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Colloquially

Colloquially

A colloquialism is an expression not used in formal speech or writing. Colloquialisms can include words (such as "gonna" or "grouty"), phrases (such as "ain't nothin'" and "dead as a doornail"), or sometimes even an entire aphorism ("There's more than one way to skin a cat"). Dictionaries often display colloquial words and phrases with the abbreviation colloq. Colloquialisms are often used primarily within a limited geographical area. In some areas, overuse of colloquialisms by native speakers is regarded as a sign of substandard ability with the language. However, in the mouth of a non-native speaker, they are sometimes taken as signaling unusual facility with the language as they may be more difficult for non-native speakers to understand. A colloquialism can sometimes make its way into otherwise formal speech, as a sign that the speaker is comfortable with his or her audience, in contrast to slang, which if used in formal speech is more likely done so consciously for humorous effect. Words that have a formal meaning may also have a colloquial meaning that, while technically incorrect, is recognizeable due to common usage. Examples include "immaculate conception" when used to refer to virgin birth, and "addiction" in cases where the individual is physiologically dependent, but not actually addicted to the substance in question.

External link

- [http://www.figarospeech.com It Figures-Figures of Speech] Category:Language varieties and styles Category:Figures of speech

Speech

One might be looking for the academic discipline of communications. ---- Speech can be described as an act of producing voice through the use of the vocal cords or other means, such as sign language, to create linguistic acts in the form of language that communicate information from an initiator to a recipient. In more colloquial terms, speech can be described in several different ways: #A linguistic act designed to convey information.
#Various types of linguistic acts where the audience consists of more than one individual, including public speaking, oration, and quotation.
#The physical act of speaking, primarily through the use of vocal chords to produce voice. See phonology and linguistics for more detailed information on the physical act of speaking. However, speech can also take place inside one's head, known as intrapersonal communication, for example, when one thinks or utters sounds of approval or disapproval. At a deeper level, one could even consider subconscious processes, including dreams where aspects of oneself communicate with each other (see Sigmund Freud), as part of intrapersonal communication, even though most human beings do not seem to have direct access to such communication.

Problems

There are several factors that can affect the quality of speech as such. Among these are: #Diseases and disorders of the lungs or the vocal cords, including paralysis, respiratory infections, and cancers of the lungs and throat.
#Diseases and disorders of the brain, including alogia, aphasias and speech processing disorders, where impaired perception of the message (as opposed to the actual sound) leads to poor speech production.
#Articulatory problems, such as stuttering, lisping, cleft palate, ataxia, or nerve damage leading to problems in articulation. Tourette syndrome and nervous tics can also affect speech.
#Problems in the perception of sound and auditory information can affect speech. In addition to aphasias, anomia and certain types of dyslexia can impede the quality of auditory perception, and therefore, expression. Hearing impairments and deafness can be considered to fall into this category. Thus, it is clear that speech has both expressive and receptive elements. The purpose of speech can be to convey meaning or to increase social bonds between individuals and/or groups (it is often both). For the latter, shallowness is not a problem. The success of a speech act depends on numerous factors, including the presence or absence of a variety of speech disorders, the ability of the speaker to express the intended message, and the ability and willingness of the audience to play the role of recipient. Glossophobia is the fear of public speaking.

Aphorism

Aphorism (From the Greek αφοριζειν, to define), literally a distinction or a definition (See the [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aphorism Online Etymology Dictionary entry]), is a term used to describe a principle expressed tersely in a few telling words or any general truth conveyed in a short and pithy sentence, in such a way that when once heard it is unlikely to pass from the memory. Specifically, an aphorism is a statement which defines a perspective by illustrating or describing the horizon of that perspective. Instead of standing outside a viewpoint and describing the viewpoint, an aphorism adopts a viewpoint and identifies the things which are only visible from that perspective. Usually an aphorism is a very concise statement of a phenomenology. Some examples are:
- An aphorism is a one-line novel.--Leonid Sukhorukov, book 'All About Everything'
- Love your mistakes but don't marry one.--Leonid Sukhorukov, book 'All About Everything'
- Marry in haste: Repent at leisure.--Scottish Proverb
- Better to light a candle than to curse the darkness.--Chinese Proverb, often misattributed to Eleanor Roosevelt
- Lost time is never found again.--Benjamin Franklin
- People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
- Greed is a permanent slavery.--Ali
- "Death with dignity is better than life with humiliation."--Husayn ibn Ali It can embody a bit of humor or be tied to some overworked statement, such as:
- One man's meat is another man's poison. The name was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, a long series of propositions concerning the symptoms and diagnosis of disease and the art of healing and medicine. The term came to be applied later to other sententious statements of physical science, and later still to statements of all kinds of principles. Care must be taken not to confound aphorisms with axioms. Aphorisms came into being as the result of experience, whereas axioms are self-evident truths, requiring no proof, and appertain to pure reason. Aphorisms have been especially used in dealing with subjects to which no methodical or scientific treatment was applied till late, such as art, agriculture, medicine, jurisprudence and politics. The Aphorisms of Hippocrates form far the most celebrated as well as the earliest collection of the kind, and it may be interesting to quote a few examples.
- "Old men support abstinence well: people of a ripe age less well: Young folk badly, and children less well than all the rest, particularly those of them who are very lively."
- "Those who are very fat by nature are more exposed to die suddenly than those who are thin."
- "Those who eject foaming blood, eject it from the lung."
- "When two illnesses arrive at the same time, the stronger silences the weaker." The first aphorism, perhaps the best known of all, which serves as a kind of introduction to the book, runs as follows:--"Life is short, art is long, opportunity fugitive, experimenting dangerous, reasoning difficult: it is necessary not only to do oneself what is right, but also to be seconded by the patient, by those who attend him, by external circumstances." Another famous collection of aphorisms is that of the school of Salerno in Latin verse, in which Joannes de Meditano, one of the most celebrated doctors of the school of medicine of Salerno, has summed up the precepts of this school. The book was dedicated to a king of England. It is a disputed point as to which king, some authorities dating the publication as at 1066, others assigning a later date. The dedication gives the following excellent advice: :"Anglorum regi scribit schola tota Salernae. :Si vis incolumem, si vis te reddere sanum, :Curas tolle graves: irasci crede profanum: :Parce mero: coenato parum; non sit tibi vanum :Surgere post epulas: somnum fuge meridianum: :Ne mictum retine, nec comprime fortiter anum: :Haec bene si serves, tu longo tempore vives." Another collection of aphorisms, also medical and also in Latin, is that of the Dutchman Hermann Boerhaave, published at Leiden in the year 1709; It gives a terse summary of the medical knowledge prevailing at the time, and is of great interest to the student of the history of medicine.

Aphorism and literature

Aphoristic collections, sometimes known as wisdom literature, have a prominent place in the canons of several ancient societies: E.g. the Biblical Book of Proverbs, Islamic Hadith, or Hesiod's Works and Days. Aphoristic collections also make up an important part of the work of some modern authors, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Leonid Sukhorukov. Some writers such as Eric Hoffer employ a style of compressing ideas and thoughts into brief paragraphs, many one sentence long, and refer to these as aphorisms. See [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Eric_Hoffer the page on Eric Hoffer] for selected examples.

Poetics of the aphorism

Some sociolinguists consider the aphorism a compressed poetic genre in itself. Aphorisms typically make extensive use of such devices as alliteration ("penny wise, pound foolish"), anaphora ("a penny saved is a penny earned") and rhyme ("a stitch in time saves nine"). Consider, for example, the aphorism "Children should be seen and not heard", which has persisted in common usage despite many compelling objections to it's wisdom. Whatever the value of its message, the phrase is, in fact, considered a masterpiece of oral-poetic art. "Children should be seen and not heard" contains emphatic repetition of the consonants n and d ("Children should be seen and not heard"). Metrically, it consists of four syllables without strong rhythmical marking ("Children should be") followed by a pronounced choriamb ("SEEN and not HEARD"). It is thus remarkably similar to octosyllabic verse-forms found in many ancient literatures, including Sappho's lyrics and the hymns of the Rig-Veda.

Aphorism and society

In a number of cultures, such as Samuel Johnson's England and tribal societies throughout the world, the ability to spontaneously produce aphoristic sayings at exactly the right moment is a key determinant of social status. Many societies have traditional sages or culture heroes to whom aphorisms are commonly attributed, such as the Seven Sages of Greece or King Solomon.

Legal aphorism

Aphorism used in law. You can't invent the wheel without bending the rules. --Leonid Sukhorukov's book "All About Everything"/

Aphorists

An aphorist is someone who collects aphorisms. Famous aphorists include:
- Benjamin Franklin
- Stanislaw Jerzy Lec
- Georg Christoph Lichtenberg
- Friedrich Nietzsche
- [http://www.free-people-world.com/3/aphorisms-quotes-phrases/ Domenico Schietti]
- Leonid Sukhorukov (www.leonidsukhorukov.com) (Aphorisms, quotes & phrases) (www.witwisdom.co.uk)

References

- Leonid S.Sukhorukov is the famous aphorist & author of a newly published book "All About Everything" (400 aphorisms of a lifetime/Pen Press Publishers Ltd, 2005, UK.) Here are some quotes from his book:
- Life is not a laughing matter... but can you imagine having to live without laughing? --Leonid S. Sukhorukov.
- Marriage is the dark side of the honeymoon. --Leonid S. Sukhorukov.
- Wisdom is the meeting point of doubt and certainty. --Leonid S. Sukhorukov. Leonid Sukhorukov reminds us of the effectiveness of a well-crafted aphorism – a unique blend of paradox, contradiction and wit. His observations cause the reader to laugh, nod or grimace… and sometimes all three at the same time. Andrei Tolstoy, Leo Tolstoy’s great-grandson

External links

- [http://www.figarospeech.com Figures of Speech] Category:Phrases ja:格言

Immaculate Conception

:This article refers to the doctrine of the immaculate conception of Mary, Mother of Jesus. For the doctrine of the virginal conception of Jesus Christ, see Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine). The Immaculate Conception is a Catholic doctrine that asserts that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was preserved by God from the stain of original sin at the time of her own conception. Specifically, the doctrine says she was not afflicted by the privation of sanctifying grace that afflicts mankind, but was instead filled with grace by God, and furthermore lived a life completely free from sin. It is commonly confused with the doctrine of the virgin birth, though the two doctrines deal with separate subjects. Mary was conceived by normal biological means, but her soul was acted upon by God (kept "immaculate") at the time of her conception. The Immaculate Conception was solemnly defined as a dogma by Pope Pius IX in his constitution Ineffabilis Deus, published December 8, 1854 (the Feast of the Immaculate Conception). The Feast of the Immaculate Conception of Mary had been established in 1483 by Pope Sixtus IV who stopped short of defining the doctrine as a dogma of the Catholic Faith, thus giving Catholics freedom to believe in this or not; this freedom had been reiterated by the Council of Trent. The existence of the feast was a strong indication of the Church´s belief in the Immaculate Conception, even before its 19th century definition as a dogma. The Catholic Church believes the dogma is supported by scripture (e.g. her being greeted by Angel Gabriel as "full of Grace"), and by the writings of many of the Church Fathers, either directly or indirectly, and often calls Mary the Blessed Virgin (Luke [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=49&ch=001&l=48 1:48]). Catholic theology maintains that since Jesus became incarnate of the Virgin Mary, she needed to be completely free of sin to bear the Son of God, and that Mary is "redeemed 'by the grace of Christ' but in a more perfect manner than other human beings" (Ott, Fund., Bk 3, Pt. 3, Ch. 2, §3.1.e). In the Catholic Church, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December is generally a Holy Day of Obligation, and a public holiday in countries where Catholicism is predominant. Prior to the spread of this doctrine, December 8 was celebrated as the Conception of Mary, since September 8 is the Feast of the Nativity of Mary.

History of the doctrine

Aside from the acceptability of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and its necessity or lack thereof, there is the history of its development within the Catholic Church. The Conception of Mary was celebrated in England from the ninth century. Eadmer was influential in its spread. The Normans suppressed the celebration, but it lived on in the popular mind. It was rejected by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, Alexander of Hales, and St. Bonaventure (who, teaching at Paris, called it "this foreign doctrine", indicating its association with England). St Thomas Aquinas expressed questions about the subject, but said that he would accept the determination of the Church. These famous churchmen had problems with the doctrine, due to the medieval understanding of the physical workings of human conception and implantation in the womb. They did not believe that the soul was placed in the body at the moment of conception. Aquinas and Bonaventure, for example, believed that Mary was completely free from sin, but that she was not given this grace at the instant of her conception. The Oxford Franciscans William of Ware and especially Blessed John Duns Scotus defended the doctrine, despite the opposition of most scholarly opinion at the time. Scotus proposed a solution to the theological problems involved with reconciling the doctrine with that of universal redemption in Christ, by arguing that Mary's immaculate conception did not remove her from redemption by Christ, but rather was the result of a more perfect redemption given to her on account of her special role in history. Furthermore, Scotus said that Mary was redeemed in anticipation of Christ's death on the cross. This was similar to the way that the Church explained the Last Supper (since Catholic theology teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice of Calvary made present on the altar, and Christ did not die before the Last Supper). Scotus' defense of the immaculist thesis was summed up by one of his followers as potuit, decuit ergo fecit (God could do it, it was fitting that he did it, and so he did it). Following his defense of the thesis, students at Paris swore to defend the thesis, and the tradition grew of swearing to defend the doctrine with one's blood. Popular opinion was firmly behind accepting this privilege for Mary, but such was the sensitivity of the issue and the authority of Aquinas, that it was not until 1854 that Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic Bishops, pronounced the doctrine infallible.

Protestant and Eastern Orthodox opinion

The doctrine is generally not shared by either Eastern Orthodoxy or by Protestantism. Protestants generally reject the doctrine, because they do not consider the development of dogmatic theology to be authoritative apart from Biblical exegesis, and the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is not explicit in the Bible. It is accepted by some Anglo-Catholics, but is rejected by most in the Anglican Communion. In the Book of Common Prayer, December 8 is a "lesser commemoration", whose observance is optional. However, members of the Society of Mary are required to attend mass that day. Orthodox Christians do believe that Mary was without sin for her entire life, but they do not share the Catholic Church's views on original sin. They note that St. Augustine (d. 430), whose works were not well known in Eastern Christianity until after the 17th century, has exerted considerable influence over the theology of sin that has generally taken root through the Holy See, and since Eastern Orthodoxy does not share Rome's (or most Protestants') view of original sin, it considers unnecessary the doctrine that Mary would require purification prior to the Incarnation. Instead, Eastern Orthodox theologians suggest that the references among the Greek and Syrian Fathers to Mary's purity and sinlessness may refer not to an a priori state, but to her conduct after birth. Although this is not a dogma in the Orthodox Church, there is the universal belief that there was a pre-sanctification of Mary at the time of her conception, similar to the conception of Saint John the Baptist. However, there was no cleansing of original sin, since Orthodox Christians believe that that one cannot inherit original sin, or any sin for that matter; instead, 'original sin' in Orthodoxy refers to the general tendency towards sin and pain in the world, caused by the fall of Adam.

Scriptural sources

In his Apostolic Constitution [http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P9INEFF.HTM Ineffabilis Deus] (December 8, 1854), which officially defined the Immaculate Conception as dogma for the Catholic Church, Pope Pius IX primarily appealed to the text of Genesis [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__P5.HTM 3:15], where the serpent was told by God, "I will put enmity between you and the woman, between your seed and her seed." According to the Catholic understanding, this was a prophecy that foretold of a "woman" who would always be at enmity with the serpent — that is, a woman who would never be under the power of sin, nor in bondage to the serpent. Some Catholic theologians have also found Scriptural evidence for the Immaculate Conception in the angel Gabriel's greeting to Mary at the Annunciation, recorded by Saint Luke in Luke [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28]. The English translation, "Hail, Full of Grace," or "Hail, Favored One," is based on the Greek of Luke [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28], Χαιρε κεχαριτωμενη Chaire kecharitomene. The latter word has the verb "to grace" as its root, and the Greek syntax indicates that the action of the verb was passive, fully completed in the past, with results continuing into the future. Put another way, it means that the subject (Mary) was graced fully and completely at some time in the past, and continued in that fully graced state. The Church Fathers, almost from the beginning of Church History, found further Scriptural evidence by comparing the figure of Eve to the figure of Mary. St. Justin Martyr said that Mary was a kind of New Eve, "in order that the disobedience which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same manner in which it derived its origin." (Dialogue with Trypho, 100) Tertullian argued in the same manner, saying, "As Eve had believed the serpent, so Mary believed the angel. The delinquency which the one occasioned by believing, the other by believing effaced." (On the Flesh of Christ, 17) St. Irenaeus declared that Mary became "the cause of salvation, both to herself and the whole human race," because "what the virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith." (Against Heresies, Book III, cap. 22, 4) St. Jerome coined the phrase, "Death came through Eve, but life has come through Mary." (Letter XXII, To Eustochium, 21)

Parallelisms in other religions

Anahita (or Nahid in Modern Persian), the mother of Mitra, whose name means "unstained" or "immaculate", was an ancient Persian deity. Her cult was strongest in Western Iran, and had parallels with that of the Semitic Near Eastern "Queen of Heaven", deification of the planet Venus. The largest temple with a Mithraic connection is the Seleucid temple at Kangavar in western Iran (c. 200 BC), dedicated to "Anahita, the Immaculate Virgin Mother of the Lord Mithras". Isis was also sometimes described as immaculate. "Immaculate is our Lady Isis," is the legend around an engraving of Serapis and Isis, described by C W King, in The Gnostics and their Remains.

Common misinterpretation

There is a widespread misunderstanding of the term immaculate conception. Many people, even many Catholics, believe this refers to the conception of Jesus by Mary. Nearly every time this term is used in television or in popular culture, it is in reference to the conception of Jesus by Mary. The conception of Jesus by Mary is more properly called the incarnation of Christ. The phrase "Immaculate Conception," by Catholic interpretation, is not directly connected to the concept of the "Virgin Birth." The Catholic Church celebrates the Immaculate Conception on 8 December, exactly nine months before the official birthday of Mary. The Incarnation of Christ is celebrated on 25 March, nine months before Christmas Day.

References

- [http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi09id.htm Ineffabilis Deus (Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius IX defining the dogma of the Immaculate Conception)]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07674d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on the Immaculate Conception]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Original Sin]

Opinion

- [http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=4&SID=3 "St. Augustine and Original Sin"] — a short article on the different understandings of Original Sin in Eastern and Western Christianity.
- [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen214.htm Rosicrucians: The Immaculate Conception] (esoteric Christian view)
- [http://www.fisheaters.com/mary.html Summary of Roman Catholic doctrines about Mary] Category:Blessed Virgin Mary Category:Catholic theology and doctrine Category:Liturgical Calendar ja:無原罪の御宿り

Addiction

Addiction is a compulsion to repeat a behavior regardless of its consequences. A person who is addicted is sometimes called an addict. Many drugs (sometimes called hard drugs) or behaviors are seen to precipitate an addiction, or a chronic pattern of behaviour, which includes a craving for more of the drug, or of the initial behavior, increased physiological tolerance to exposure, and withdrawal symptoms in the absence of the stimulus. Most drugs and behaviors that directly provide either pleasure or relief from pain pose a risk of dependency. Addictions can also be formed due to opponent process reactions. For example the terror of jumping out of an airplane is rewarded with intense pleasure when the parachute opens. Because of this opponent process, criminal behavior, running, stealing, violence, acting, and test taking can become habit forming.

Terminology and usage

The medical community now makes a careful theoretical distinction between physical dependence (characterized by symptoms of withdrawal) and psychological addiction (or simply addiction). Addiction is now narrowly defined as "uncontrolled, compulsive use despite harm"; if there is no harm being suffered by, or damage done to, the patient or another party, then clinically it may be considered compulsive, but within this narrow definition it is not categorized as "addiction". In practice, however, the two kinds of addiction are not always easy to distinguish. Addictions often have both physical and psychological components. There is also a lesser known situation called pseudo-addiction, where a patient will exhibit drug-seeking behaviour reminiscent of psychological addiction, however in this case, the patients tend to have genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated. Unlike true psychological addiction, however, these behaviours tend to stop as soon as their pain is adequately treated. The obsolete term physical addiction is deprecated because of its pejorative connotations, especially in modern pain management with opioids where physical dependence is nearly universal but addiction is rare. Also, it should be noted that some highly addictive drugs (so-called hard drugs), such as cocaine, induce relatively little physical dependence, whilst other drugs (so-called soft drugs) such as magic mushrooms and peyote are not normally considered to give rise to any significant degree of addiction or dependence. Not all doctors do agree on what addiction or dependency is, particularly because traditionally, addiction has been defined as being possible only to a psychoactive substance (for example alcohol, tobacco, or drugs), which is ingested, crosses the blood-brain barrier, and alters the natural chemical behaviour of the brain temporarily. Many people, both psychology professionals and laypersons, now feel that there should be accommodation made to include psychological dependency on such things as gambling, food, sex, pornography, computers, work, and shopping / spending. However, these are things or tasks which, when used or performed, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier and hence, do not fit into the traditional view of addiction. Symptoms mimicking withdrawal may occur with abatement of such behaviours; however, it is said by those who adhere to a traditionalist view that these withdrawal-like symptoms are not strictly reflective of an addiction, but rather of a behavioural disorder. In spite of traditionalist protests and warnings that overextension of definitions may cause the wrong treatment to be used (thus failing the person with the behavioural problem), popular media, and some members of the field, do represent the aforementioned behavioural examples as addictions.

Varied forms of addiction

Physical dependency

Physical dependency on a substance is defined by the appearance of characteristic withdrawal symptoms when the drug is suddenly discontinued. While opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol and nicotine are all well known for their ability to induce physical dependence, other drugs share this property that are not considered addictive: cortisone, beta-blockers and most antidepressants are examples. So while physical dependency can be a major factor in the psychology of addiction, the primary attribute of an addictive drug is its ability to induce euphoria while causing harm. Some drugs induce physical dependence or physiological tolerance - but not addiction - for example many laxatives, which are not psychoactive; nasal decongestants, which can cause rebound congestion if used for more than a few days in a row; and some antidepressants, most notably Effexor and Paxil, as they have quite short half-lives, so stopping them abruptly causes a more rapid change in the neurotransmitter balance in the brain than many other antidepressants. Many non-addictive prescription drugs should not be suddenly stopped, so a doctor should be consulted before abruptly discontinuing them. The speed with which a given individual becomes addicted to various substances varies with the substance, the frequency of use, the means of ingestion, and the individual. Some alcoholics report they exhibited alcoholic tendencies from the moment of first intoxication, while most people can drink socially without ever becoming addicted. Because of this variation, some people hypothesise that physical dependency and addiction are in large part genetically moderated. Nicotine is considered by many to be the most addictive substance in the world, although there has been no way found to determine this. Caffeine, ingested by more than 80% of human adults, is the most popular psychoactive substance in the world.

Psychological addiction

Psychological addictions are a dependency of the mind, and lead to psychological withdrawal symptoms. Addictions can theoretically form for any rewarding behavior, or as a habitual means to avoid undesired activity, but typically they only do so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional, social, or psychological dysfunctions, taking the place of normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained (see Rat Park). While eating disorders, like other behavioral addictions, are usually considered primarily psychological disorders, they are sometimes treated as addictions, especially if they include elements of addictive behavior. Sufferers may experience withdrawal or withdrawal-like symptoms if they alter their diet suddenly. This suggests that some common food substances, especially chocolate, sugar and salt, may have the potential for addiction. In addition, frequent overeating can also be considered an addiction.

Addiction and drug control legislation

Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like substances under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, hallucinogens and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs, and unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence. Usually, however, drug clasification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever. Also, although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds, it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual: reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure, and the individual becomes vunerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment.

Methods of care

Early editions of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) described addiction as a physical dependency to a substance that resulted in withdrawal symptoms in its absence. Recent editions, including DSM-IV, have moved toward a diagnostic instrument that classifies such conditions as dependency, rather than addiction. The American Society of Addiction Medicine recommends treatment for people with chemical dependency based on patient placement criteria (currently listed in PPC-2), which attempt to match levels of care according to clinical assessments in six areas, including:
- Acute intoxication and/or withdrawal potential
- Biomedical conditions or complications
- Emotional/behavioral conditions or complications
- Treatment acceptance/resistance
- Relapse potential
- Recovery environment Some medical systems, including those of at least 15 states of the United States, refer to an Addiction Severity Index to assess the severity of problems related to substance use. The index assesses problems in six areas: medical, employment/support, alcohol and other drug use, legal, family/social, and psychiatric. While addiction or dependency is related to seemingly uncontrollable urges, and may have roots in genetic predisposition, treatment of dependency is always classified as behavioral medicine. Early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification, which can include doses of anxiolytics to reduce symptoms of withdrawal. In chronic opiate addiction, a surrogate drug such as methadone is sometimes offered as a form of opiate replacement therapy. But treatment approaches universally focus on the individual's ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action. Therapists often classify patients with chemical dependencies as either interested or not interested in changing. Treatments usually involve planning for specific ways to avoid the addictive stimulus, and therapeutic interventions intended to help a client learn healthier ways to find satisfaction. Clinical leaders in recent years have attempted to tailor intervention approaches to specific influences that effect addictive behavior, using therapeutic interviews in an effort to discover factors that led a person to embrace unhealthy, addictive sources of pleasure or relief from pain.

Diverse explanations

Several explanations (or "models") have been presented to explain addiction:
- The moral model states that addictions are the result of human weakness, and are defects of character. Those who advance this model do not accept that there is any biological basis for addiction. They often have scant sympathy for people with serious addictions, believing either that a person with greater moral strength could have the force of will to break an addiction, or that the addict demonstrated a great moral failure in the first place by starting the addiction. The moral model is widely applied to dependency on illegal substances, perhaps purely for social or political reasons, but is no longer widely considered to have any therapeutic value. Elements of the moral model, especially a focus on individual choices, have found enduring roles in other approaches to the treatment of dependencies.
- The opponent-process model generated by Richard Soloman states that for every psychological event A will be followed by its opposite psychological event B. For example the pleasure one experiences from heroin is followed by an opponent process of withdrawal. This model is related to the opponent process color theory. If you look at the color red then quickly look at a gray area you will see green. There are many examples of opponent processes in the nervous system including taste, motor movement, touch, vision, and hearing.
- The disease model holds that addiction is an illness, and comes about as a result of the impairment of healthy neurochemical or behavioral processes. While there is some dispute among clinicians as to the reliability of this model, it is widely employed in therapeutic settings. Most treatment approaches involve recognition that dependencies are behavioral dysfunctions, and thus involve some element of physical or mental disease.
- The genetic model posits a genetic predisposition to certain behaviors. It is frequently noted that certain addictions "run in the family," and while researchers continue to explore the extent of genetic influence, there is strong evidence that genetic predisposition is often a factor in dependency. Researchers have had difficulty assessing differences, however, between social causes of dependency learned in family settings and genetic factors related to heredity.
- The cultural model recognizes that the influence of culture is a strong determinant of whether or not individuals fall prey to certain addictions. For example, alcoholism is rare among Saudi Arabians, where obtaining alcohol is difficult and using alcohol is prohibited. In North America, on the other hand, the incidence of gambling addictions soared in the last two decades of the 20th century, mirroring the growth of the gaming industry. Half of all patients diagnosed as alcoholic are born into families where alcohol is used heavily, suggesting that familiar influence, genetic factors, or more likely both, play a role in the development of addiction.
- The blended model attempts to consider elements of all other models in developing a therapeutic approach to dependency. It holds that the mechanism of dependency is different for different individuals, and that each case must be considered on its own merits.
- The habit model proposed by Thomas Szasz questions the very concept of "addiction." He argues that addiction is a metaphor, and that the only reason to make the distinction between habit and addiction "is to persecute somebody." [http://www.szasz.com/drugsandfreedom1973.html (Szasz, 1973)]
- The genetic neurobiological model called Hypoism. Read about the science behind this and its implications at http://www.nvo.com/hypoism. The scientific argument is at: http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/

Physiological basis

Although the term addiction is sometimes often used loosely rather than as a medical classification, there are some physiological conditions related to everyday behaviors that are also related to the more commonly recognized mechanisms associated with addiction. Pleasurable activities cause the release of endorphins, and this endorphin-rush can conceivably become 'addictive'. Evolutionary biologists have suggested this process of attentuating pleasure pathways is part of the brain's natural system for ensuring that humans develop abiding interests. Since human societies depend on enduring attachments, many theorists suggest such addictions are not necessarily a problem. Other views, such as the those summarized in Buddhist concept of tanha, suggest trivial attachments are at the root of much human suffering. The pathways oriented to endorphins, sometimes called pleasure centers originated in small organisms such as insects, which rely on the neurological system to help them find familiar sources of food. Endorphins stimulate activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine after initially activating opioid receptors earlier in the nervous circuit. Increased dopamine activity is often met by a decrease in the number of receptors sensitive to dopamine. This process is called downregulation. The decreased number of receptors tends to result in reduced electrical activity along post-synaptic nerve pathways, unless some behavior or substance causes a continued high level of dopaminergic stimulation. The absence of a pleasurable sensation in conditions that were formally sufficient can cause a mild feeling of let-down after receptors have been downregulated. The increased requirement for dopamine to maintain the same electrical activity is the basis of both physiological tolerance and withdrawal associated with addiction. The middle striatal reward pathway has been most strongly linked with addictive and reward behavior. This pathway utilizes dopamine as a neurotransmitter and receives presynaptic input (from earlier in the circuit--it gets signals from these earlier in the circuit cells) from cells that respond to cannabinoids, nicotine (receptor subtype is nicotinic), and from cells that respond to endogenous opioid substances such as endorphins or enkephalins. Cells that are said to respond to a particular neurotransmitter (or agonists) contain, at the postsynaptic end (receiving area of the cell) receptors for that neurotransmitter. Many believe that there are more neurotransmitters involved with addiction than just dopamine including serotonin, norepinephrine, and the endocannabinoid anandamide. In cases of physical dependency on depressants of the central nervous system such as opioids, barbiturates, or alcohol, the absence of the substance can lead to symptoms of severe physical discomfort. Withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives such as barbiturates or benzodiazepines (valium-family) can result in seizures and even death. By contrast, withdrawal from opioids, which can be extremely uncomfortable, is rarely if ever life-threatening. In cases of dependence and withdrawal, the body has become so dependent on high concentrations of the particular chemical that it has stopped producing its own natural versions (endogenous ligands) and instead produces opposing chemicals. When the addictive substance is withdrawn, the effects of the opposing chemicals can become overwhelming. For example, chronic use of sedatives (alcohol, barbiturates, or benzodiazepines) results in higher chronic levels of stimulating neurotransmitters such as glutamate. Very high levels of glutamate kill nerve cells (called excitatory neurotoxicity). Opioids present extreme risks of dependency because they are chemically similar to endorphins, causing an upregulation of dopaminergic receptors without stimulation of the endorphin systems. Cocaine and amphetamines also pose risks associated with physical attenuation, in both cases because they cause increases in the levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine which acts indirectly to stimulate dopaminergic pathways in the brain.

Criticism

Levi Bryant has criticized the term and concept of addiction as counterproductive in psychotherapy as it defines a patient's identity and makes it harder to become a non-addict. "The signifier 'addict' doesn't simply describe what I am, but initiates a way of relating to myself that informs how I relate to others."

Casual addiction

The word addiction is also sometimes used colloquially to refer to something a person has a passion for. Such "addicts" include:
- Biblioholics
- Chocoholics
- Workaholics

External links

- http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/
- [http://www.nature.com/neuro/focus/addiction/index.html nature neurosience - Focus on Neurobiology of addiction] (freely available online through January 2006)
- [http://www.nida.nih.gov/ National Institute on Drug Abuse]
- [http://www.asam.org/pain/definitions2.pdf Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain] (2001) - a joint statement by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Society, and the American Society of Addiction Medicine
- [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/ World Health Organization terminology for substance use and dependence]
- [http://www.narecovery.org/ Narcotics Anonymous Help for Addicts by addicts]
- [http://www.alcoholicsanonymous.com/ Alcoholics Anonymous]
- [http://www.marijuana-anonymous.org Marijuana Anonymous]
- [http://www.nicd.us/ National Institute on Chemical Dependency]
- ja:依存症

Jargon

:For the glossary of hacker slang, see Jargon File. Jargon is a type of terminology which is used in conjunction with a specific activity, e.g. medical jargon, legal jargon, and other proffessions as well as specific fields. The social purposes of jargon are threefold: communication, inclusion and exclusion. The first goal of any jargon is to facilitate communicating information, often by the invention of shorthand terms or the use of technical terms that may be obscure to most people but useful to people who use them on a daily basis. However, while jargon may be born in and mainly refer to a specific activity or profession, activities which have jargon often also are to a certain extent a subculture and thus a jargon can also be a type of slang. Therefore, it serves as a means of inclusion and exclusion : someone who speaks a group's jargon is identified as a fellow member, while someone who does not understand the same jargon is marked as an outsider. Jargon is used for instance in sports, where technical sportsman terms but also sport-related metaphors for other events in life are used by sports fans for the aforementioned purposes. For obvious reasons, jargon is used a lot in technical professions; see Technical terminology. The rise of information technology and the Internet created many overlapping jargons used by nerds, geeks and hackers to communicate, the very proper usage of these words being a major prerequisite for inclusion in these groups. See Jargon file. Often, beginning writers and speakers in uncertain social roles make the mistake of using specialized jargon inappropriately. When the jargon is used incorrectly, this is often known as a Malapropism. The term comes from the name of a character in a play--The Rivals--by Richard Brinsley Sheridan. However, Mrs. Malaprop did not restrict herself to misusing technical or scientific words. Another error may be the description of any complex word as "jargon", where the speaker or writer's idea or feeling is the target. The clearest statement of this type of error is found in The Jargon of Authenticity by Theodore Wiesengrund Adorno, where the author identifies a certain type of "authentic" language, said to be free of complex jargon, as itself a jargoning and used against certain types of feelings associated with "high" culture in favor of a "people's" culture. Adorno himself was accused by Bertolt Brecht and Frankfurt students of inauthenticity in that Adorno used words from high culture to describe his own attitudes, and for this reason, The Jargon of Authenticity was a bit of a
- cri de coeur
- despite its lofty tone, somewhat in the manner of Dr.Zhivago's father in Pasternak's novel, who, upon being thrown out of his
- dacha
- , cries "I'm one of the people too!". To describe an idea as jargon accomplishes in Bourdieu's terms several tasks. It maintain's the speaker's "distinction" and social role as critic and judge, while at time excusing the speaker from listening or reading with attention, and it also expresses a safe, egalitarian attitude. Indeed, these meta-attitudes and this more sophisticated use of the concept of jargon is today possibly more frequent than guild-like insider jargon. As it happens, today's professional organizations have legal structures of access which enable their members to override differences in "jargon" in such a manner that doctors, and to an extent lawyers, can understand each other across national and cultural boundaries. In technical efforts across those borders, terms of art and jargon are readily resolved as part of daily life in informative conversation. In daily affairs, one indication that the use of "jargon" as an accusation of intellectual insider trading may be in some bad faith is the fact that people feel, when subject to a barrage of terms of art in literary criticism, where the author makes an effort to define each such term of art, that the author is still guilty of using jargon. The late Jacques Derrida, and his adepts, were accused of inappropriately using a specialized jargon despite the fact that much of their work is a prolix attempt to define "deconstruction" and other such terms of art while doing justice to the necessity of self-application, and not standing outside the phenomenon of the text, in more bad faith. The accepted feeling, as reflected in journalistic accounts which in turn reflect settled educated opinion about these matters (an opinion not without its problems), is that the matters of which the author, such as the literary critic, speak, can be spoken of without terms of art or "jargon". The problem then becomes the repetition of definitions which in replacing catch-phrases only expand the text, leading to further weariness with mere prolixity, which itself is misidentified often as jargon. Indeed, there are contexts, especially electronic mail, where the use of deliberate and not-so-deliberate errors in style, grammar and spelling is so fashionable that mere grammatical writing and spelling can itself be the target of an accusation of "jargon". The jargon of authenticity, and the readiness to accuse the writer or speaker of jargoning, is far more common than first-order jargon today, as is the fear of guild formation and the fear of nonmonetary "insider trading" when members of a profession or para-profession collaborate, and generally, today, economic demands for results prevent this from occuring. Instead, a looser and demotic "terminology" takes hold in contexts where the midlevel fear of giving offense to powerful but aliterate outsiders (such as CEOs and politicians) overrides anything like professional solidarity or precision in speech. The jargon of "jargoning" itself evolved from a pleasant association about the time of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who referred in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner to the "sweet" jargoning of birds to today's usage, which is "unpleasant sounds I don't understand". This is a shift in attitude about language and mystery in which the listener and the reader demands clarity at all costs and today is unimpressed by fancy words. Coleridge was writing about unmapped regions of the globe, and unexplored regions of experience, but today, an all-pervading sense of surveillance, both directed at the common reader, and also under his power as on the Internet, makes us, perhaps, feel that any mysteries are being deliberately manufactured by "jargon".

External link

- [http://www.LanguageMonitor.com LanguageMonitor] - Watchdog on contemporary English usage See also Jargon compliance, lingo, pidgin, Wiktionary: Jargon, slang and for examples:
- Jargon code
- Chinook jargon
- Corporate jargon
- Mathematical jargon
- Computer jargon
- Poker jargon
- List of lumberjack jargon
- List of baseball jargon Category:Language varieties and styles ja:隠語 simple:Jargon

Variety (linguistics)

A variety of a language is a form that differs from other forms of the language systematically and coherently. Variety is a wider concept than style of prose or style of language. Some writers in sociolinguistics use the term lect, apparently a back-formation from specific terms such as dialect and idiolect. Examples of varieties are:
- dialects, i.e. varieties spoken by geographically defined speech communities
- idiom is a term neutral to the dialect–language distinction and is used to refer to the studied communicative system (that could be called either a dialect or a language) when its status with respect to this distinction is irrelevant (thus it is a synonym to language in the more general sense);
- sociolects, i.e. varieties spoken by socially defined speech communities
- standard language, standardized for education and public performance
- idiolects, i.e. a variety particular to a certain person
- registers (or diatypes), i.e. the specialised vocabulary and/or grammar of certain activities or professions
- ethnolects, for an ethnic group
- ecolects, an idiolect adopted by a household Varieties such as dialects, idiolects, and sociolects can be distinguished not only by their vocabulary, but also by differences in grammar, phonology and prosody. For instance the tonal word accents of Scandinavian languages has differing realizations in many dialects. As another example, foreign words in different sociolects vary in their degree of adaptation to the basic phonology of the language. Certain professional registers such as legalese show a variation in grammar from the standard language. For instance English journalists or lawyers often use grammatical moods such as subjunctive mood or conditional mood, which are no longer used frequently by other speakers. Many registers are simply a specialised set of terms (see technical terminology, jargon). It is a matter of definition whether slang and argot are to be considered included in the concept of variety or of style. Colloquialisms and idiomatic expressions are usually understood as limited to variation of lexicon, and hence of style.

Category:City Colloquials

Category:Language_varieties_and_styles

Category:Figures of speech

Category:Rhetoric

Multiple hereditary exostoses

Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME) is a medical condition whereby multiple exostoses (bony spurs or lumps, also known as osteochondromas) develop on the bones of a child. Generally, when a person with HME reaches maturity, and their bones stop growing, the exostoses also stop growing. It is estimated to occur in 1 person in 50,000. A person with HME is more likely to develop a form of bone cancer called chrondosarcoma as an adult. It is an autosomal dominant disorder. If necessary, the exostoses can be removed by surgery.

External links

- [http://www.amershamhealth.com/medcyclopaedia/medical/Volume%20III%201/HEREDITARY%20MULTIPLE%20EXOSTOSES.ASP Medcyclopaedia]
- [http://www3.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=133700 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM)] (HME Type I)
- [http://www3.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=133701 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM)] (HME Type II)

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Colloquially

See also

External link

Speech

Problems

See also

Aphorism

Aphorism and literature

Poetics of the aphorism

Aphorism and society

Legal aphorism

See Also

Aphorists

References

External links

Immaculate Conception

History of the doctrine

Protestant and Eastern Orthodox opinion

Scriptural sources

Parallelisms in other religions

Common misinterpretation

See also

References

Opinion

Addiction

Terminology and usage

Varied forms of addiction

Physical dependency

Psychological addiction

Addiction and drug control legislation

Methods of care

Diverse explanations

Physiological basis

Criticism

Casual addiction

See also

External links

Jargon

External link

Variety (linguistics)

See also

Category:City Colloquials

Category:Figures of speech

Multiple hereditary exostoses

External links

La Reunión

Quién los estudiantes de Leykis 101 no reúnen

Velas

Mástiles o palos