which had supported rebellious Greek colonies under his aegis; but as a result of his defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490, he was forced to retract the limits of the empire to Asia Minor. The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus and Darius who, by sound and farsighted administrative planning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic worldview, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and in less than thirty years raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power. The zenith of Achaemenid power was achieved during Darius' reign (521 BC - 485 BC) and that of his son Xerxes I (485 BC - 465 BC, Old Persian Xšāyaršā "Hero Among Kings"). These two rulers built great, beautiful palaces in the ancient cities of Persepolis, Susa and Ecbatana (Hagmatāna "City of Gatherings"). The Persian Empire reached its greatest extent in this period.

Decline

After the death of Xerxes I (465 BC), the decline of the dynasty began. Persia saw a sequence of weak rulers ruling the empire. Decadence became rampant, and the army, finance and government administration were neglected. The last Achaemenid king was Darius III (336 BC - 330 BC), who was defeated by Alexander III of Macedon. After the Macedonian conquest, the Persian Empire was annexed by Alexander.

System of governing

The Achaemenids were enlightened despots who allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A satrap (governor) administered the region, a general supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a state secretary kept official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the central government. The twenty satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the royal road from Susa to Sardis, built by command of Darius I. Relays of mounted couriers could reach the remotest of areas in fifteen days. Despite the relative local independence afforded by the satrapy system, royal inspectors, the "eyes and ears of the king," toured the empire and reported on local conditions. The king also maintained a personal bodyguard of 10,000 men, called the Immortals. The language in greatest use in the empire was Aramaic. Old Persian was the official language of the empire, but was used only for inscriptions and royal proclamations. Darius revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage system. Trade was extensive, and under the Achaemenids there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. As a result of this commercial activity, Persian words for typical items of trade became prevalent throughout the Middle East and eventually entered the English language; examples are bazaar, shawl, sash, turquoise, tiara, orange, lemon, melon, peach, spinach, and asparagus. Trade was one of the empire's main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute. Other accomplishments of Darius' reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis, where vassal states would offer their yearly tribute at the festival celebrating the spring equinox.

Contributions

Persepolis An important Achaemenid artifact is the Cyrus Cylinder, a declaration issued by Cyrus the Great, son of the founder of the dynasty. Cyrus fought the Babylonians, eventually taking over and giving the Jews the freedom to practice their religion. The religion of the Achaemenids was Zoroastrianism, whose adherents at the time were noted for their dedication to clear lines of right and wrong, and for their apparent honesty. Cyrus' political behaviour was also attributed to his being shrewd - appearing as the "saviour" of a nation virtually guaranteed of their allegiance and well-disposed behaviour. It was the general policy of the Achaemenids to continue the Assyrian and Babylonian policy of transferring large populations between areas, in effect mixing disparate groups together and diluting any nationalism they may otherwise have had - intended as a calming measure, and resulting in the Achaemenid era (ca. 650-330 BC) being