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Colonial Colleges

Colonial colleges

Nine institutions of higher education, sometimes called colonial colleges, were chartered in the American Colonies before the American Revolution (1775–1783). These nine have long been considered together, notably in the survey of their origins in the 1907 Cambridge [http://www.bartleby.com/227/1613.html History of English and American Literature]. Although today most of these institutions refer to themselves as "universities", they are called "colonial colleges" partly because, at the time of the revolution, only Pennsylvania called itself a "university". Each had assumed the power to grant degrees, a power in Europe only held by universities; several were offering some graduate instruction. (See college for more on American usage of that word.) The nine colonial colleges are listed below in order of antiquity under the name by which they were known for the bulk of the colonial period. Also listed are the religious groups that were instrumental in each college's foundation and early history. In most cases the listed religious links, although often strong, were de facto rather than official. (At any rate, all have long since affirmed their secularity.) In addition to the religious/secular boundary, the line between state and private control was also far blurrier than today: as the distinction crystalized over time, some schools became fully independent and others part of their state's higher-education system. Seven of the nine colonial colleges are part of the Ivy League: Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Penn, Columbia, Brown, and Dartmouth. The eighth member of the Ivy League, Cornell University, was founded in 1865. Conversely, the two colonial colleges not in the Ivy League are both public universities—the College of William and Mary (which retains the historical appellation "College" in its name by virtue of its Royal Charter from England) and Rutgers University (today the state university of New Jersey). Interestingly, both universities have been considered as part of the public ivies, though The College of William and Mary more consistently so because of its state-assisted status and its high caliber academic programs. Notes: An earlier attempt to found a "University of Henrico" at Henricopolis (also known as Henricus) in the Colony of Virginia received a charter in 1618; but only a small school for Indians had begun operation by 1622, when the town was destroyed in an Indian raid. The site of the town and university was just outside modern Richmond, Virginia in Chesterfield County (formerly part of Henrico County). The University of Pennsylvania was established in 1749 as the Publick Academy of Philadelphia (instruction began in 1751), continuing the work of the short-lived Academy and Charitable School in the Province of Pennsylvania which was established in 1740.
Dartmouth College was chartered in 1769, a reestablishment of Moor's Charity School which was established in 1753 in Lebanon, Connecticut and was granted a charter in 1754. After founder Eleazar Wheelock received Dartmouth's charter in 1769, he selected a site for it and the charity school in Hanover, New Hampshire and subsequently moved both there during 1770.

Other colonial-era foundations

Several other colleges and universities can be traced to colonial-era "academies" or "schools", but are not considered Colonial Colleges because they were not chartered as "colleges" with the power to grant degrees (and in fact did not grant degrees) until after the American Declaration of Independence in 1776. There were nine colleges in the colonies in 1770; all of them still exist, meaning that the colleges listed below are no older, whatever their origins as grammar schools. (Washington & Lee, in particular, has [http://ir.wlu.edu/about/nintholdest.htm claimed] erroneously to be the ninth-oldest college in the country and older than Columbia University.) There is also the case of Queen's College, in the town of Charlotte, North Carolina, which was granted a charter by the Colonial Legislature in December, 1770. However, this charter was repealed by royal proclamation (because of the school's ties to Presbyterians) and the institution ultimately failed.

See also


- List of oldest universities by Region
- Ivy League Category:U.S. colonial history

Thirteen Colonies

with 13 stars and 13 stripes representing each of the 13 colonies.]] The Thirteen Colonies were the 13 British colonies in North America, separately chartered and governed, that signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and formally broke with the Kingdom of Great Britain, leading to the American Revolutionary War and the establishment of the United States of America. Other British North American possessions—the former French colony of Quebec and the colonies of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island—remained loyal to the British Crown and much later were united as Canada. The colonies of East Florida and West Florida also remained loyal during the American Revolution.

The Thirteen Colonies

Contemporaneous documents almost always listed the colonies in geographical order, roughly from north to south, as follows (the division into three regions is a later construct of historians, though New England was always considered to be a distinct region):
- New England:
  - Province of New Hampshire, later New Hampshire
  - Province of Massachusetts Bay, later Massachusetts and Maine
  - Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, later Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
  - Connecticut Colony, later Connecticut
- Middle Colonies:
  - Province of New York, later New York and Vermont
  - Province of New Jersey, later New Jersey
  - Province of Pennsylvania, later Pennsylvania
  - Delaware Colony (before 1776, the Lower Counties on Delaware), later Delaware
- Southern Colonies:
  - Province of Maryland, later Maryland
  - Colony and Dominion of Virginia, later Virginia, Kentucky and West Virginia
  - Province of North Carolina, later North Carolina and Tennessee
  - Province of South Carolina, later South Carolina
  - Province of Georgia, later Georgia Reference is sometimes seen to the Chesapeake Colonies, these being the Province of Maryland and the Colony and Dominion of Virginia; so called because they border the Chesapeake Bay.

Proprietary, royal, and charter colonies

The Thirteen Colonies were established by one of three possible means.
- Proprietary colonies: Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland. Proprietary means "of or relating to an owner or an ownership".
- Royal colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Royal refers to "of a quality or size suitable for a King or queen".
- Charter colonies: Rhode Island and Connecticut. A charter is "a written grant by a country's legislative or sovereign power, by which an institution such as a company, college, or a city is created and its rights and privileges defined".

Other British colonies in North America and the Caribbean in 1776

Britain held several other colonies in North America and the Caribbean in 1776 which did not join the 13 in their Revolution against the Crown.

Future Canadian provinces


- Nova Scotia (including present day New Brunswick)
- Newfoundland
- Prince Edward Island (before 1798, Île Saint-Jean or St. John's Island)
- the Province of Quebec, which included present day Ontario) Ontario. The red area is the area of the 13 colonies after the Proclamation of 1763. (Map produced by U.S. Dept. of Interior.)]]

Future American states


- East Florida
- West Florida

Future independent countries


- Bahamas
- Barbados
- Jamaica
- Nevis, as part of Saint Kitts and Nevis
- St. Christopher, now Saint Kitts yurmom, as part of canada

Future British overseas territories


- Bermuda
- Cayman Islands

Other


- West Indies Note that Guyana was a Dutch colony as of 1776; British Honduras had settlements, but was "unofficial" until some decades later.

See also


- British colonization of the Americas
- Colonial government in America
- History of the United States (1776-1789): Independence and the American Revolution
- Upper Canada
- Lower Canada
- Province of Canada

External links


- [http://www.regiments.org/nations/namerica/namerica.htm British North American Colonies to 1783 - Military History & Institutions]
- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/states/statech.htm The Avalon Project at Yale Law School: Colonial Charters, Grants and Related Documents] Category:U.S. colonial history Category:Former British colonies

American Revolution

The American Revolution is the series of events, ideas, and changes that resulted in the political separation of thirteen colonies in North America from the British Empire and the creation of the United States of America. The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) was one part of the revolution, but the revolution began before the first shot was fired at Lexington and Concord and continued after the British surrender at Yorktown. "The Revolution was effected before the War commenced," wrote John Adams. "The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people." The precise nature and extent of the revolution is a matter of interpretation. It is generally agreed that the revolution originated around the time of the French and Indian War (1754–1763), and ended with the election of George Washington as the first President of the United States in 1789. Beyond that, interpretations vary. At one end of the spectrum is the view that the American Revolution was not "revolutionary" at all; that it did not radically transform colonial society, but 'simply replaced a distant government with a local one'. The opposite view is that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event, producing significant changes that had a profound impact on world history. Most current interpretations fall somewhere in-between these two positions. 1789, and the orange region was claimed by Spain. Note that this map does not show the bulk of British North America of that time.]]

Origins

In the early 1760s, Great Britain possessed a vast empire on the North American continent. In addition to the thirteen British colonies, victory in the Seven Years' War had given Great Britain claim over New France (Canada), Spanish Florida, and the Native American lands east of the Mississippi River. A war against France's former Indian allies—Pontiac's Rebellion—had, if not conquered, at least 'pacified' the western frontier. At this time, most white colonists in America considered themselves loyal subjects of the British Crown, with the same rights and obligations as Englishmen in Britain

Government

Main article: Colonial government in America Colonial government in America]

Philosophy and radical thought

The Enlightenment elevated natural philosophy, and began to replace arguments born of tradition and authority with those based upon observation and independent reasoning. The implications of the earlier scientific revolution began to have a greater effect on everyday life and in the conscious thought of men everywhere. Increased publication and communications between like-minded people opened up new areas to question and consideration. The early works of thinkers like John Locke became the analysis of men like Montesquieu. The "deist" views of several of the Founding Fathers of the United States, and their views on the proper form of government have roots in this European Enlightenment, and were a source for ideas regarding separation of church and state and other liberties. In addition, the ideas of "social contract" and the "Law of Nature" espoused by John Locke and others, gained wide acceptance in thought.

Religious trends

The Great Awakening was the American extension to the earlier religious revivals in Europe. It called into question the authority of established religious institutions; especially, but not exclusively, the Church of England, whose authority many of the colonists had come to New England to escape. The revival placed emphasis upon individual conscience and experience as the source of value in religious experience. Socially, there was also a strong element of 'class' revolt: God worked through grace that was given to every man or woman, regardless of station or level of education. This was a direct challenge to upper-class, aristocratic assumptions about the deference due to authority— it was a model of revolutionary thought to come; it was also the first event that swept through all the colonies, from New England to the Carolinas, as a generally common experience.

Road to rebellion

After the French and Indian War and Pontiac's Rebellion, the British government sought to overhaul its expansive North American possessions. In order to make the Empire more stable and profitable, new economic and land distribution policies were implemented. Specifically, the new British policies included the understandable desire of the crown that the colonists would shoulder a greater share of the burdens of war and the cost of their own defense, as well as the curtailment of smuggling with the colonies of the West Indies, the payment of royal tariffs and the exclusive trade with the British homeland. Colonial resentment of these new policies grew steadily throughout the decade, and had a significant impact on the emergence of "Americanism" and the outbreak of the American Revolution.

Economic disputes, 1760-70

The British national debt had risen to alarming levels during the war years and so in 1760 the Crown began a series of economic initiatives designed to extract more revenue from the colonies. These policies were 'justifiable', the reasoning went, because the colonists were enjoying the benefits of the peace that had been won. the Crown In theory, Great Britain already regulated the economies of the colonies through the Navigation Acts, but widespread evasion of these laws had long been tolerated. Now, through the use of open-ended search warrants (Writs of Assistance), strict enforcement became the practice. In 1761, Massachusetts lawyer James Otis argued that the writs violated the constitutional rights of the colonists. He lost the case, but John Adams later wrote, "American independence was then and there born." In 1763, Patrick Henry argued the Parson's Cause case. Clerical pay had been tied to the price of tobacco by Virginia legislation. When the price of tobacco skyrocketed after a bad crop in 1758, the Virginia legislature passed the Two-Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating as well. In 1763, King George III vetoed the Two-Penny Act. Patrick Henry defended the law in court and argued "that a King, by disallowing Acts of this salutary nature, from being the father of his people, degenerated into a Tyrant and forfeits all right to his subjects' obedience." In 1764, British Prime Minister George Grenville's Sugar Act and Currency Act created economic hardship in the colonies. Protests led to the boycott of British goods, and to the emergence of the popular slogan "no taxation without representation," in which colonists argued that only their colonial assemblies, and not Parliament, could levy taxes on them. Committees of correspondence were formed in the colonies to coordinate resistance to paying the taxes. In previous years, the colonies had shown little inclination towards collective action. Grenville's policies were bringing them together. A milestone in the Revolution occurred in 1765, when Grenville passed the Stamp Act as a way to finance the quartering of troops in North America. The Stamp Act required all legal documents, permits, commercial contracts, newspapers, pamphlets, and playing cards in the colonies to carry a tax stamp. Colonial protest was widespread. Secret societies known as the Sons of Liberty were formed in every colony, and used propaganda, intimidation, and mob violence to prevent the enforcement of the Stamp Act. The furor culminated with the "Stamp Act Congress", which sent a formal protest to Parliament in October of 1765. Parliament responded by repealing the Stamp Act, but pointedly declared its legal authority over the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.” declared its legal authority was designed to inflame opposition to the military occupation of Boston.]] The sequel was not long in coming. In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, placing taxes on a number of common goods imported into the colonies, including glass, paint, lead, paper, and tea. In response, colonial leaders organized boycotts of these British imports. The Liberty, a ship belonging to colonial merchant John Hancock, was suspected of smuggling and was seized by customs officials in Boston on June 10, 1768. Angry protests on the street led customs officials, fearing for their safety, to report to London that Boston was in a state of insurrection. British troops began to arrive in Boston in October of 1768. Tensions continued to mount; culminating in the "Boston Massacre" on March 5, 1770, when British soldiers of the 29th Regiment of Foot fired into an angry mob, killing five. Revolutionary agitators like Samuel Adams used the event to stir up popular resistance, but after the trial of the soldiers, who were defended by John Adams, tensions diminished. The Townshend Acts were repealed in 1770 after much protesting, and it was still theoretically possible that further bloodshed in the colonies might be avoided. However, the British government had left one tax from the Townshend Acts in place as a symbolic gesture of their right to tax the colonies—the tax on tea. For the revolutionaries, who stood firm on the principle that only their colonial representatives could levy taxes on them, it was still "one tax too many". This resulted in the Boston Tea Party.

Western land dispute

The Proclamation of 1763 sought to limit the conflicts between Native Americans and the English settlers by restricting settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. However, groups of settlers, led for example by Daniel Boone, continued to move into the region beyond the Proclamation Line and fought violently with the Shawnees and other peoples inhabiting the area. Furthermore, the Quebec Act of 1774 extended Quebec's boundaries to the Ohio River, reestablished French civil law, and instituted toleration for Roman Catholics in that territory, an action which horrified some colonials, who had come to New England to establish their own protestant sects. Proposals to post British regulars to man forts in the west further disquieted Americans eager to occupy Indian land. protestant

Crises, 1772-75


- Gaspée Affair
- Tea Act of 1773.
- Boston Tea Party - December 16, 1773
- "Intolerable Acts" of 1774.
- The First Continental Congress convened on September 5, 1774 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, which declared the Intolerable Acts to be unconstitutional, called for the people to form militias, and for Massachusetts to form a revolutionary government. Joseph Galloway's Plan of Union is defeated.
- Battle of Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775
- Second Continental Congress convenes on May 10, 1775. :
- Olive Branch Petition -- July 5, 1775, one final attempt by the Continental Congress to appeal to King George to redress their grievances and avoid more bloodshed. The King refuses even to receive the petition.

Choosing sides

1775) originally appeared during the French and Indian War, but was recycled to encourage the American colonies to unite against British rule.]] The American revolutionaries, known as Patriots (or Whigs or rebels), included many shades of opinion. Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and George Washington represented a socially conservative faction that would later take shape as the Federalist party and are traditionally characterized as preoccupied with preserving the wealth and power of the "better sorts" of colonial society. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine are usually portrayed as representing the less economically affluent side of society, and political equality. Among other dissenting minorities, a party known as the "anti-federalists", led by George Mason, considered the Constitution of the United States to be a dangerously flawed document, one which would cause greater tyranny than either Parliament or the British Crown; they walked out of the Constitutional Convention without signing it. A great many American colonists remained loyal to the British Crown; these became known as Loyalists (or 'Tories', or 'King's men'). Loyalists were often of the same well-to-do social circle that produced the right wing of the Patriots (for example Thomas Hutchinson); however, the Scottish highlanders of the Mohawk Valley and the frontiersmen of Georgia included a large number of poorer King's men. Some Loyalists were American Indians, notably Joseph Brant, who led a mixed band of Indians and white farmers and laborers in the Loyalist cause. After the war, United Empire Loyalists became a central component of the populations of the Abaco islands (in the Bahamas), the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Ontario, and Freetown, Sierra Leone, where many of them fled to escape persecution in the colonies.

Class differences among the Patriots

Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a 'mixed lot', and often had different aims for the revolution. Wealthy Patriots viewed independence as a means of freeing themselves from British taxation and limitations on taking western land, but had every intention of remaining in control of the resulting nation. Many craftsmen, small merchants and small farmers, however, were looking at independence as a means of reducing the power and privilege of the elite. Wealthy Patriots knew that they needed the support of the lower classes, but were fearful of their more radical democratic aims. John Adams (an elite more by education than by wealth) attacked Thomas Paine's Common Sense for the "absurd democratical notions" it proposed.

Women

Common Sense] The boycott of British goods would have been entirely unworkable without the willing participation of American women: women made the bulk of household purchases, and the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth. And as cloth was still a basic necessity, for the boycott to work, women would have to return to spinning and weaving, skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts wove 20,522 yards of cloth. As the Revolution progressed and economic disruption deepened, women participated directly in the food riots and tar and feathering that was the people's response to price gouging by merchants, Loyalist and Patriot alike. On July 24, 1777, Thomas Boyleston, a Patriot merchant who was withholding coffee and sugar from the market waiting for prices to rise, was confronted by a crowd of 100 or more women, who seized the keys to his warehouse and distributed the coffee themselves while a large crowd of men stood by and watched, dumbfounded.

Writing the state constitutions

By 1776, the colonies had overthrown their existing government, closing courts and driving British agents and governors from their homes, and they had elected conventions and "legislatures" that existed outside of any legal framework whatsoever— new constitutions were desperately needed in each colony to replace the superseded royal charters. On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the first state constitution, six months before the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Then, in May, 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. Virginia, South Carolina, and New Jersey created their constitutions before July 4. Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown. The new states had to decide not only what form of government to create, they first had to decide how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. This would be just the start of a process that would pit conservatives against radicals in each state. In states where the wealthy exerted firm control over the process, such as Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, New York and Massachusetts, the result was constitutions that featured:
- substantial property qualifications for voting and even more substantial requirements for elected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifications);
- bicameral legislatures, with the upper house as a check on the lower;
- strong governors, with veto power over the legislature and substantial appointment authority;
- few or no restraints on individuals holding multiple positions in government;
- the continuation of state-established religion. In states where the less affluent had organized sufficiently to have significant power, especially Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New Hampshire and Vermont, the resulting constitutions embodied:
- universal manhood suffrage, or minimal property requirements for voting or holding office (New Jersey went so far as to enfranchise women, a radical step that they retracted 25 years later); Vermont
- strong, unicameral legislatures;
- relatively weak governors, without veto powers, and little appointing authority;
- prohibition against individuals holding multiple government posts;
- disestablishment of religion. Naturally, the fact that conservatives or radicals held sway in a state did not mean that the side with less power accepted the result quietly. In Pennsylvania, the propertied class was horrified by their new constitution (Benjamin Rush called it "our state dung cart"), while in Massachusetts, voters twice rejected the constitution that was presented for ratification; it was ultimately ratified only as a result of the legislature tinkering with the third vote. The radical provisions of Pennsylvania's constitution were to last only fourteen years— in 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and wrote a new constitution that substantially reduced universal white-male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America.

War for independence, 1775-83

Benjamin Rush Main article: American Revolutionary War Thomas Paine produced a pamphlet entitled Common Sense arguing that the only solution to the problems with Britain would be republicanism and independence from Great Britain.
- United States Declaration of Independence
- Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation

America after the war


- Shays' Rebellion - 1786
- Northwest Indian War (1785-1795)
- The Constitutional Convention of 1787 The American Revolution entrenched several noteworthy innovations: the separation of church and state, which ended the special privileges of the Anglican Church in the South and the Congregationalist Church in New England; a discourse of liberty, individual rights and equality which would prove highly appealing in Europe; the idea that government should be by consent of the governed (including the right of rebellion against tyranny); the delegation of power through written constitutions; and the notion that colonial peoples of the Americas could become self-governing nations in their own rights.

The impact on British North America

For tens of thousands of inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies, the victory of the revolutionaries was followed by exile. Approximately fifty thousand United Empire Loyalists fled to the remaining British colonies in North America, such as the Province of Quebec, concentrating in the Eastern Townships, and also Upper Canada (now known as Ontario), as well as in Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia - where their presence would result in the creation of New Brunswick. Thus, the seeds of the French-English duality in British North America, which has been arguably the most prominent political and cultural feature of what would one day become Canada were sown.

Revolution beyond America

The American Revolution was the first wave of the Atlantic Revolutions that would also take hold in the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American wars of liberation. Aftershocks would also be felt in Ireland in the 1798 rising, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in the Netherlands. The Revolution had a strong immediate impact in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish Whigs had been openly indulgent to the Patriots in America, and the Revolution was the first lesson in politics for many European radicals who would later take on active roles during the era of the French Revolution. Jefferson's Declaration had [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap3a.html an immediate impact] on the French Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789. The American Revolution affected the rest of the world. The thinkers of the Enlightenment only wrote that common people had the right to overthrow unjust governments. The American Revolution was a case of practical success, which provided the rest of the world with a 'working model'. The American Revolution set an example to the people in Europe and other parts of the world. It encouraged the people to realize they had rights independent of the sovereign; it promoted republicanism to overthrow monarchs. It incited people to fight for their rights, and it showed them that it was possible to win even against the world's foremost power, Great Britain. Nowhere was the influence more profound than in Latin America, where American writings and the model of a colony that actually broke free and thrived decisively shaped the struggle for independence. Historians of Latin America have identified many links to the U.S. model . See [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=0QghsDsSCB4C&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=jefferson&prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3Djefferson%2Bindependence%2Blatin%2Bamerica&sig=v0afdyhrNgB42XLqhBEB9IQhCDU John Lynch, "The Origins of Spanish American Independence," in Cambridge History of Latin America Vol. 3 (1985), pp 45-46]

Legacy and interpretations


- American exceptionalism, Exceptionalism

See also


- British colonization of the Americas
- Founding Fathers of the United States
- Industrial Revolution
- List of important people in the era of the American Revolution
- Second American Revolution
- Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789)

Further reading

Origins: :
- Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard University Press, 1967. ISBN 0674443012. :
- Hawke, David. The Colonial Experience. Bobbs-Merrill, 1966. ISBN 0023518308. :
- Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution. Little, Brown, 1943; reprinted Stanford University Press, 1959. ISBN 0804705933; 1991 paperback edition: ISBN 0804705941. :
- Nash, Gary B. The Urban Crucible: The Northern Seaports and the Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard University Press, 1986. ISBN 0674930592. :
- Nash, Gary B. The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America. Viking, 2005. ISBN 0670034207. :
- Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revoluiton: How a Revolution Transformed a Monarchical Society into a Democratic One Unlike Any That Had Ever Existed. Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. ISBN 0679404937.
- Purcell, L. Edward. "Who Was Who in the American Revolution" (1993)

External links


- [http://www.americanrevolution.com The American Revolution at americanrevolution.com] - historical information, documents, pictures, and more
- [http://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty/ PBS Television Series] ja:アメリカ独立戦争 ko:미국 독립전쟁 Category:American Revolution Category:Rebellions in the United States Category:The Enlightenment Category:Revolutions

1783

1783 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events


- February 3 - American Revolutionary War: Spain recognizes United States independence.
- February 4 - American Revolutionary War: Great Britain formally declares that it will cease hostilities with the United States of America.
- February 4 - Earthquake in Calabria, Italy - 50.000 dead
- March 5 - Last celebration of Massacre Day.
- May 18 - Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada- First United Empire Loyalists reach Parrtown.
- June 5 - The Montgolfier brothers publicly demonstrate their montgolfière (hot air balloon) in Annonay, France.
- June 8 - The volcano Laki, in Iceland, begins an eight-month eruption which kills 9350 people and starts a seven-year famine. Eruption causes deaths of livestock when they eat contaminated grass and also widespread crop failure.
- July 16 - Grants of land in Canada to American loyalists announced.
- August 5 - Mount Asama erupts, causing turmoil in Edo period Japan.
- September 3 - American Revolutionary War ends: Treaty of Paris - A treaty between the United States and the Kingdom of Great Britain is signed in Paris, ending the war.
- November 2 - In Rocky Hill, New Jersey, US General George Washington gives his "Farewell Address to the Army".
- November 21 - In Paris, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent, marquis d'Arlandes, make the first untethered hot air balloon flight (flight time: 25 minutes, Maximum height: 5
- miles).
- November 25 - American Revolutionary War: The last British troops leave New York City three months after the signing of the Treaty of Paris.
- December 4 - At Fraunces Tavern in New York City, US General George Washington formally bids his officers farewell.
- City of Sevastopol founded;
- United Empire Loyalists flee to Canada from the new United States;
- Treaty of Versailles signed, ending hostilities between the Franco-Spanish Alliance and England.
- Loyalists from New York settle Great Abaco in the Bahamas.

Births


- January 23 - Stendhal, French writer (d. 1842)
- March 8 - Hannah Van Buren, First Lady of the United States (d. 1819)
- April 3 - Washington Irving, American author (d. 1859)
- April 10 - Hortense de Beauharnais, Queen of Holland and mother of Napoleon III of France (d. 1837)
- July 24 - Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan patriot, revolutionary leader and statesman (d. 1830).
- September 17 - Samuel Prout, English painter (d. 1852)
- Karl Wilhelm Gottlob Kastner, German chemist

Deaths


- January 7 - William Tans'ur, English hymnist (b. 1700)
- February 6 - Capability Brown, English landscape gardner (b. 1716)
- March 23 - Charles Carroll, American lawyer and delegate to the Continental Congress (b. 1723)
- March 30 - William Hunter, Scottish anatomist (b. 1718)
- March 31 - Nikita Ivanovich Panin, Russian statesman (b. 1718)
- April 16 - Benedict Joseph Labre, French saint (b. 1745)
- April 16 - Christian Mayer, Czech astronomer (b. 1719)
- May 23 - James Otis, American lawyer and patriot (b. 1725)
- September 18 - Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician and physicist (b. 1707)
- September 18 - Benjamin Kennicott, English churchman and Hebrew scholar (b. 1718)
- October 29 - Jean le Rond d'Alembert, French mathematician (b. 1717)
- November 22 - John Hanson, American delegate to the Continental Congress (b. 1715)
- November 23 - Yoriyuki Arima, Japanese mathematician (b. 1714)
- December 13 - Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin, Swedish astronomer (b. 1717)
- December 16 - William James, British naval commander (b. 1720) Category:1783 ko:1783년 ms:1783 simple:1783

Cambridge

:This article is about the Cambridge in Cambridgeshire, England; see also other places called Cambridge. other places called Cambridge The city of Cambridge is an old English university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire. It lies approximately 50 miles (80 km) north-northeast of London and is surrounded by a number of smaller towns and villages. It is also at the heart of Silicon Fen, which has a reputation as the leading high-technology centre of Britain, mostly because both Acorn Computers and Sinclair were founded there, and is one of the major constituent parts of the Oxford-Cambridge Arc. Cambridge is best known for the University of Cambridge, which includes the renowned Cavendish Laboratory, the King's College Chapel, and the Cambridge University Library. The Cambridge skyline is dominated by the last two, along with the chimney of Addenbrooke's Hospital in the far south of the city and St. John's College Chapel tower in the north. The city's name is pronounced "Came-bridge", as opposed to another Cambridge in Gloucestershire, England, which is pronounced "Cam-bridge": as it is spelt. According to the 2001 census, the population was 108,863 (including 22,153 students).

History

Settlements have existed around the area since before the Roman Empire. The earliest clear evidence of occupation, a collection of hunting weapons, is from the Late Bronze Age, starting around 1000 BC. There is further archaeological evidence through the Iron Age, a Belgic tribe having settled on Castle Hill in the 1st century BC. The first major development of the area began with the Roman invasion of Britain in about AD 40. Castle Hill made Cambridge a useful place for a military outpost from which to defend the River Cam. It was also the crossing point for the Via Devana which linked Colchester in Essex with the garrisons at Lincoln and the north. This Roman settlement may have been called Durolipons. The settlement remained a regional centre during the 350 years after the Roman occupation, until about AD 400. Roman roads and walled enclosures can still be seen in the area. After the Romans had left, Saxons took over the land on and around Castle Hill. Their grave goods have been found in the area. During Anglo-Saxon times Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the otherwise hard-to-travel fenlands. By the 7th century, however, visitors from nearby Ely reported that Cambridge had declined severely. Cambridge is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as Grantebrycge. This is the earliest known reference to a bridge at Cambridge. The arrival of the Vikings in Cambridge was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 875. Viking rule, the Danelaw, had been imposed by 878. The Vikings' vigorous trading habits caused Cambridge to grow rapidly. During this period the centre of the town shifted from Castle Hill on the left bank of the river to the area now known as the Quayside on the right bank. After the end of the Viking period the Saxons enjoyed a brief return to power, building St. Benet's church in 1025. It still stands in Bene't Street. 1025 Two years after his conquest of England, William of Normandy built a castle on Castle Hill. Like the rest of the new kingdom, Cambridge fell under the control of the King and his deputies. The distinctive Round Church dates from this period. By Norman times the name of the town had mutated to Grentabrige or Cantebrigge, while the river that flowed through it was called the Granta. Over time the name of the town changed to Cambridge, while the river Cam was still known as the Granta - indeed the river is still often known as the Granta to this day. It was only later that the river became known as the Cam, by analogy with the name Cambridge. The University uses a pseudo-Latin adjective cantabrigiensis (often contracted to "Cantab") to mean "of Cambridge", but this is obviously a back-formation from the English name. One of the first educational establishments in Cambridge was the School of Pythagoras, founded in 1200, whose building still stands in the grounds of St. John's College, Cambridge. St. John's College, Cambridge

Beginnings of the University

In 1209, students escaping from violence in Oxford fled to Cambridge and formed a University there. The oldest college which still exists, Peterhouse, was founded in 1284. One of the most impressive buildings in Cambridge, King's College Chapel, was begun in 1446 by King Henry VI. The project was completed in 1515 during the reign of King Henry VIII. Cambridge University Press originated with a printing licence issued in 1534. Hobson's Conduit, the first project to bring clean drinking water to the town centre, was built in 1610. Parts of it survive today. Addenbrooke's Hospital was founded in 1719. The railway and station were built in 1845. According to legend, the University dictated their location: well away from the centre of town, so that the possibility of quick access to London would not distract students from their work. Despite having a University, Cambridge was not granted its city charter until 1951. Cambridge does not have a cathedral, which was traditionally a pre-requisite for city status.

Cambridge today

Drawing on its links with the University, the Cambridge area today is sometimes referred to as as Silicon Fen, due to the growth of high tech businesses and technology incubators that have sprung up in the series of science parks and other developments in and around the city. The University was joined by the larger part of Anglia Ruskin University, and the educational reputation has led to other bodies (such as the Open University in East Anglia) basing themselves in the city. A study by the consultancy firm CACI in 2004 named the postcode area CB2 1, part of Cambridge city centre, as the "smoking capital" of the UK, as the average resident in this area apparently spent more money on cigarettes than those of any other region in the country, over 2 thousand pounds per annum. The area is home to several of the university's colleges, including Clare, King's and Trinity. On March 5, 2004, Cambridge was granted Fairtrade City status. On October 29, 2004, the famous board game Monopoly enjoyed the publication of a Cambridge edition [http://www.winningmoves.co.uk/gameview.asp?ID=129&Gametype=Monopoly].

Government

Monopoly Monopoly

Local government

Cambridge is a non-metropolitan district, with a city council. It is the only district in England to be entirely surrounded by one other district - South Cambridgeshire. The city council's headquarters are in the Guildhall, an imposing building in the market square. Cambridge is also served by Cambridgeshire county council. For electoral purposes the city is divided into the following wards: Abbey, Arbury, Castle, Cherry Hinton, Coleridge, East Chesterton, Kings Hedges, Market, Newnham, Petersfield, Queen Edith's, Romsey, Trumpington, West Chesterton. The political composition of the city wards of the county council after the May 2005 elections was ([http://www.cambridge.gov.uk/ccm/content/reception-and-office-services/county-council-election-results.en]):
- 10 Liberal Democrat seats
- 4 Labour seats
- 0 Conservative seats The political composition of the city council after the June 2004 elections was:
- 28 Liberal Democrat councillors
- 13 Labour councillors
- 1 Conservative councillor The Liberal Democrats have controlled the city council since 2000. Since 1957, Cambridge has been twinned with Heidelberg, an old university town in Germany. It was also twinned with Szeged in Hungary in 1987.

MPs

The parliamentary constituency of Cambridge covers most of the city. David Howarth (Liberal Democrat) was elected MP in 2005, winning the seat from the former MP, Anne Campbell (Labour). The Queen Edith's and Trumpington wards, however, are in the South Cambridgeshire constituency, whose MP is Andrew Lansley (Conservative), first elected in 1997. The University used to have a seat in the House of Commons, Sir Isaac Newton being one of the most notable holders. The university seats were abolished in 1948 and ceased at the dissolution of Parliament in 1950.

Transport

Roads

1950]Because of its rapid growth since the 20th century, Cambridge has a congested road network. Several major roads intersect at Cambridge. The M11 motorway from east London terminates here. The A14 (formerly A604) east-west trunk route skirts the northern edge of the city. This is a major freight route connecting the port of Felixstowe on the east coast with the Midlands, North Wales, the west coast and Ireland. The A14 is considered by many local people to be dangerous, and unnecessarily congested. This is particularly true of the section between Huntingdon and Cambridge where the east-west traffic is merged with the A1 to M11 north-south traffic on just a 2-lane dual carriageway. The A10, a former Roman road from north London, passes round the city on its way to Ely and King's Lynn. Other roads connect the city with Bedford, St Neots, Newmarket and Colchester. The city has a ring road about 2km in diameter, inside which there are traffic restrictions intended to improve conditions for pedestrians, cyclists and bus users and to reduce congestion. It has a well developed park and ride bus service encouraging motorists to park near the city's edge.

Rail

Cambridge railway station was built in 1845 with a platform designed to take two full-length trains. Cambridge has direct rail links to King's Cross (via Hitchin and the East Coast Main Line) and Liverpool Street (via the West Anglia Main Line) stations in London. It is also linked to the cities of Kings Lynn and Ely (via the Fen Line), Norwich (via the Breckland Line), Liverpool, Birmingham, Ipswich and as well as London Stansted Airport. The important UK rail hub of Peterborough is also within reach of Cambridge. The railway service connecting Cambridge and Oxford, known as the Varsity Line, was discontinued in 1968.

Air

Cambridge City Airport is owned by Marshall Aerospace, who are capable of adapting and fitting out military transports, airliners and corporate jets. The runway can accommodate an unladen Boeing 747 or MD-11, but there is no regular scheduled service and it is mostly used by business and leisure flights. In Summer 2004 a charter service to Jersey was operated by Aurigny Air Services using Saab 340 turboprop aircraft. A dealer in fibreglass-moulded light monoplanes is also based here. Removal of Marshalls to a site away from the city, with development of the airport site for housing, is a possibility over 5-10 years.

Cycling

As a university town lying on fairly flat ground and with traffic congestion, Cambridge has a large number of cyclists. Many residents also prefer cycling to driving in the narrow, busy streets, giving the city the highest level of cycle use in the UK. There are also many beautiful cycle routes in the countryside surrounding Cambridge. According to the 2001 census, 25% of residents travelled to work by cycle. The main organisation campaigning to improve conditions for cyclists in Cambridge is [http://www.camcycle.org.uk Cambridge Cycling Campaign]. The city is now linked to the growing National Cycle Network.

Sport

National Cycle Network Cambridge is home to Cambridge United F.C., who played in the Football League at the Abbey Stadium from 1970 to 2005, when they were relegated to Conference National. When relegation became inevitable the club was placed in administration with substantial debts, but it emerged from administration in time for the 2005/6 season. Non-league Cambridge City F.C. play at Milton Road in Chesterton. The town is also known for the University sporting events against Oxford, especially the rugby union varsity match and the Boat Race. These are followed by people across the globe, many of whom have no connection to the institutions themselves.

Fiction

In the 1950s the English children's writer Philippa Pearce created a fictionalised version of Cambridge known as "Castleford" (not connected to the real town of the same name in West Yorkshire). It appears in several of her books, most notably "Tom's Midnight Garden" and "Minnow on the Say". The main distinguishing point between "Castleford" and the real Cambridge is that this "Castleford" does not have a university, apparently because the author wanted the readers to think of the town in itself, and she felt that Cambridge was too closely associated with its university in the public imagination for this to be possible. Tom Sharpe is also a Cambridge-based author who has written fictional accounts of teaching at Cambridge Technical College (Now Anglia Ruskin University) and of Cambridge college life. Susanna Gregory wrote a series of novels set in 14th-century Cambridge and featuring a teacher of medicine and sleuth named Matthew Bartholomew. Douglas Adams was at one time a resident of Cambridge, and parts of his novel Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency are set in the city. This novel was partially reworked from his untransmitted Doctor Who serial Shada, which also included scenes in Cambridge. Sylvia Plath wrote a number of short stories with a Cambridge setting which are published in the collection Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams.

See also


- List of Cambridge Colleges
- List of bridges in Cambridge
- Newnham, Cambridgeshire

External links


- [http://wikitravel.org/en/Cambridge_%28England%29 Guide to Cambridge] from [http://wikitravel.org/en/Main_Page Wikitravel]
- [http://www.cambridge.gov.uk/ Cambridge City Council official site]
- [http://www.visitcambridge.org/ Cambridge Tourist Information Centre]
- [http://www.cambridge-news.co.uk The Cambridge Evening News]
- [http://www.cambridge.co.uk/ Cambridge Area Guide] - large collection of resources relating to Cambridge.
- [http://www.cambridge2000.com/cambridge2000/ Cambridge 2000] - a large collection of photographs of Cambridge architecture
- [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com Cambridge in Colour] - collection of night and low-light photographs of Cambridge
- [http://www.cambridgeonline.co.uk/ Cambridge Online] - a comprehensive city guide and directory with thousands of pages of local information contributed by Cambridge residents
- [http://www.gwydir.demon.co.uk/cambridgeuk/ Cambridge (UK) Web Guide] - Cambridge (UK) Web Sites
- [http://www.camplus.co.uk/webcam.htm Cambridge Market Place Webcam] - CamPlus Site's Market Place Webcam
- [http://www.multimap.com/map/photo.cgi?client=public&X=545000&Y=259000&width=500&height=310&gride=543094&gridn=258824&srec=0&coordsys=gb&db=pc&pc=&zm=0&scale=10000&down.x=188&down.y=4 Interactive aerial photo and map]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=52.202,.125&spn=.015,.04&t=h&q=Cambridge Cambridge on Google Maps]
- [http://www.cam.ac.uk/ University of Cambridge] Category:Cities in England Category:English county towns Category:Local government in Cambridgeshire Category:University towns Category:Shire districts ko:케임브리지

Ivy League

The Ivy League is an athletic conference, founded in 1954, of eight institutions of higher education located in the eastern United States. The term has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and a certain amount of academic elitism. All of the Ivy League institutions share some general characteristics: They are among the most prestigious and selective schools in the U.S., they consistently place close to the top of college and university rankings; they rank within the top one percent of the world's academic institutions in terms of financial endowment; they attract top-tier students and faculty; and they have relatively small undergraduate populations, ranging between 4,079 for Dartmouth College and 13,700 for Cornell University and modestly sized graduate student populations, ranging between 1,625 for Dartmouth and 14,692 for Columbia. Seven of the eight schools (Cornell University being the exception) were founded during America's colonial period. The Ivies also are all located in the Northeast region of the United States. Notably, the Ivies also prohibit the offering of athletic scholarships to students in most cases; this ban differentiates Ivy teams from those of schools that permit students to receive scholarships to attend or to join a team. The Ivy League institutions are privately owned and controlled. Although many of them receive funding from the federal or state governments to pursue research, only Cornell has state-supported academic units, termed statutory colleges, that are an integral part of the institution.

Members

The members of the Ivy League are, in alphabetical order:
- Brown University, in Providence, Rhode Island, founded in 1764 as College of Rhode Island.
- Columbia University in New York, New York, founded in 1754 as King's College.
- Cornell University, in Ithaca, New York, founded in 1865.
- Dartmouth College, in Hanover, New Hampshire, founded in 1769.
- Harvard University, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, founded in 1636, named Harvard College in 1638.
- University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, founded in 1740 as the Academy of Philadelphia.
- Princeton University, in Princeton borough and Princeton township, New Jersey, founded in 1746 as College of New Jersey.
- Yale University, in New Haven, Connecticut, founded in 1701 as Collegiate School.

Shields and mottos

Image:Brown Coat of Arms.png|Brown
In deo speramus
("In God we hope") Image:Cu-shield.png|Columbia
In lumine Tuo videbimus lumen
("In Thy light shall we see light") Image:Cornell_emblem.png|Cornell
"I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study" Image:Dartmouth-seal.jpg|Dartmouth
Vox clamantis in deserto
("A voice crying in the wilderness") Image:Harvard_shield-University.png|Harvard
Veritas
("Truth") Image:Wikipedia_Penn_Shield.jpg|Penn
Leges sine moribus vanae
("Laws without morals are useless") Image:PrincetonShield.gif|Princeton
Dei sub numine viget
("Under God's power she flourishes") Image:Official Yale Shield.png|Yale
Lux et veritas
("Light and truth")

Terminology

Named after the ivy plants that traditionally cover their buildings, the term Ivy League was first coined informally to refer to these institutions of higher education which compete in both scholastics and sports. Formally, it also refers to the association of these schools in NCAA Division I athletic competition. The Ivy League universities are often simply called the Ivies or, affectionately, the Ancient Eight. The term "Ivy League" refers strictly to the original eight universities. However, the prestige associated with the Ivy League has given rise to similar terms that connote perceived preeminence within other various realms of American higher education: "Jesuit Ivy", "Little Ivies", "Public Ivies", etc. These terms are strictly colloquial and have no relation to the original eight schools.

History

The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States. Boat clubs from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire, in 1852. As an informal football league, the Ivy League dates from 1900 when Yale took the conference championship with a 5-0 record. For many years Army (the United States Military Academy), Navy (the United States Naval Academy), and to a lesser extent Rutgers were considered members, but dropped out shortly before formal organization. For instance, Army traditionally had a rivalry with Yale, which some assert is set to resume in the next few years, and Rutgers had rivalries with Princeton and Columbia, which continue today in sports other than football. On October 14, 1937, when Caswell Adams, a sports writer for the New York Herald Tribune, was assigned a Columbia-Pennsylvania football game, he remarked, "Do I have to watch the ivy grow every Saturday afternoon? How about letting me see some football away from the ivy-covered halls of learning for a change?" Stanley Woodward, a fellow writer, overheard this and coined the phrase "Ivy League" in a column, informally describing the eight competitive universities in advance of any formal sports conference, and his phrase quickly caught on. In 1945 the presidents of the eight schools signed the first Ivy Group Agreement, which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the football teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents' Agreement of 1916. In 1954, the date generally accepted as the birth of the Ivy League, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports. Competition began with the 1956 season. As late as the 1960s many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become coeducational. Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby Seven Sisters women's colleges, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle. This was the case not only at Barnard College and Radcliffe College, which were situated very near to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well. (The movie Animal House includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet Smith and Mount Holyoke women, a drive of more than two hours.) Some sources suggest that the Seven Sisters group was so named as a parallel to the Ivy League. [http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/PLLI/webreprt.html] A fake etymology attributes the name to the Roman numerals for four (IV), incorrectly asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members. The Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins helped to perpetuate this myth, claiming that over a century ago, Harvard, Yale, Columbia and Princeton formed an athletic league called the "Four League." [http://www.chipublib.org/008subject/005genref/faqiv.html]

Notable programs

Many of the universities are well known for their top-rate graduate and professional programs (the acceptance rate at Harvard's medical school is around 5%). Some notable programs include:
- Brown's Medical School
- Columbia's Business School, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Law School, Columbia School of the Arts, School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA), School of Journalism, and Teachers College, and Mailman School of Public Health
- Cornell's College of Engineering, Law School, Johnson School of Management, Weill Medical College, NYS College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, NYS College of Veterinary Medicine, NYS School of Industrial and Labor Relations and School of Hotel Administration
- Dartmouth's Tuck School of Business, Medical School, Thayer School of Engineering
- Harvard's Business School, Kennedy School of Government, Law School, Medical School, and School of Education, Harvard School of Public Health
- Penn's Law School, School of Social Policy & Practice, School of Education, School of Medicine, School of Nursing, Annenberg School for Communication, and The Wharton School
- Princeton's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs and School of Architecture (Princeton maintains its undergraduate focus and does not have professional schools)
- Yale's Law School, School of Management, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, School of Art, School of Drama, School of Medicine, School of Nursing, School of Music and School of Architecture, Yale School of Public Health.

Reputation

All Ivy League schools are known for their highly selective undergraduate programs, and acceptance rates now range from 9.1% for Harvard to 26.1% for Cornell. These rates are far lower than they were previously. Indeed, as recently as 1992, acceptance rates ranged from 16% for Harvard all the way up to 47% for the University of Pennsylvania (1). In most college and university rankings, all or almost all of the Ivy League schools rank in the top tier. The ranking of the schools is greatly dependent on what each survey places the most weight, such as average class size, volume of research, and faculty accolades.

Endowments

The Ivy League schools are among the wealthiest private universities in the U.S., a status commensurate with their ages and long-standing relationships with the highest echelons of American society. All of the Ivy League schools have financial endowments over $1 billion.[http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/business/personal_finance/7774843.htm] Harvard, with a $22.6 billion endowment (as of 2004), is the wealthiest university in the world, and is only the second non-profit organization in the world to report an endowment over $20 billion, only surpassed by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.[http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503347] Yale, with an endowment size of $15.2 billion (2005 value), is the second-wealthiest, and Princeton, with $10.3 billion, is third. Next comes Columbia with $4.5 billion, Penn with $4 billion, Cornell with $3.75 billion, Dartmouth with $2.6 billion, and Brown with $1.96 billion. Princeton, the wealthiest institution in the country on a per capita basis, has a per-student endowment of $1.32 million, followed by Harvard with $1.15 million, Yale with $1.12 million, Dartmouth with $455,820, Brown and Columbia with $200,000, Penn with $190,000, and Cornell with $190,000.

Land ownership

Cornell has the largest campus in the Ivy League with 745 acres (3 km²) of property in Upstate New York. Dartmouth, the largest landowner in New Hampshire, owns 265 acres (1.1 km²) in its main campus in Hanover, New Hampshire and nearly 27,000 acres (109 km²)[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~doc/secondcollegegrant/] in northern New Hampshire. Princeton owns 600 acres (2.4 km²) in a suburban environment. Harvard owns nearly 571 acres (2.3 km²) in an urban setting (220 in Cambridge[http://thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=254361] and 352 directly across the river in Boston[http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/daily/2005/10/24-allstonfaq.html]) as well as holding a 1000-year lease (ending in 2882) on the 265 acres of the Arnold Arboretum also in Boston[http://www.arboretum.harvard.edu/aboutus/history.html]. The University of Pennsylvania has 269 acres (1.1 km²). Yale owns 260 acres (1.1 km²) in an urban setting and Brown has 143 acres (0.6 km²) in urban Providence. Columbia owns over 82 acres (0.33 km²) in Manhattan: a 36 acre (0.14 km²) campus in Morningside Heights, the 26 acre (0.1 km²) Baker Field athletic complex, a 20 acre (0.09 km²) health sciences campus, as well as numerous individual buildings and properties. It is notably among the largest private landowners in New York City, third only after the city itself and the Catholic Church. Columbia also operates the 157 acre (0.64 km²) Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory in the New York Palisades, and the 500 acre Harriman Estate ("Arden House") in Orange County, a northern suburb of New York City.

Cooperation

Seven of the eight schools (Harvard excluded) participate in the Borrow Direct interlibrary loan program, making a total of 40 million items available to participants with a waiting period of four working days. This ILL program is not affiliated with the formal Ivy arrangement. (Harvard holds another 15 million items in its collection.)

Competition

interlibrary loan Ivy champions are crowned in 33 men's and women's sports. In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other. (For example, the six league members who participate in ice hockey do so as members of the ECAC Hockey League; but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year.) Unlike all other Division I basketball conferences, the Ivy League has no tournament for the league title; the school with the best conference record represents the conference in the Division I NCAA Basketball Tournament (with a one-game playoff in the case of a tie). On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams. All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools. In some sports, notably baseball and tennis, the Ivy League teams also frequently compete against Army and Navy. Harvard and Yale are celebrated football and crew rivals. Penn and Cornell are football rivals. Columbia and Princeton have a rivalry that goes back to the fourth college football game ever played. Princeton and Penn are mainly basketball rivals. Cornell and Harvard are hockey rivals. Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based (financial aid) [http://www.ivyleaguesports.com/whatisivy/index.asp]. Since there is no outright athletic scholarship program, the schools are typically less competitive in football and basketball, even when compared to universities with comparably rigorous academic standards. In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country. In particular, Princeton won 24 recognized national championships in college football, and Yale won 19. Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as Notre Dame, which has won 12, and USC, which has won 10. Yale, whose coach Walter Camp was the "Father of American Football," held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire 20th century, but was finally passed by Michigan on November 10, 2001. Although no longer as successful nationally as they once were in many of the more popular college sports, the Ivy League still dominates others. One such example is rowing. Harvard, for example, has more National Rowing Championships than any other school in the country and most recently has won the IRA Championships the last three years in a row (2003, 2004, 2005). The other seven Ivies have historically been, and continue to be, among the top crews in the nation. This excellence dates back to 1852 when students from Harvard and Yale competed in the original Harvard-Yale Regatta, the first intercollegiate sporting event in the United States. Only recently have teams outside of the Ivy League, such as the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Washington, gained national titles. Although the Ivy League is usually regarded as a cohesive group from the outside, there is a considerable amount of internal academic rivalry and competition among its eight members. Among these elite universities, there is a heated competition for students. In 2002, admissions officers at Princeton logged into the Yale admissions website to view the admissions status of cross-applicants, using the names, birthdates, and social security numbers indicated on their Princeton applications [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2002/05/17/news/5201.shtml]. Yale's administration notified the FBI about the actions after conducting its own investigation. Princeton moved one admissions official to a different department over the incident and the university's Dean of Admissions retired soon thereafter.

References

1. U.S. News and World Report 1993 College Guide - June 4, 1993. 2. StudentsReview Official Rankings - Jan 1, 2005.

See also


- Colonial colleges
- Jesuit Ivy
- Little Ivies
- Oxbridge
- Public Ivies
- Southern Ivies
- Seven Sisters
- Five Colleges of Ohio

External links


- [http://www.ivyleaguesports.com Ivy League Sports Official Website]
- [http://www.ivysport.com/history.php Ivy League History at Ivysport] Category:College athletics conferences Category:Lists of universities and colleges ko:아이비리그 ja:アイヴィー・リーグ

Harvard University

:"Harvard" redirects here. For information about undergraduate education at Harvard University, see Harvard College. For other uses of the name Harvard, see Harvard (disambiguation). Harvard University is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, and a member of the Ivy League. It was founded on September 8, 1636, by a vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, making it the oldest institution of higher education in the United States. In 1893, Baedeker's guidebook called it "the oldest, richest, and most famous of American seats of learning." Originally referred to simply as the New College, it was named Harvard College on March 13, 1639, after its first principal donor, a young clergyman named John Harvard. A graduate of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, John Harvard bequeathed a few hundred books in his will to form the basis of the college library collection, along with several hundred pounds. The earliest known official reference to Harvard as a "university" rather than a "college" occurred in the new Massachusetts constitution of 1780. Seventy-five Nobel prize winners are affiliated with the university, and since 1974, nineteen Nobel Prize winners and fifteen Pulitzer Prize winners have served on the Harvard faculty. There are 167 Harvard faculty in the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Currently, Harvard has the world's largest university library collection (third overall after the Library of Congress and the British Library) and the largest financial endowment of any academic institution, standing at $25.9 billion as of 2005.

Institution

financial endowment" statue in Harvard Yard is a frequent target of pranks, hacks, and humorous decorations, such as the colorful lei shown above.]] A faculty of about 2,300 professors serves about 6,650 undergraduate and 13,000 graduate students. The school color is crimson, which is also the name of the Harvard sports teams and the daily newspaper, The Harvard Crimson. The color was unofficially adopted (in preference to magenta) by an 1875 vote of the student body, although the association with some form of red can be traced back to 1858, when Charles William Eliot, a young graduate student who would later become Harvard's president, bought red bandannas for his crew so they could more easily be distinguished by spectators at a regatta.

Admissions

Harvard's overall undergraduate acceptance rate for 2005 was 9.1%.. The 2006 figures from U.S. News indicated that the business school admitted 14.3% of its applicants, the engineering division admitted 12.5%, the law school admitted 11.3%, the education school admitted 11.2%, and the medical school admitted 4.9%.

Organization

Harvard today has nine faculties, listed below in order of foundation: Charles William Eliot
- The Faculty of Arts and Sciences and its sub-faculty, the Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, which together serve:
  - Harvard College, the University's undergraduate portion (1636)
  - The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (organized 1872)
  - The Harvard Division of Continuing Education, including Harvard Extension School and Harvard Summer School
- The Faculty of Medicine, including the Medical School (1782) and the Harvard School of Dental Medicine (1867, the first U.S. dental school).
- Harvard Divinity School (1816)
- Harvard Law School (1817<