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Colloquialism

Colloquialism

A colloquialism is an expression not used in formal speech or writing. Colloquialisms can include words (such as "gonna" or "grouty"), phrases (such as "ain't nothin'" and "dead as a doornail"), or sometimes even an entire aphorism ("There's more than one way to skin a cat"). Dictionaries often display colloquial words and phrases with the abbreviation colloq. Colloquialisms are often used primarily within a limited geographical area. In some areas, overuse of colloquialisms by native speakers is regarded as a sign of substandard ability with the language. However, in the mouth of a non-native speaker, they are sometimes taken as signaling unusual facility with the language as they may be more difficult for non-native speakers to understand. A colloquialism can sometimes make its way into otherwise formal speech, as a sign that the speaker is comfortable with his or her audience, in contrast to slang, which if used in formal speech is more likely done so consciously for humorous effect. Words that have a formal meaning may also have a colloquial meaning that, while technically incorrect, is recognizeable due to common usage. Examples include "immaculate conception" when used to refer to virgin birth, and "addiction" in cases where the individual is physiologically dependent, but not actually addicted to the substance in question.

External link

- [http://www.figarospeech.com It Figures-Figures of Speech] Category:Language varieties and styles Category:Figures of speech

Speech

One might be looking for the academic discipline of communications. ---- Speech can be described as an act of producing voice through the use of the vocal cords or other means, such as sign language, to create linguistic acts in the form of language that communicate information from an initiator to a recipient. In more colloquial terms, speech can be described in several different ways: #A linguistic act designed to convey information.
#Various types of linguistic acts where the audience consists of more than one individual, including public speaking, oration, and quotation.
#The physical act of speaking, primarily through the use of vocal chords to produce voice. See phonology and linguistics for more detailed information on the physical act of speaking. However, speech can also take place inside one's head, known as intrapersonal communication, for example, when one thinks or utters sounds of approval or disapproval. At a deeper level, one could even consider subconscious processes, including dreams where aspects of oneself communicate with each other (see Sigmund Freud), as part of intrapersonal communication, even though most human beings do not seem to have direct access to such communication.

Problems

There are several factors that can affect the quality of speech as such. Among these are: #Diseases and disorders of the lungs or the vocal cords, including paralysis, respiratory infections, and cancers of the lungs and throat.
#Diseases and disorders of the brain, including alogia, aphasias and speech processing disorders, where impaired perception of the message (as opposed to the actual sound) leads to poor speech production.
#Articulatory problems, such as stuttering, lisping, cleft palate, ataxia, or nerve damage leading to problems in articulation. Tourette syndrome and nervous tics can also affect speech.
#Problems in the perception of sound and auditory information can affect speech. In addition to aphasias, anomia and certain types of dyslexia can impede the quality of auditory perception, and therefore, expression. Hearing impairments and deafness can be considered to fall into this category. Thus, it is clear that speech has both expressive and receptive elements. The purpose of speech can be to convey meaning or to increase social bonds between individuals and/or groups (it is often both). For the latter, shallowness is not a problem. The success of a speech act depends on numerous factors, including the presence or absence of a variety of speech disorders, the ability of the speaker to express the intended message, and the ability and willingness of the audience to play the role of recipient. Glossophobia is the fear of public speaking.

Aphorism

Aphorism (From the Greek αφοριζειν, to define), literally a distinction or a definition (See the [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aphorism Online Etymology Dictionary entry]), is a term used to describe a principle expressed tersely in a few telling words or any general truth conveyed in a short and pithy sentence, in such a way that when once heard it is unlikely to pass from the memory. Specifically, an aphorism is a statement which defines a perspective by illustrating or describing the horizon of that perspective. Instead of standing outside a viewpoint and describing the viewpoint, an aphorism adopts a viewpoint and identifies the things which are only visible from that perspective. Usually an aphorism is a very concise statement of a phenomenology. Some examples are:
- An aphorism is a one-line novel.--Leonid Sukhorukov, book 'All About Everything'
- Love your mistakes but don't marry one.--Leonid Sukhorukov, book 'All About Everything'
- Marry in haste: Repent at leisure.--Scottish Proverb
- Better to light a candle than to curse the darkness.--Chinese Proverb, often misattributed to Eleanor Roosevelt
- Lost time is never found again.--Benjamin Franklin
- People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
- Greed is a permanent slavery.--Ali
- "Death with dignity is better than life with humiliation."--Husayn ibn Ali It can embody a bit of humor or be tied to some overworked statement, such as:
- One man's meat is another man's poison. The name was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, a long series of propositions concerning the symptoms and diagnosis of disease and the art of healing and medicine. The term came to be applied later to other sententious statements of physical science, and later still to statements of all kinds of principles. Care must be taken not to confound aphorisms with axioms. Aphorisms came into being as the result of experience, whereas axioms are self-evident truths, requiring no proof, and appertain to pure reason. Aphorisms have been especially used in dealing with subjects to which no methodical or scientific treatment was applied till late, such as art, agriculture, medicine, jurisprudence and politics. The Aphorisms of Hippocrates form far the most celebrated as well as the earliest collection of the kind, and it may be interesting to quote a few examples.
- "Old men support abstinence well: people of a ripe age less well: Young folk badly, and children less well than all the rest, particularly those of them who are very lively."
- "Those who are very fat by nature are more exposed to die suddenly than those who are thin."
- "Those who eject foaming blood, eject it from the lung."
- "When two illnesses arrive at the same time, the stronger silences the weaker." The first aphorism, perhaps the best known of all, which serves as a kind of introduction to the book, runs as follows:--"Life is short, art is long, opportunity fugitive, experimenting dangerous, reasoning difficult: it is necessary not only to do oneself what is right, but also to be seconded by the patient, by those who attend him, by external circumstances." Another famous collection of aphorisms is that of the school of Salerno in Latin verse, in which Joannes de Meditano, one of the most celebrated doctors of the school of medicine of Salerno, has summed up the precepts of this school. The book was dedicated to a king of England. It is a disputed point as to which king, some authorities dating the publication as at 1066, others assigning a later date. The dedication gives the following excellent advice: :"Anglorum regi scribit schola tota Salernae. :Si vis incolumem, si vis te reddere sanum, :Curas tolle graves: irasci crede profanum: :Parce mero: coenato parum; non sit tibi vanum :Surgere post epulas: somnum fuge meridianum: :Ne mictum retine, nec comprime fortiter anum: :Haec bene si serves, tu longo tempore vives." Another collection of aphorisms, also medical and also in Latin, is that of the Dutchman Hermann Boerhaave, published at Leiden in the year 1709; It gives a terse summary of the medical knowledge prevailing at the time, and is of great interest to the student of the history of medicine.

Aphorism and literature

Aphoristic collections, sometimes known as wisdom literature, have a prominent place in the canons of several ancient societies: E.g. the Biblical Book of Proverbs, Islamic Hadith, or Hesiod's Works and Days. Aphoristic collections also make up an important part of the work of some modern authors, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Leonid Sukhorukov. Some writers such as Eric Hoffer employ a style of compressing ideas and thoughts into brief paragraphs, many one sentence long, and refer to these as aphorisms. See [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Eric_Hoffer the page on Eric Hoffer] for selected examples.

Poetics of the aphorism

Some sociolinguists consider the aphorism a compressed poetic genre in itself. Aphorisms typically make extensive use of such devices as alliteration ("penny wise, pound foolish"), anaphora ("a penny saved is a penny earned") and rhyme ("a stitch in time saves nine"). Consider, for example, the aphorism "Children should be seen and not heard", which has persisted in common usage despite many compelling objections to it's wisdom. Whatever the value of its message, the phrase is, in fact, considered a masterpiece of oral-poetic art. "Children should be seen and not heard" contains emphatic repetition of the consonants n and d ("Children should be seen and not heard"). Metrically, it consists of four syllables without strong rhythmical marking ("Children should be") followed by a pronounced choriamb ("SEEN and not HEARD"). It is thus remarkably similar to octosyllabic verse-forms found in many ancient literatures, including Sappho's lyrics and the hymns of the Rig-Veda.

Aphorism and society

In a number of cultures, such as Samuel Johnson's England and tribal societies throughout the world, the ability to spontaneously produce aphoristic sayings at exactly the right moment is a key determinant of social status. Many societies have traditional sages or culture heroes to whom aphorisms are commonly attributed, such as the Seven Sages of Greece or King Solomon.

Legal aphorism

Aphorism used in law. You can't invent the wheel without bending the rules. --Leonid Sukhorukov's book "All About Everything"/

Aphorists

An aphorist is someone who collects aphorisms. Famous aphorists include:
- Benjamin Franklin
- Stanislaw Jerzy Lec
- Georg Christoph Lichtenberg
- Friedrich Nietzsche
- [http://www.free-people-world.com/3/aphorisms-quotes-phrases/ Domenico Schietti]
- Leonid Sukhorukov (www.leonidsukhorukov.com) (Aphorisms, quotes & phrases) (www.witwisdom.co.uk)

References

- Leonid S.Sukhorukov is the famous aphorist & author of a newly published book "All About Everything" (400 aphorisms of a lifetime/Pen Press Publishers Ltd, 2005, UK.) Here are some quotes from his book:
- Life is not a laughing matter... but can you imagine having to live without laughing? --Leonid S. Sukhorukov.
- Marriage is the dark side of the honeymoon. --Leonid S. Sukhorukov.
- Wisdom is the meeting point of doubt and certainty. --Leonid S. Sukhorukov. Leonid Sukhorukov reminds us of the effectiveness of a well-crafted aphorism – a unique blend of paradox, contradiction and wit. His observations cause the reader to laugh, nod or grimace… and sometimes all three at the same time. Andrei Tolstoy, Leo Tolstoy’s great-grandson

External links

- [http://www.figarospeech.com Figures of Speech] Category:Phrases ja:格言

Native speaker

First language (native language, mother tongue, or vernacular) is the language a person learns first. Correspondingly, the person is called a native speaker of the language, although one may also be a native speaker of more than one language, if all of the languages are learned naturally without formal instruction (i.e. through immersion) before puberty (see the discussion on multilingualism below). Often a child learns the basics of his or her first language(s) from his or her family. Good skills in one's native language(s) are essential for further learning, as a native language is thought to be a base of thinking. Incomplete first language skills often make learning other languages difficult. Native language has therefore a central role in education. The term "mother tongue" could be misleading. In some paternal societies, the wife moves in with the husband and thus may have a different first language (or dialect) than the local language of the husband. Yet their children usually only speak their local language. Only a few will learn to speak his or her mother's language like a native. Mother in this context probably originated from the definition of mother as source, or origin; as in mother-country or land. One can have two (or more) native languages, thus being a native bilingual or indeed multilingual. The order in which these languages are learnt is not necessarily the order of proficiency. For instance, a French-speaking couple might have a daughter who learned French first, then English; but if she grew up in the United States, she is likely to become more proficient in English. The Brazilian linguist Cleo Altenhofen considers the denomination "mother tongue" and its general usage not precise and leads to various interpretations that are biased in linguistic prejudices, specially when it comes to define which is the mother tongue of bilingual children from ethnical minority groups. He cites his own experience as a bilingual speaker of Portuguese language and Hunsrückish, a German-rooted language brought to Southern Brazil by the first German immigrants. In his case, similar to those of children who learn the language of the family which is different from the language of the environment (the 'official' language), it is questionable to say which language is his 'mother tongue'. Many scholars gave definitions of 'mother tongue' through the years based on the usage, the emotional relation from the speaker towards the language and even its dominance in relation to the environment, but all these criteria lack precision in linguistical terms.

Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)

:This is a sub-article to Reports of unusual religious childbirths and Jesus. The Virgin Birth is a key doctrine of the Christian faith, and is also held to be true by Muslims (Qur'an 3.47), however, they do not call him (Jesus) "Son of God", rather "Servant of God". The doctrine asserts that Jesus was conceived in the womb of his mother, the Virgin Mary, without the participation of a human father. Instead, the Miraculous Conception (not the Immaculate Conception -- see below) took place when the Holy Spirit "overshadowed" Mary. This was not understood to mean that the human body of Christ was created ex nihilo (from nothing), for the tradition of the Church is that Christ "took his flesh from Mary." This is also understood to be a miracle, something not possible without divine intervention. This doctrine is frequently confused with the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. The latter, held by Roman Catholics, states that the Virgin Mary was conceived "without the stain of original sin". Mary, however, unlike Christ, was conceived in the ordinary way: i.e. she had a human father as well as a human mother (whose names, according to Catholic and Orthodox tradition, were 'Joachim' and 'Anna'/'Anne' - or 'Jehoiakim' and 'Hannah' in Hebrew). Another reason that Christians who accept the Virgin Birth consider it to be significant is that it shows Jesus' divine and human natures at once united, paving the way for all of humanity to be united with God. Eastern Orthodox tradition says that from the time Jesus was born, the flaming sword was removed from the Garden of Eden, making it possible for humanity to re-enter Paradise. Some Christians reject the notion of the Virgin Birth. Research by many groups, including Christian Research indicates that among both the clergy and the laity (in all branches of Christianity) beliefs in central tenets of the faith such as Virgin Birth or bodily Resurrection is highly variable (for example, among male clergy in English Affirming Catholicism group less than 25% believe in Virgin Birth).
Scriptural and philological controversy
In the wider sense, arguments for and against the Virgin Birth depend on fundamental philosophical assumptions: if one believes God does not exist, or if God exists but does not perform miracles, the Virgin Birth cannot have taken place in any traditionally accepted sense. The Virgin Birth violates a materialist philosophy and science based upon it. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that some philosophers since the modern era have come to accept the possibility of miracles. There are also objections to the doctrine of the Virgin Birth based on Scriptural and Philological debates.
Alleged Late Appearance in the New Testament
There are explicit references to the virgin birth in only two places in the New Testament: the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, which are believed to be amongst the latest written parts of the New Testament. The apparently older Gospel of Mark, on which Matthew and Luke are believed to be partly based (see Markan priority), does not mention the virgin birth, and some scholars also argue from lexicon and style that the first two chapters of Luke, describing the virgin birth, were a later addition to the Gospel, which may originally have began at 3:1: :2:51 And he went down with them, and came to Nazareth, and was subject unto them: but his mother kept all these sayings in her heart. : 52 And Jesus increased in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and man. :3:1 Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Ituraea and of the region of Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene, : 2 Annas and Caiaphas being the high priests, the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness. At 3:1 there is an abrupt change of subject and the story begins again. Nevertheless, this is characteristic of many stories in the Gospels and the author of Luke may simply be beginning a new segment of his narrative. Arguments regarding the addition of material to a narrative (Redaction and Form criticism), especially when the material in question is present in the earliest manuscripts, have received significant criticism in the last 20 years and are now regarded as dubious by some textual critics. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the Virgin conception and birth is a tradition that fits within the criteria of "double attestation", that is, the same event appears in two independent traditions (most scholars argue that the authors of Matthew and Luke worked independent of one another). For many historians, independent testimony is a significant evidence for the historical validity of a said event. We should note, however, that Matthew and Luke are testifying to an event, the birth, about which there was a tradition, namely, that it resulted from a miraculous conception. That the conception itself was indeed miraculous appears to rest on a "single attestation", that of the Virgin Mary. The attestation of the angel to St Joseph on the miraculous nature of the conception would not be accepted by many scholars as historiographically valid.
Saint Paul
Many of the letters of Paul are considered older than Matthew and Luke, and Paul does not take a clear opportunity to refer to Mary as a virgin when he describes the birth of Jesus: :Galatians 4:4 But when the fulness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law... The phrase in Greek is γενομενον εκ γυναικος, genomenon ek gunaikos, "having-become of a-woman", not γενομενον εκ παρθενου, genomenon ek parthenou, "having-become of a-virgin". Christian apologists reply that Mary's virginity was not relevant to Paul's reasoning at this point, and point out that he uses a special verb to describe Jesus's birth, which he plainly regarded as a special event. However, Jesus's birth would have been special to Paul whether or not it had taken place by parthenogenesis, and if Paul had not known of the virgin birth, it could never have been relevant to any of his reasoning and so could never have appeared in his writing. This argumentum ex silentio, or "argument from silence", cannot be conclusive, but skeptics of the virignal conception argue that it does increase the probability that only the writers of Matthew and Luke knew of and believed in the virgin birth. All the same, Paul didn't speak of Jesus' birth per se at all, so by this logic Paul didn't believe that Jesus had any sort of birth. Skeptics also argue that if other writers had mentioned the virgin birth in the New Testament, it would be certain that they believed in it. They did not mention it, therefore it cannot be certain that they believed in it. Skeptics argue that like the resurrection appearances, the virgin birth may be an example of the gradual supernaturalization of the Christian story. Some scholars have argued that early Christians did not claim that Joseph was not the biological father of Jesus. They point to the geneaologies in Matthew 1-2, and Luke 1-2, which use descent through Joseph to demonstrate that Jesus was the heir to King David. Moreover, the Ebionites (a group of Palestinian Judeo-Christians rejected by Gentile Christians as heretics) maintained that Jesus was naturally conceived. On the other hand, Paul frequently asserts the divinity of Jesus Christ in his writings and refers to him as υιος Θεου, Huios Theou, "Son of God". If he thought that Jesus was born in the usual way of a mortal father and mother, one would expect him to explain how a normal man could be God. His failure to refer to any problem of this sort could suggest that neither he nor his readers were faced with such a problem, possibly because they took the virgin birth for granted. Similarly, Paul mentions the setting of the sun -- "(Ephesians 4:26) Be ye angry, and sin not: let not the sun go down upon your wrath" -- but does not say that it goes down in the west, which would have been taken for granted by his readers. However, the precise direction of the sunset has no obvious theological significance. The Virgin Birth certainly does, and if Paul develops the theological significance of Jesus's death and resurrection at such length, why does he neglect the theological significance of Jesus's virgin birth? Examine, for example, Paul's words at the very beginning of Romans: :1:1 Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, separated unto the gospel of God, :2 (Which he had promised afore by his prophets in the holy scriptures,) :3 Concerning his Son Jesus Christ our Lord, which was made of the seed of David according to the flesh; :4 And declared to be the Son of God with power, according to the spirit of holiness, by the resurrection from the dead. This seems to say that Jesus was human by the flesh and divine by the spirit: he was the "seed of David" by descent in the male line through Joseph. Furthermore, he was declared to be the Son of God by his virgin birth as well as by his resurrection from the dead, and later in Romans Paul says this: :Romans 8:3 For what the law could not do, in that it was weak through the flesh, God sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh, and for sin, condemned sin in the flesh : 4 That the righteousness of the law might be fulfilled in us, who walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit. Why is a body begotten of a virgin by the Holy Spirit called a ομοιωματι σαρκος αρματιας, homoiomati sarkos harmatias, a "likeness of sinful flesh"? These and similar references may suggest that Paul does not mention the Virgin Birth because it had not yet been created as a way of honoring Jesus or overcoming the difficulties of reconciling human flesh and divine spirit, and although Paul refers to Jesus as "Son of God" after his death, Jesus repeatedly refers to himself in life as υιος του ανθροπου, Huiou tou Anthropou, "Son of Man" (Matthew 8:20 etc; Mark 2:10 etc; Luke 5:24 etc; John 1:51 etc). In light of this, most recent scholars of the infancy narratives have argued that the theological significance of Jesus' Birth did not become a Christian concern until later in the 1st century (See R.E. Brown, Birth of the Messiah - J.A. Fitzmyer Gospel of Luke). That is, the early Church seems to have "worked backwards" in its theology - focusing initially on the death and resurrection of Christ (see nearly all of Paul's letter), then becoming concerned with his life (Gospel of Mark), and later faced with addressing his birth (Matthew and Luke).
Dispute regarding Isaiah 7:14
In the past two millennia, there has been considerable controversy among Christians and their opponents about the plain translation and the precise meaning of a small section of Isaiah. The crux of the matter is the translation of the word : עלמה, `almah which has been translated as young woman and as virgin. In the King James Bible, a traditional Protestant translation, the verses in question run like this: :7:14 Therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign; Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel.
: 15 Butter and honey shall he eat, that he may know to refuse the evil, and choose the good.
: 16 For before the child shall know to refuse the evil, and choose the good, the land that thou abhorrest shall be forsaken of both her kings. Many modern translations concede that the word in the Hebrew does not mean "virgin". The Revised Standard Version says: : Behold a young woman shall conceive... The New Jerusalem Bible says: : the young woman is with child The Revised English Bible says: : A young woman is with child The Good News Bible says: : a young woman who is pregnant The New Revised Standard Version says: : the young woman is with child This demonstrates that many Christian scholars, both Protestant and Catholic, agree that the traditional translation of the Hebrew is not preferred in the context of Isaiah 7:14. Skeptics argue that this is not a very clear prophecy of the birth of Jesus Christ. For example, what does the "butter and honey" refer to? (One possible response to the "butter and honey" problem: it is a reference to one who, metaphorically, "has eaten good meat his entire life in order to spit out the bad meat if it ever touched his lips". Note that the "butter and honey" reference is immediately followed by the comment on an ability to choose between good and evil; this may suggest that they are related.) And why is Christ, who was sinless from birth in the traditional Christian understanding, described as having to learn to refuse the evil and choose the good? Skeptics raise even greater questions about the translation of the first verse in this passage: :7:14 Therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign; Behold, עלמה (a `almah) shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel. Christian apologists respond that the passage is a double reference— a sign both to Ahaz that the alliance against him would be destroyed, and to the house of David as a whole that was threatened with extinction. This is shown by the Hebrew which uses "singular you" for the former and "plural you' for the latter. With the former, Isaiah reassures Ahaz that the alliance would be destroyed before his own son Shear Jashub, who was present (v. 3), would "learn to refuse the evil and choose the good".
Greek translation
Is it accurate to translate עלמה (`almah) as virgin? The Greek version of the Book of Isaiah 7:14 (see below and the articles on Biblical canon, Tanakh, Septuagint and Old Testament) translates עלמה (`almah) as parthenos. Parthenos is conventionally translated into English as virgin. Furthermore, the Gospel of Matthew 1:22–23 explicitly links the Isaiah prophecy to the birth of Jesus. Accordingly, many Christians understand the Isaiah prophecy as referring to Mary and the birth of Jesus. There are two important words in Hebrew that can be translated into English as "virgin": בתולה, bethulah, and עלמה, `almah. Isaiah uses `almah in the Masoretic Text, and so conservative Christians have tried to demonstrate that the word unambiguously means "virgin", while other scholars, Christian, Jewish and otherwise, have tried to demonstrate that the word means simply "young woman", without any necessary connotation of virginity. `Almah occurs seven times in the Hebrew Bible and usually seems to mean a young woman of marriageable age (e.g. Genesis 24:43), but is never used in the Old Testament of anyone who was not a virgin; bethulah is accepted in modern Hebrew usage as the characteristic Hebrew word for virgin. However, it is qualified by a statement ‘neither had any man known her’ in Gen. 24:16, and is used of a widow in Joel 1:8. In the Ugaritic tablets, btlt was used of the goddess Anath who was a consort of Baal; and in other records, the Aramaic counterpart of betûlah is used of a married woman. There is no Hebrew tradition of virgin birth: Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Hannah were infertile women who miraculously gave birth late in life. However, this is also consistent with the view that the Messiah would be unique. The Bible makes no claim of divine impregnation. Christian apologists nevertheless argue that many first century Jews, including Jewish converts to Christianity, used the Septuagint Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which used the word παρθενος, parthenos, which they say clearly means "virgin". However, the great Greek-English Lexicon edited by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott lists other meanings for the word: :παρθενος, parthenos, I. 1. maiden, girl; virgin, opp. γυνη gynê, "woman". 2. of unmarried women who are not virgins, Iliad 2.514, etc. 3. Parthenos, hê, the Virgin Goddess, as a title of Athena at Athens. 4. the constellation Virgo. II. as adj., maiden, chaste. III. as masc., parthenos, ho, unmarried man, Apocalypse 14.4. Even so, "virgin" is the primary meaning, which is where we derive words such as parthenogenesis, meaning when a female produces offspring without being fertilized by a male. There is also archaeological evidence that Jewish speakers of Greek used the word "parthenos" elastically; Jewish catacombs in Rome identify married men and women as "virgins," and some have suggested that in this case the word was used to call attention to the fact that the deceased was someone's first spouse. Nevertheless, it remains true that Jews stopped using the more explicit Septuagint translation as Christianity spread, and that post-Christian Jewish translations into Greek use νεανις, neanis, meaning "young woman", rather than parthenos. Some scholars claim that the Septuagint does not use parthenos very precisely, as it translates at least three different Hebrew words by it: bethulah, "maiden/virgin"; `almah, "maiden/virgin"; and נערה, na`arah, "maiden, young woman, servant". The meaning of the word parthenos in the Septuagint is sometimes expanded in a way not seen in Isaiah. This would assume that the 9th century AD Hebrew manuscripts we have today are identical to the manuscripts from which the Septuagint was translated 1,000 years earlier, which may or may not be the case. :Genesis 24:16 And the damsel [parthenos = Hebrew na`arah] was very fair to look upon, a virgin [parthenos = Hebrew bethulah], neither had any man known her: and she went down to the well, and filled her pitcher, and came up. :Judges 21:12 And they found among the inhabitants of Jabeshgilead four hundred young virgins [parthenous = Hebrew bethulah], that had known no man by lying with any male: and they brought them unto the camp to Shiloh, which is in the land of Canaan. Note: There is also considerable controversy about the verbs used in Isaiah 7:14, and about the verses that directly follow it — see the external links below for further details.
Possible borrowing from Paganism
Some have argued that the Virgin Birth is a Christian borrowing from paganism. The impregnation of mortal women by gods is common in pagan mythology, but Christian apologists have replied that the obvious sex of the pagan myths is missing in the Gospels: :Matthew 1:18 Now the birth of Jesus Christ was on this wise: When as his mother Mary was espoused to Joseph, before they came together, she was found with child of the Holy Ghost. :Luke 1:34 Then said Mary unto the angel, How shall this be, seeing I know not a man? 35 And the angel answered and said unto her, The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest shall overshadow thee: therefore also that holy thing which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. However, because the Jewish God does not take human form in Judaism, he could not impregnate Mary in a physical way, and the absence of sex from the conception of Jesus does not disprove borrowing from paganism. However, the onus is on the proponents to prove borrowing, and the fact remains that the parallels are not virginal conceptions. Furthermore, a pagan myth of virgin birth may also underlie the disputed verses from Isaiah: :It all boils down to this: the distinctive Hebrew word for 'virgin' is betulah, whereas `almah means a 'young woman' who may be a virgin, but is not necessarily so. The aim of this note is rather to call attention to a source that has not yet been brought into the discussion. From Ugarit of around 1400 B.C. comes a text celebrating the marriage of the male and female lunar deities. It is there predicted that the goddess will bear a son ... The terminology is remarkably close to that in Isaiah 7:14. However, the Ugaritic statement that the bride will bear a son is fortunately given in parallelistic form; in 77:7 she is called by the exact etymological counterpart of Hebrew `almah 'young woman'; in 77:5 she is called by the exact etymological counterpart of Hebrew betulah 'virgin'. Therefore, the New Testament rendering of `almah as 'virgin' for Isaiah 7:14 rests on the older Jewish interpretation, which in turn is now borne out for precisely this annunciation formula by a text that is not only pre-Isaianic but is pre-Mosaic in the form that we now have it on a clay tablet. (Feinberg, BibSac, July 62; the citation to Gordon is: C. H. Gordon, "`Almah in Isaiah 7:14", Journal of Bible and Religion, XXI, 2 (April, 1953), p. 106.) This philological reasoning seems to raise three possibilities: virgin birth is a pagan concept that Christianity has 1) taken from contemporary paganism; 2) taken from pre-Mosaic paganism through Isaiah; or 3) taken from contemporary paganism and justified from Isaiah, who took it from pre-Mosaic paganism. If pre-Mosaic paganism supports Isaiah, and Isaiah supports Matthew and Mark, paganism has anticipated Christianity, perhaps because God was preparing the way for Christianity or because, as some Church Fathers argued, the Devil was blasphemously imitating Christianity. On the other hand, if pre-Mosaic paganism does not support Isaiah, there are several possibilities. For example, perhaps virgin birth was invented separately, first in paganism, then in Christianity or perhaps, despite the earlier date of the Ugaritic text, virgin birth existed first in Judaism, without any other instances than this one, and was borrowed by paganism. The obvious difficulty with this idea is that virgin birth was much more prominent in paganism, where it occurs in many myths in many different areas, than it was in Judaism, where it occurs (if at all) in a single verse late in the Old Testament. Nevertheless, the argument that virgin birth was a Jewish concept first borrowed by paganism and later incorporated into Christianity was first made by Justin Martyr in The First Apology of Justin, written in the second century. Justin also made this argument in his Dialog with Trypho, in which he debates with a Jew called Trypho: :"Be well assured, then, Trypho," I continued, "that I am established in the knowledge of and faith in the Scriptures by those counterfeits which he who is called the Devil is said to have performed among the Greeks; just as some were wrought by the Magi in Egypt, and others by the false prophets in Elijah's days. For when they tell that Bacchus, son of Jupiter, was begotten by Jupiter's intercourse with Semele, and that he was the discoverer of the vine; and when they relate, that being torn in pieces, and having died, he rose again, and ascended to heaven; and when they introduce wine into his mysteries, do I not perceive that the Devil has imitated the prophecy announced by the patriarch Jacob, and recorded by Moses? ..."[http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/just/justintrypho.html#Section69] Justin was clearly not referring to any Ugaritic texts, as these texts were not known in his day; he was referring to Greek paganism. That the Devil is responsible for the similarities between paganism and Judaism is not generally accepted by modern scholars, partly because the Devil's influence would be impossible to disprove. The Devil could not, for example, imitate Christianity or Judaism before either existed, without violating the generally accepted historical rule that a culture cannot be influenced by a culture that does not yet exist; even though in point of fact it is likely that if "the patriarch Jacob" existed, he was contemporary with the inscriptions at Ugarit. In a similar vein, it might also be argued that God had chosen to out-do these earlier human myths, all as part of his Plan. Christian apologists point out that if in fact the writer of Isaiah intended to borrow the idea of a virgin birth from an older pagan tradition, we might expect to find Isaiah using more explicit language to indicate that a virgin was meant. However, if Isaiah had borrowed the story from pagans, he might be expected to speak in the same way as the pagans, and that is what he does, according to the scholar quoted, who notes the "remarkable" similarity of the Ugaritic and the Hebrew. If Isaiah received a new prophecy direct from God, on the other hand, he had no tradition to conform to, and he could have expanded the meaning to make it completely unambiguous. That he did not choose to make it unambiguous is thus an apparent difficulty for the Christian interpretation of the text. Isaiah's prophecy departs from the Ugaritic version of the virgin birth by having the female be entirely human, whereas in the Ugaritic culture, the virgin was another deity, on par with the male; but this is exactly what might be expected if the myth were borrowed from paganism, since Judaism has only one male deity; a female deity in a borrowed myth might thus conceivably become a female human.
Use in modern storytelling
The concept of virgin birth was introduced in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace, in which Shmi Skywalker, the mother of Anakin Skywalker, explains that he had no father, and is hence the product of virgin birth. In the trilogy, Anakin is also likened to Jesus in other ways, as he is continually asserted as being "The Chosen One".
See also

- Perpetual virginity of Mary
- Christology
- Incarnation
- Adoptionism
- Ebionites
- Parthenogenesis
External links

- [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/copycat.html The Copycat Messiah?] — Attempted refutation of the idea that Christianity borrowed from paganism in any way.
- [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/fabprof2.html Vocabulary in Isaiah 7:14] (1) — A Christian conducts a detailed examination of bethulah and `almah and concludes that the former does not mean "virgin" while the latter does.
- [http://www.messiahtruth.com/is714a.html Vocabulary in Isaiah 7:14] (2) — A Jew conducts a detailed examination of bethulah and `almah and concludes that the former does mean "virgin" while the latter doesn't.
- [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2/4262apol_v2-1994.asp The Virginal Conception of Christ] A Jewish Christian argues for the doctrine, including that `almah is never used of non-virgins in the Old Testament, while bethulah is sometimes used of non-virgins; also rejects the pagan derivation theory and addresses the alleged silence of Saint Paul.
- [http://www.blueletterbible.org/Comm/fundamentals/30.html Fundamentals: The Virgin Birth of Christ] — Analysis of the question from a fundamentalist Christian perspective.
- [http://www.geocities.com/paulntobin/virgin.html The Virgin Birth] Analysis of the question from a skeptic perspective.
Further reading

- Spong, John Shelby. Born of a Woman: A Bishop Rethinks the Virgin Birth. San Francisco : Harper, 1994.
- Ehrman, Bart D. The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture. Oxford University Press, 1996. Category:Blessed Virgin Mary Category:Christian philosophy Category:Jesus Category:Christian theology Category:Gospel episodes Category:Christian miracle narrative ja:処女懐胎

Addiction

Addiction is a compulsion to repeat a behavior regardless of its consequences. A person who is addicted is sometimes called an addict. Many drugs (sometimes called hard drugs) or behaviors are seen to precipitate an addiction, or a chronic pattern of behaviour, which includes a craving for more of the drug, or of the initial behavior, increased physiological tolerance to exposure, and withdrawal symptoms in the absence of the stimulus. Most drugs and behaviors that directly provide either pleasure or relief from pain pose a risk of dependency. Addictions can also be formed due to opponent process reactions. For example the terror of jumping out of an airplane is rewarded with intense pleasure when the parachute opens. Because of this opponent process, criminal behavior, running, stealing, violence, acting, and test taking can become habit forming.

Terminology and usage

The medical community now makes a careful theoretical distinction between physical dependence (characterized by symptoms of withdrawal) and psychological addiction (or simply addiction). Addiction is now narrowly defined as "uncontrolled, compulsive use despite harm"; if there is no harm being suffered by, or damage done to, the patient or another party, then clinically it may be considered compulsive, but within this narrow definition it is not categorized as "addiction". In practice, however, the two kinds of addiction are not always easy to distinguish. Addictions often have both physical and psychological components. There is also a lesser known situation called pseudo-addiction, where a patient will exhibit drug-seeking behaviour reminiscent of psychological addiction, however in this case, the patients tend to have genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated. Unlike true psychological addiction, however, these behaviours tend to stop as soon as their pain is adequately treated. The obsolete term physical addiction is deprecated because of its pejorative connotations, especially in modern pain management with opioids where physical dependence is nearly universal but addiction is rare. Also, it should be noted that some highly addictive drugs (so-called hard drugs), such as cocaine, induce relatively little physical dependence, whilst other drugs (so-called soft drugs) such as magic mushrooms and peyote are not normally considered to give rise to any significant degree of addiction or dependence. Not all doctors do agree on what addiction or dependency is, particularly because traditionally, addiction has been defined as being possible only to a psychoactive substance (for example alcohol, tobacco, or drugs), which is ingested, crosses the blood-brain barrier, and alters the natural chemical behaviour of the brain temporarily. Many people, both psychology professionals and laypersons, now feel that there should be accommodation made to include psychological dependency on such things as gambling, food, sex, pornography, computers, work, and shopping / spending. However, these are things or tasks which, when used or performed, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier and hence, do not fit into the traditional view of addiction. Symptoms mimicking withdrawal may occur with abatement of such behaviours; however, it is said by those who adhere to a traditionalist view that these withdrawal-like symptoms are not strictly reflective of an addiction, but rather of a behavioural disorder. In spite of traditionalist protests and warnings that overextension of definitions may cause the wrong treatment to be used (thus failing the person with the behavioural problem), popular media, and some members of the field, do represent the aforementioned behavioural examples as addictions.

Varied forms of addiction

Physical dependency

Physical dependency on a substance is defined by the appearance of characteristic withdrawal symptoms when the drug is suddenly discontinued. While opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol and nicotine are all well known for their ability to induce physical dependence, other drugs share this property that are not considered addictive: cortisone, beta-blockers and most antidepressants are examples. So while physical dependency can be a major factor in the psychology of addiction, the primary attribute of an addictive drug is its ability to induce euphoria while causing harm. Some drugs induce physical dependence or physiological tolerance - but not addiction - for example many laxatives, which are not psychoactive; nasal decongestants, which can cause rebound congestion if used for more than a few days in a row; and some antidepressants, most notably Effexor and Paxil, as they have quite short half-lives, so stopping them abruptly causes a more rapid change in the neurotransmitter balance in the brain than many other antidepressants. Many non-addictive prescription drugs should not be suddenly stopped, so a doctor should be consulted before abruptly discontinuing them. The speed with which a given individual becomes addicted to various substances varies with the substance, the frequency of use, the means of ingestion, and the individual. Some alcoholics report they exhibited alcoholic tendencies from the moment of first intoxication, while most people can drink socially without ever becoming addicted. Because of this variation, some people hypothesise that physical dependency and addiction are in large part genetically moderated. Nicotine is considered by many to be the most addictive substance in the world, although there has been no way found to determine this. Caffeine, ingested by more than 80% of human adults, is the most popular psychoactive substance in the world.

Psychological addiction

Psychological addictions are a dependency of the mind, and lead to psychological withdrawal symptoms. Addictions can theoretically form for any rewarding behavior, or as a habitual means to avoid undesired activity, but typically they only do so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional, social, or psychological dysfunctions, taking the place of normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained (see Rat Park). While eating disorders, like other behavioral addictions, are usually considered primarily psychological disorders, they are sometimes treated as addictions, especially if they include elements of addictive behavior. Sufferers may experience withdrawal or withdrawal-like symptoms if they alter their diet suddenly. This suggests that some common food substances, especially chocolate, sugar and salt, may have the potential for addiction. In addition, frequent overeating can also be considered an addiction.

Addiction and drug control legislation

Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like substances under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, hallucinogens and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs, and unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence. Usually, however, drug clasification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever. Also, although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds, it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual: reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure, and the individual becomes vunerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment.

Methods of care

Early editions of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) described addiction as a physical dependency to a substance that resulted in withdrawal symptoms in its absence. Recent editions, including DSM-IV, have moved toward a diagnostic instrument that classifies such conditions as dependency, rather than addiction. The American Society of Addiction Medicine recommends treatment for people with chemical dependency based on patient placement criteria (currently listed in PPC-2), which attempt to match levels of care according to clinical assessments in six areas, including:
- Acute intoxication and/or withdrawal potential
- Biomedical conditions or complications
- Emotional/behavioral conditions or complications
- Treatment acceptance/resistance
- Relapse potential
- Recovery environment Some medical systems, including those of at least 15 states of the United States, refer to an Addiction Severity Index to assess the severity of problems related to substance use. The index assesses problems in six areas: medical, employment/support, alcohol and other drug use, legal, family/social, and psychiatric. While addiction or dependency is related to seemingly uncontrollable urges, and may have roots in genetic predisposition, treatment of dependency is always classified as behavioral medicine. Early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification, which can include doses of anxiolytics to reduce symptoms of withdrawal. In chronic opiate addiction, a surrogate drug such as methadone is sometimes offered as a form of opiate replacement therapy. But treatment approaches universally focus on the individual's ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action. Therapists often classify patients with chemical dependencies as either interested or not interested in changing. Treatments usually involve planning for specific ways to avoid the addictive stimulus, and therapeutic interventions intended to help a client learn healthier ways to find satisfaction. Clinical leaders in recent years have attempted to tailor intervention approaches to specific influences that effect addictive behavior, using therapeutic interviews in an effort to discover factors that led a person to embrace unhealthy, addictive sources of pleasure or relief from pain.

Diverse explanations

Several explanations (or "models") have been presented to explain addiction:
- The moral model states that addictions are the result of human weakness, and are defects of character. Those who advance this model do not accept that there is any biological basis for addiction. They often have scant sympathy for people with serious addictions, believing either that a person with greater moral strength could have the force of will to break an addiction, or that the addict demonstrated a great moral failure in the first place by starting the addiction. The moral model is widely applied to dependency on illegal substances, perhaps purely for social or political reasons, but is no longer widely considered to have any therapeutic value. Elements of the moral model, especially a focus on individual choices, have found enduring roles in other approaches to the treatment of dependencies.
- The opponent-process model generated by Richard Soloman states that for every psychological event A will be followed by its opposite psychological event B. For example the pleasure one experiences from heroin is followed by an opponent process of withdrawal. This model is related to the opponent process color theory. If you look at the color red then quickly look at a gray area you will see green. There are many examples of opponent processes in the nervous system including taste, motor movement, touch, vision, and hearing.
- The disease model holds that addiction is an illness, and comes about as a result of the impairment of healthy neurochemical or behavioral processes. While there is some dispute among clinicians as to the reliability of this model, it is widely employed in therapeutic settings. Most treatment approaches involve recognition that dependencies are behavioral dysfunctions, and thus involve some element of physical or mental disease.
- The genetic model posits a genetic predisposition to certain behaviors. It is frequently noted that certain addictions "run in the family," and while researchers continue to explore the extent of genetic influence, there is strong evidence that genetic predisposition is often a factor in dependency. Researchers have had difficulty assessing differences, however, between social causes of dependency learned in family settings and genetic factors related to heredity.
- The cultural model recognizes that the influence of culture is a strong determinant of whether or not individuals fall prey to certain addictions. For example, alcoholism is rare among Saudi Arabians, where obtaining alcohol is difficult and using alcohol is prohibited. In North America, on the other hand, the incidence of gambling addictions soared in the last two decades of the 20th century, mirroring the growth of the gaming industry. Half of all patients diagnosed as alcoholic are born into families where alcohol is used heavily, suggesting that familiar influence, genetic factors, or more likely both, play a role in the development of addiction.
- The blended model attempts to consider elements of all other models in developing a therapeutic approach to dependency. It holds that the mechanism of dependency is different for different individuals, and that each case must be considered on its own merits.
- The habit model proposed by Thomas Szasz questions the very concept of "addiction." He argues that addiction is a metaphor, and that the only reason to make the distinction between habit and addiction "is to persecute somebody." [http://www.szasz.com/drugsandfreedom1973.html (Szasz, 1973)]
- The genetic neurobiological model called Hypoism. Read about the science behind this and its implications at http://www.nvo.com/hypoism. The scientific argument is at: http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/

Physiological basis

Although the term addiction is sometimes often used loosely rather than as a medical classification, there are some physiological conditions related to everyday behaviors that are also related to the more commonly recognized mechanisms associated with addiction. Pleasurable activities cause the release of endorphins, and this endorphin-rush can conceivably become 'addictive'. Evolutionary biologists have suggested this process of attentuating pleasure pathways is part of the brain's natural system for ensuring that humans develop abiding interests. Since human societies depend on enduring attachments, many theorists suggest such addictions are not necessarily a problem. Other views, such as the those summarized in Buddhist concept of tanha, suggest trivial attachments are at the root of much human suffering. The pathways oriented to endorphins, sometimes called pleasure centers originated in small organisms such as insects, which rely on the neurological system to help them find familiar sources of food. Endorphins stimulate activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine after initially activating opioid receptors earlier in the nervous circuit. Increased dopamine activity is often met by a decrease in the number of receptors sensitive to dopamine. This process is called downregulation. The decreased number of receptors tends to result in reduced electrical activity along post-synaptic nerve pathways, unless some behavior or substance causes a continued high level of dopaminergic stimulation. The absence of a pleasurable sensation in conditions that were formally sufficient can cause a mild feeling of let-down after receptors have been downregulated. The increased requirement for dopamine to maintain the same electrical activity is the basis of both physiological tolerance and withdrawal associated with addiction. The middle striatal reward pathway has been most strongly linked with addictive and reward behavior. This pathway utilizes dopamine as a neurotransmitter and receives presynaptic input (from earlier in the circuit--it gets signals from these earlier in the circuit cells) from cells that respond to cannabinoids, nicotine (receptor subtype is nicotinic), and from cells that respond to endogenous opioid substances such as endorphins or enkephalins. Cells that are said to respond to a particular neurotransmitter (or agonists) contain, at the postsynaptic end (receiving area of the cell) receptors for that neurotransmitter. Many believe that there are more neurotransmitters involved with addiction than just dopamine including serotonin, norepinephrine, and the endocannabinoid anandamide. In cases of physical dependency on depressants of the central nervous system such as opioids, barbiturates, or alcohol, the absence of the substance can lead to symptoms of severe physical discomfort. Withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives such as barbiturates or benzodiazepines (valium-family) can result in seizures and even death. By contrast, withdrawal from opioids, which can be extremely uncomfortable, is rarely if ever life-threatening. In cases of dependence and withdrawal, the body has become so dependent on high concentrations of the particular chemical that it has stopped producing its own natural versions (endogenous ligands) and instead produces opposing chemicals. When the addictive substance is withdrawn, the effects of the opposing chemicals can become overwhelming. For example, chronic use of sedatives (alcohol, barbiturates, or benzodiazepines) results in higher chronic levels of stimulating neurotransmitters such as glutamate. Very high levels of glutamate kill nerve cells (called excitatory neurotoxicity). Opioids present extreme risks of dependency because they are chemically similar to endorphins, causing an upregulation of dopaminergic receptors without stimulation of the endorphin systems. Cocaine and amphetamines also pose risks associated with physical attenuation, in both cases because they cause increases in the levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine which acts indirectly to stimulate dopaminergic pathways in the brain.

Criticism

Levi Bryant has criticized the term and concept of addiction as counterproductive in psychotherapy as it defines a patient's identity and makes it harder to become a non-addict. "The signifier 'addict' doesn't simply describe what I am, but initiates a way of relating to myself that informs how I relate to others."

Casual addiction

The word addiction is also sometimes used colloquially to refer to something a person has a passion for. Such "addicts" include:
- Biblioholics
- Chocoholics
- Workaholics

External links

- http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/
- [http://www.nature.com/neuro/focus/addiction/index.html nature neurosience - Focus on Neurobiology of addiction] (freely available online through January 2006)
- [http://www.nida.nih.gov/ National Institute on Drug Abuse]
- [http://www.asam.org/pain/definitions2.pdf Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain] (2001) - a joint statement by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Society, and the American Society of Addiction Medicine
- [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/ World Health Organization terminology for substance use and dependence]
- [http://www.narecovery.org/ Narcotics Anonymous Help for Addicts by addicts]
- [http://www.alcoholicsanonymous.com/ Alcoholics Anonymous]
- [http://www.marijuana-anonymous.org Marijuana Anonymous]
- [http://www.nicd.us/ National Institute on Chemical Dependency]
- ja:依存症

Slang

Slang is the non-standard use of words in a language of a particular social group, and sometimes the creation of new words or importation of words from another language. It is a type of neologism. Slang can be described as deviating away from standard language use. Slang functions in two ways; the creation of new language and new usage by a process of creative informal use and adaptation, and the creation of a secret language understood only by those within a group intended to understand it. As such, slang is a type of sociolect aimed at excluding certain people from the conversation. Slang initially functions as encryption, so that the non-initiate cannot understand the conversation, or as a further way to communicate with those who understand it. Slang functions as a way to recognize members of the same group, and to differentiate that group from the society at large. Slang terms are often particular to a certain subculture, such as musicians, skateboarders, and drug users. Slang generally implies playful, informal speech. Slang is distinguished from jargon, the technical vocabulary of a particular profession, as jargon is (in theory) not used to exclude non-group members from the conversation, but rather deals with technical peculiarities of a given field which require a specialized vocabulary.

Functions and origins of slang

One use of slang is a simple way of circumventing social taboos. The mainstream language tends to shy away from explicitly evoking certain realities. Slang, and also the informal forms of language, permit one to talk about these realities in a special language stripped of the usual connotations in the normal register. Slang vocabularies are particularly rich in certain domains, such as sexuality, violence, crime, and drugs. There is not just one slang, but very many varieties—or dialects—of slang. Different social groups in different times have developed their own slang. The importance of encryption and identity vary among the various slangs. Slang must constantly renew its process of expression, and specifically its vocabulary, so that those not part of the group will remain unable to understand the slang. The existence of slang dictionaries, of course, cancels the effectiveness of certain words. Numerous slang terms pass into informal mainstream speech, and thence sometimes into mainstream formal speech. Originally, certain slang designated the speech of people involved in the criminal underworld, hooligans, bandits, criminals, etc. Therefore, their vocabulary carried very vulgar connotations, and was strictly rejected by speakers of "proper" language. Other groups developed their own slangs. In general, groups on the margins of mainstream society who were excluded or rejected by it.

Examples of slang

Historical examples of slang are the thieves' cant used by beggars and the underworld generally in previous centuries: a number of canting dictionaries were published. A famous current example is Cockney rhyming slang in which, in the simplest case, a given word or phrase is replaced by another word or phrase that rhymes with it. Often the rhyming replacement is abbreviated further, making the expressions even more obscure. A new rhyme may then be introduced for the abbreviation and the process continues. Examples of rhyming slang are apples and pears for stairs and trouble (and strife) for wife. An example of truncation and replacement of rhyming slang is bottle and glass for arse (ass). This was reduced to bottle, for which the new rhyme Aristotle was found; Aristotle was then reduced to Aris for which plaster of Paris became the rhyme. This was then reduced to plaster. Backwards slang, or Back slang, is a form of slang where words are reversed. English backward slang tends to reverse words letter by letter while French backward slang tends to reverse words by syllables. Verlan is a French slang, that uses backward words, similar in its methods to the back slang. Louchebem is French butcher's slang, similar to Pig Latin. The usage of slang very often involves the creation of novel meanings for existing words. It is very common for such novel meanings to diverge significantly from the standard meaning. In fact, one common process is for a slang word to take on exactly the opposite meaning of the standard definiton. This process has given rise to the positive meaning of the word 'bad' such as in the Michael Jackson song of the same title. Nadsat is a form of slang used in the book A Clockwork Orange, which borrows words from Russian and from various types of English slang. Polari is an interesting mixture of Italian and Cockney back slang (in other words common words pronounced as if spelled backward, for example ecaf for face, which became eek in Polari). Polari was used in London fish markets and the gay subculture in Britain in the 1950s and 1960s, becoming more widely known from its use by two camp characters, Julian and Sandy, in Round the Horne, a popular radio show.

External links

- [http://www.peevish.co.uk/slang/ British slang]
- [http://www.noslang.com Internet Slang translator and website validator]
- [http://www.talkingcock.com/html/lexec.php?op=LexView&lexicon=lexicon Singaporean slang]
- [http://www.bio.nrc.ca/cockney/process.html Cockney rhyming slang]
- [http://www.shartwell.freeserve.co.uk/humor-site/rhymingslang.htm Disability rhyming slang]
- [http://www.holoweb.net/~liam/dict/ A canting dictionary] - illustrates the tendency for English to adopt and make respectable words that were originally coined by the criminal classes .
- [http://members.aol.com/frij/ More on Polari]
- [http://www.urbandictionary.com/ American slang]
- [http://www.fiftiesweb.com/fashion/slang.htm American slang from the 1950s]
- [http://www.irishslang.net/ Irish slang]
- [http://slangi.net Finnish slang]
- [http://slang.pl Dictionary of Polish slang] Category:Sociolinguistics Category:Figures of speech ja:俗語 simple:Slang

Idiom

An idiom is an expression whose meaning is not compositional—that is, whose meaning does not follow from the meaning of the individual words of which it is composed. For example, the English phrase to kick the bucket means to die. A listener knowing the meaning of kick and bucket will not thereby be able to predict that the expression can mean to die. Idioms are often, though perhaps not universally, classified as figures of speech. Idioms typically admit two different interpretations: a literal one and a nonliteral (or figurative) one. Continuing with the previous example, the phrase to kick the bucket can, in fact, refer to the act of giving a kick to a bucket, but this interpretation is usually not the intended one when a native speaker uses the phrase. This aspect of idioms can be frustrating for students of a new language. Idioms are often colloquial metaphors. The most common ones can have deep roots, traceable across many languages. Many have translations in other languages, some of which are direct. For example, get lost! — which means go away or stop bothering me—is said to be a direct translation or calque from an older Yiddish idiom. While many idioms are clearly based in conceptual metaphors such as "time as a substance", "time as a path", "love as war" or "up is more", the idioms themselves are often not particularly essential, even when the metaphors themselves are. For example "spend time", "battle of the sexes", and "back in the day" are idiomatic and based in essential metaphors, but one can communicate perfectly well without them. In forms like "profits are up", the metaphor is carried by "up" itself. The phrase "profits are up" is not itself an idiom. Practically anything measurable can be used in place of "profits": "crime is up", "satisfaction is up", "complaints are up" etc. Truly essential idioms generally involve prepositions, for example "out of" or "turn into".

Common features

- Non-compositionality: The meaning of a collocation is not a straightforward composition of the meaning of its parts. For example, the meaning of kick the bucket has nothing to do with kicking buckets. (Kick the bucket means to die.)
- Non-substitutability: We cannot substitute a word in a collocation with a related word. For example, we cannot say kick the pail instead of kick the bucket although both bucket and pail are synonyms.
- Non-modifiability: We cannot modify a collocation or apply syntactic transformations. For example, John kicked the green bucket or the bucket was kicked has nothing to do with dying. It is likely that every human language has idioms, and very many of them; a typical English commercial idiom dictionary lists about 4,000. When a local dialect of a language contains many highly developed idioms it can be unintelligible to speakers of the parent language; a classic example is that of Cockney rhyming slang. But note that most examples of slang, jargon and catch phrases, while related to idioms, are not idioms in the sense discussed here. Also to be distinguished from idioms are proverbs, which take the form of statements such as, "He who hesitates is lost." Many idioms could be considered colloquialisms. In Spanish, the word idioma (= lengua) means language, and this is often reflected in their SL English—using idiom to refer to language.

Parlance

Parlance is a manner of speaking that is natural to native speakers of a language.

External links

- [http://www.goenglish.com Learn "Today's English Idioms" at GoEnglish.com]
- [http://www.eslcafe.com/idioms/ Idiom page at Dave's ESL Café]
- [http://www.briggs13.fsnet.co.uk/idiomslist.htm List of idioms by James Briggs]
- [http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/quizzes/idioms.html Self-study Idiom Quiz by The Internet TESL Journal]
- [http://www.rootsweb.com/~genepool/amerispeak.htm Amerispeak - expressions of our American ancestors]
- Idioms Quizzes - [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=2228&CurriculumID=16 Idioms Quiz 1] [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=2283&CurriculumID=16 Idioms Quiz 2] [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=2262&CurriculumID=16 Idioms Quiz 3] [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/showCurriculum.php?curriculumID=16 More Quizzes]
- [http://www.globalenglishsalon.com/idioms.htm Idiom Examples] Listen to idioms and learn the meaning of idioms.
- [http://www.whatdoesthatmean.com/ What Does That Mean?] A wiki based lexicon of English idioms. Category:Linguistics ja:慣用句 simple:Idiom

Category:City Colloquials

Category:Language_varieties_and_styles

Category:Language varieties and styles

Main article: Variety (linguistics) Category:Sociolinguistics Varieties and styles

Category:Figures of speech

Category:Rhetoric

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Colloquialism

See also

External link

Speech

Problems

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Aphorism

Aphorism and literature

Poetics of the aphorism

Aphorism and society

Legal aphorism

See Also

Aphorists

References

External links

Native speaker

See also

Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)

Scriptural and philological controversy

Alleged Late Appearance in the New Testament

Saint Paul

Dispute regarding Isaiah 7:14

Greek translation

Possible borrowing from Paganism

Use in modern storytelling

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External links

Further reading

Addiction

Terminology and usage

Varied forms of addiction

Physical dependency

Psychological addiction

Addiction and drug control legislation

Methods of care

Diverse explanations

Physiological basis

Criticism

Casual addiction

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Slang

Functions and origins of slang

Examples of slang

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Idiom

Common features

Parlance

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Category:City Colloquials

Category:Language varieties and styles

Category:Figures of speech

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Digger