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Civil Engineer

Civil engineer

The term civil engineer refers to an individual who practices civil engineering. Originally the term "civil" engineer worked on public works projects and was contrasted with the military engineer, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, civil engineering has spun off a variety of fields e.g. architectural engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and what is still called civil engineering. An interesting definition could be, "The profession of Civil Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of the power of Nature for the use and convenience of Human Kind."

Scandinavian civil engineers

In Scandinavian countries, some Master of Science degrees are called civil engineer (civilingenjör (Swedish), sivilingeniør (Norwegian)). That is if they have their graduation, or "diploma", from an institute of technology. The word has its origin from one of the English meaning of 'civil engineer' [http://www.m-w.com/] (compare [http://dictionary.oed.com]); : an engineer whose training or occupation is in the design and construction especially of public works (as roads or harbors). Although the English language meaning is very narrow, during the middle of 19th century (before [http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/] 1874), its Swedish interpretation also becamed "a person graduated from institute of technology", and now the profession represents all fields within engineering professions, like civil engineering, computer science, electronics engineering, etc. However, it might also mean only the civil engineering topic. Although a 'college engineer' (högskoleingenjör, diplomingenioer (Swedish), ingeniør (Norwegian)) represents a Bachelor of Science in Scandinavia, to become a 'civil engineer', one has to almost re-start the education from zero and it will take a half up to one year extra compared to B.Sc./M.Sc. studies. This is because the higher educational system is not fully suited to the international standard graduation system, since, at least in Sweden, it is treated as a professional degree. A Scandinavian "civilingenjör" usually calls himself "Master of Science in engineering". A Scandinavian "civilingenjör" will occasionally wear an engineering ring inspired by the canadian iron ring.

Civil engineering

.]] In modern usage, civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their processes. Most civil engineering today deals with roads, structures, water supply, sewer, flood control and traffic. In essence civil engineering is the profession which makes the world a more habitable place to live. Engineering has developed from observations of the ways natural and constructed systems react and from the development of empirical equations that provide bases for design. Civil engineering is the broadest of the engineering fields. In fact engineering was once divided into only two fields--military and civil. All the engineering specialties have derived from civil engineering. Civil engineering is still an umbrella field comprised of many related specialities.

Sub-disciplines of civil engineering

General civil engineering

General civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage (flood control), paving, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply and land (real property) divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community/neighborhood consensus, and preparing construction plans.

Structural engineering

Main article: Structural engineering Structural engineering is concerned with the design of bridges, buildings, offshore oil platforms, dams etc. Structural design and structural analysis are components of structural engineering and a key component in the structural design process. This involves computing the stresses and forces at work within a structure. There are some structural engineers who work in non-typical areas, designing aircraft, spacecraft and even biomedical devices. Major design concerns are building seismic resistant structures and seismically retrofitting existing structures.

Geotechnical engineering

Main article: Geotechnical engineering The main subject of the studies also known as soil mechanics is concerned with soil properties, mechanics of soil particles, compression and swelling of soils, seepage, slopes, retaining walls, foundations, footings, ground and rock anchors, use of synthetic tensile materials in soil structures, soil-structure interaction and soil dynamics. Geotechnical engineering covers this field of studies for application in engineering. The importance of geotechnical engineering can hardly be overstated: buildings must be supported by reliable foundations. Dam design and construction reducing flooding of lower drainage areas is an important subject of geotechnical engineering.

Transportation engineering

Main article: Transportation engineering Transportation engineering is primarily concerned with motorized road transportation, especially in North America. This includes areas such as queueing theory and traffic flow planning, roadway geometric design and driver behavior patterns. Simulation of traffic operation is performed through use of trip generation, traffic assignment algorithms which can be highly complex computational problems. Other, more specialized areas of transportation engineering are concerned with the designs of non-road transportation facilities, such as rail systems, airports, and ports.

Environmental engineering

Main article: Environmental engineering Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are water purification, sewage treatment, and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineering is related to the fields of hydrology, geohydrology and meteorology insofar as knowledge of (ground)water and flows are required to understand pollutant transport. Environmental engineers are also involved in pollution reduction, "green engineering," and industrial ecology. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process. Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering.

Hydraulic engineering

Main article: Hydraulic engineering Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water distribution systems, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, and storm sewers), canals, and to both sanitary and environmental engineering. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.

Construction engineering

Main article: Construction engineering Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers.

Material science

Main article: Material science Civil engineering also includes material science. Engineering materials include concrete, steel and recently, polymers and ceramics with potential engineering application.

Surveying

Main article: Surveying Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. This is accomplished using surveying techniques.

Careers

A popular misconception is that civil engineering is far from the exciting frontiers in mathematics and computer science. In actuality, much of what is now computer science was driven by work in civil engineering, where structural and network analysis problems required parallel computations and development of advanced algorithms. There are also civil engineers who work in the area of safety engineering, applying probabilistic methods to structural design, safety analysis and even estimates of insurance losses due to natural and man-made hazards.

Education and Licensure

Prior to becoming a practicing engineer, civil engineers generally complete tertiary (college or higher) educational requirements, followed by several years of practical experience. Each country, state, or province individually regulates civil engineering practice: In the U.S., one must become a licensed Professional Engineer to do any civil engineering work affecting the public or to legally represent oneself as a civil engineer. Licensure requirements vary slightly by state, but in all cases entail passing two licensure exams, the Fundamentals of Engineering exam and the Principles and Practice exam (commonly called the PE), and completing a state-mandated number of years of work under the supervision of a licensed Professional Engineer. In addition, an educational requirement must often be met. All states accept a four year Bachelor of Science (BS) or Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) degree in Civil Engineering, from an [http://www.abet.org ABET]-accredited program, for their educational requirement. The acceptability of degrees in other fields varies by state; some states allow a person to substitute additional years of supervised work experience for the degree requirement. Although the American Society of Civil Engineers encourages states to raise the educational requirement to a graduate degree, advanced degrees are currently optional for civil engineers in the United States. Graduate study may lead either to a Master of Engineering, which is a Professional Master's degree, or to a Master of Science degree followed by a PhD in civil engineering or a sub-discipline. In the United Kingdom current graduates require a MSc or MEng in order to become chartered through the Institution of Civil Engineers. This is relaxed to a BSc or BEng for those who entered University prior to the current rules coming into force. The Institution also allows entrants with substantial experience to apply without this level of formal academic achievement. In practice many, if not most, Civil Engineers in the UK work without chartered status. In Australia and New Zealand, this is typically a four year Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree which includes 12 weeks of work experience. In Denmark, a Civil Engineer takes 5 years to complete, whereof the first 3 years is aimed at completing a Bachelor degree, and the following two years, in follwing up with what is roughly the equivalent of a Master's degree, in Denmark called a candidate degree. The only two places in Denmark to complete the Civil Engineer education, is at DTU and University of Aalborg. "International Engineering Agreements" can be found at [http://www.ieagreements.com/ http://www.ieagreements.com/]. These agreements are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders. In general, these agreements require both educational competencies and professional experiential competencies.

Engineer

An engineer is someone who practices the profession of engineering – a person who uses scientific knowledge to solve practical problems using technology. The title "engineer" is normally used only by individuals who have an academic degree (or equivalent work experience) in one of the engineering disciplines. The word "technologist" is sometimes used synonymously as it derives from the prefix Techno- and the suffix -ologist, hence, someone who studies technology. However in some Latin countries, "technologist" is a somewhat lower certification at a level between technician and engineer. In US railroad terminology, "engineer" denotes the operator of a locomotive. __NOTOC__

External links

- [http://engineering.wikicities.com/wiki/Engineers Engineers at Engineering Wiki] th:วิศวกร

Architectural engineering

Architectural engineers apply the skills of many engineering disciplines to the design, construction, maintenance and recycling of buildings.

Difference from component disciplines

What differentiates architectural engineering from its component disciplines is the effort to understand and design for the integration of all the building systems. Civil Engineers, for instance, can and do design the structure of a building. The Architectural Engineer with a specialization in structures may understand and accommodate not only the structural requirements for a building, but also the architectural, HVAC, plumbing, electrical, transportation, acoustic requirements - only the most common of those usually considered problematic.

Difference from architecture

A common confusion is the distinction between architecture and architectural engineering. In essence, architectural engineering is a component of architecture. Architects are directly responsible for the form and appearance of a building, including the way in which people use and experience the spaces of the building, and they typically act as the leader of the design team. They also coordinate the various engineering requirements of a building project. Architectural Engineering concentrates on ensuring that "the building works" (that it stands up, that the HVAC system operates, that light and power are delivered as needed). Architectural engineers, as a distinct and separate profession, are somewhat redundant in that their role overlaps that of the architect and other project engineers. Like architects, they seek to achieve optimum system selection and sizing within the overall constraints, except using primarily the tools of engineering. In most parts of the world, architectural engineers are not entitled to practice architecture unless they are architects, and are limited to one or more engineering disciplines. In some locations, such as Japan, architects are also known as architectural engineers.

Major specializations

- Architecture
- Structural engineering
- HVAC - Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning engineering
- Building power systems
- Lighting
- Plumbing
- Fire protection engineering
- Building transportation systems
- Acoustics
- Construction engineering
- Project management

Subjects of interest

- Building construction
- Energy efficiency
- Renewable energy
- Solar power
- Intelligent buildings
- Autonomous buildings

External links

- [http://www.aeinstitute.org/intro.cfm Architectural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers] Engineering Category:Engineering ko:건축 공학

Electrical engineering

Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline that deals with the study and application of electricity and electromagnetism. Its practitioners are called electrical engineers. Electrical engineering is a broad field that encompasses many subfields including those that deal with power, control systems, electronics and telecommunications. Electrical engineering is sometimes distinguished from electronics engineering. Where this distinction is made, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with large scale electrical systems such as power transmission and motor control where as electronics engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with small scale electronic systems such as printed circuit board design and very-large-scale integration. However for the purposes of this article electronics engineering is considered to be a subfield of electrical engineering (see note).

History

Early developments in electricity

Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the seventeenth century. However it was not until the nineteenth century that research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of Georg Ohm who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric current and potential difference in a conductor and the work of Michael Faraday who in 1831 discovered electromagnetic induction. However during these years the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics and hence the domain of physicists. It was not until the late nineteenth century that universities started to offer degrees in electrical engineering. The Darmstadt University of Technology established the first chair of electrical engineering worldwide in 1882 and offered a four year study course of electrical engineering in 1883. In 1882, MIT offered the first course on electrical engineering in the United States. This course was organized by Professor Charles Cross who was head of the Physics department and who later became a founder of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (which later became the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). In 1885, the University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in the United Kingdom and, in 1886, the University of Missouri established the first department of electrical engineering in the United States. During this period, work in the area increased dramatically. In 1882, Edison switched on the world's first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts direct current to fifty-nine customers in lower Manhattan. In 1887, Nikola Tesla filed a number of patents related to a competing form of power distribution known as alternating current. In the following years a bitter rivalry between Tesla and Edison, known as the "War of Currents", took place over the preferred method of distribution. Tesla's work on induction motors and polyphase systems influenced electrical engineering for years to come. Edison's work on telegraphy and his development of the stock ticker proved lucrative for his company (which eventually became one of the world's largest companies, General Electric). As well as the contributions of Edison and Tesla, a number of other figures played an equally important role in the progress of electrical engineering at this time.

The emergence of radio and electronics

In 1896, Guglielmo Marconi made the world's first wireless radio transmission. In 1905, John Fleming invented the first radio tube, the diode. One year later, in 1906, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode. In 1928, the first successful transatlantic television transmission was made from London to New York. Manfred von Ardenne then introduced the cathode ray tube and thus the electronic television in 1931. In 1942, Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the world's first functional computer. In 1946, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives. Early examples include the Apollo missions and the NASA moon landing. The invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B. Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain opened the door for more compact devices and led to the development of the integrated circuit in 1959 by Jack Kilby and independently in 1961 by Robert Noyce. In 1958, G.C. Devol and J. Engelberger invented and built in the USA the world's first industrial robot. Such a robot was used for the first time in 1960 in industrial production by General Motors. In 1968, Marcian Hoff at Intel invented the microprocessor and thus ignited the development of the personal computer. Hoff's invention was part of an order by a Japanese company for a desktop computer, which Hoff wanted to build as cheaply as possible. The first realization of the microprocessor was the Intel 4004, a 4-bit processor, in 1969, but only in 1973 did the Intel 8080, an 8-bit processor, make the building of the first personal computer, the Altair 8800, possible.

Education

Electrical engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electrical engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Applied Science depending upon the university. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management and specific topics in electrical and electronics engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subfields of electrical engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more subfields towards the end of the degree. Some electrical engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering, a Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering or an Engineer's degree. The Master and Engineer's degree may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia. In the United Kingdom and various other European countries, the Master of Engineering is often considered an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering.

Training and certification

In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States and Canada), Chartered Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India, South Africa and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia) or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may...seal engineering work for public and private clients". This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act. In other countries, such as Australia, no such legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law. Significant professional bodies for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE). The IEEE claims to produce 30 percent of the world's literature on electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 300 conferences anually. The IEE publishes 14 journals, has a worldwide membership of 120,000, certifies Chartered Engineers in the United Kingdom and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe.

Tools and work

From the global positioning system to electric power generation, electrical engineers are responsible for a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunication systems, the operation of electric power stations, the lighting and wiring of buildings, the design of household appliances or the electrical control of industrial machinery. control Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others. Although most electrical engineers will understand basic circuit theory, the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid state physics might be relevant to an engineer working on VLSI but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems. Even circuit theory may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunication systems that use off-the-shelf components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize strong numerical skills, computer literacy and the ability to understand the technical language and concepts that relate to electrical engineering. For most engineers technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time is also spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important. The workplaces of electrical engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm or on site at a mine. During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers and other engineers. Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency.

Demographics

computer programmers There are around 366,000 people working as electrical engineers in the United States constituting 0.25% of the labour force (2002). This makes electrical engineering the largest engineering discipline in the United States with the exception of software engineering. In Australia, there are around 24,000 constituting 0.23% of the labour force (2005) and in Canada, there are around 34,600 constituting 0.21% of the labour force (2001). All of these countries expect employment in the field to grow, but not rapidly, in the near future. Outside of these countries, it is difficult to gauge the demographics of the profession due to less meticulous reporting on labour statistics. One way to estimate the relative size of the profession in each country is to compare graduation statistics. In 2002, the National Science Foundation published statistics on the number of degrees granted in engineering by various countries. A summary of these statistics is shown on the right though the foundation notes that the numbers "may not be strictly comparable". In the United States and, to a lesser extent, throughout the western world there is a perception that a large number of technical jobs including those concerned with electrical engineering are being outsourced to countries such as India and China. To illustrate this claim statistics are often misrepresented (see note). Overall probably one of the best summaries of the effect of outsourcing on the United States is given by the U.S. Department of Labor which notes that "increasing use of engineering services performed in other countries will act to limit employment growth" but that overall the profession "is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2012". Other statements on the profession are less controversial. In the United States, the number of electrical engineers graduating has fallen from a peak in the mid-1980's. In 2000, engineering degrees formed less than 20% of the degrees granted in the United States and Australia, compared to just over 25% for the United Kingdom and Japan and over 30% for Germany and South Korea. Also widely accepted is that the profession is male dominated. This is illustrated by the statistical sources in the first paragraph that show 96% of electrical engineers in Australia and 89% of electrical engineers in Canada are male.

Subfields

Electrical engineering has many subfields. This section describes seven of the most popular subfields in electrical engineering. Although there are engineers who focus exclusively on one subfield, there are also many who focus on a combination of subfields. As explained in the lead, electronics engineering is not always considered to be a subfield of electrical engineering.

Related disciplines

One discipline related to electrical engineering is that of mechatronics. Mechatronics is an engineering discipline, which deals with the convergence of electrical and mechanical systems. Such combined systems are known as electromechanical systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems and various subsystems of aircrafts and automobiles. The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems but futurists have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as micro electromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell airbags when to deploy, in digital projectors to create sharper images and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high-definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve optical communication. Another related discipline is that of biomedical engineering, which is concerned with the design of medical equipment. This includes fixed equipment such as ventilators, MRI scanners and electrocardiograph monitors as well as mobile equipment such as cochlear implants, artificial pacemakers and artificial hearts.

References

Notes :Note I - Whether or not electronics engineering is distinguished from electrical engineering must be interpreted from the context in which the term is used. Some have suggested that in places such as the United States the distinction is less common than in places such as the United Kingdom. However both usages can be found throughout the world. For example, the Institute of Electrical Engineers (which also includes electronics engineers) is a U.K. based organization but the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a U.S. based organization. Conversely the Massachusetts Institute of Technology names its electrical and electronics engineering department as the "Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering" where as the University of Sheffield refers to its deparment as the "Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering". :Note II - In October 2002, Cadence Design Systems CEO Ray Bingham announced that "China produces 600,000 engineers a year, and 200,000 are electrical engineers." The United States branch of the IEEE disputed this pointing out that it was triple the figure reported for 1999 by the National Science Foundation. Other sources draw comparisons using the number of engineering graduates reported by the All India Council for Technical Education (350,000) with that reported by the National Science Foundation (60,000) . But this comparison is dubious because the National Science Foundation excludes software engineers from its statstics. A more reasonable comparison is probably given by U.S. News who suggest the Indian figure is around 82,000. Citations # # # # # # # # # # (see here regarding copyright) # Trevelyan, James; (2005). What Do Engineers Really Do?. University of Western Australia. (seminar with [http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/jpt/Engineering%20Roles%20050503.pdf slides]) # # and # # # National Science Foundation (2002), [http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/append/c2/at02-18.pdf Science and Engineering Indicators 2002], Appendix 2-18. # # # Department of Education, Science and Training (2004), [http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/science_innovation/publications_resources/other_publications/documents/7_x7_pdf.htm Australian Australian Science and Technology at a glance 2004 - Human Resources in Science and Technology], slide 10. # # IEEE-USA, [http://www.ieeeusa.org/communications/releases/2003/013003pr.html IEEE-USA Seeks to Substantiate Information in the H-1B Guest Worker Visa Policy Debate], January 30, 2003. # # #

External links

- [http://www.ieee.org/portal/site/mainsite/menuitem.818c0c39e85ef176fb2275875bac26c8/index.jsp?&pName=corp_level1&path=about/whatis&file=index.xml&xsl=generic.xsl History of the IEEE Electrical Engineering Professional Society at its website]
- [http://www.allaboutcircuits.com All About Circuits] Learn the nuts and bolts about building electrical circuits, and to build appliances based on electrical circuits
- [http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/ IEEE Virtual Museum] A virtual museum that illustrates many of the basic electrical engineering and electricity concepts through examples, figures, and interviews.
- [http://www.careercornerstone.org/eleceng/eleceng.htm Sloan Career Center: Electrical Engineering] This is an excellent resource for anyone that is interested in electrical engineering as a career. Learn what electrical engineers do on a daily basis, where they work, how much they earn, and much more. Category:Engineering
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- Category:Electronics ja:電気工学 th:วิศวกรรมไฟฟ้า

Mechanical engineering

] Mechanical engineering is a very broad field of engineering that involves the application of physical principles for analysis, design, manufacturing and maintenence of mechanical systems. The analysis and design process is aided by various computational tools like finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Through the application of computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), the models may also be used directly by software to create "instructions" for the manufacture of objects represented by the models, through computer numerically-controlled (CNC) machining or other automated processes, without the need for intermediate drawings. Fundamental subjects of mechanical engineering include: statics, dynamics, strength of materials, solid mechanics, thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, heat transfer, refrigeration and air conditioning, kinematics (including robotics), manufacturing technology, mechatronics and control theory. Mechanical engineers are also expected to understand and be able to apply concepts from chemistry and electrical engineering. At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology and molecular engineering - one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis. For now this goal remains within exploratory engineering, and some consider it science fiction. Related disciplines include electrical engineering, industrial engineering, systems engineering, civil engineering, nuclear engineering, aerospace engineering, and other engineering disciplines.

Subdisciplines

History

[http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks_portal Wikibooks]

- Engineering Thermodynamics
- Solid Mechanics Category:Engineering Category:HVAC Category:Mechanical engineering ko:기계 공학 ms:Kejuruteraan mekanikal ja:機械工学 th:วิศวกรรมเครื่องกล

Civil engineering

Sub-disciplines of civil engineering

General civil engineering

Structural engineering

Geotechnical engineering

Transportation engineering

Environmental engineering

Hydraulic engineering

Construction engineering

Material science

Surveying

Careers

Education and Licensure

Scandinavia

Scandinavia is the cultural and historic region in Northern Europe consisting of the Scandinavian and Jutland peninsulas and the islands inbetween. Today, this region encompasses three sovereign states: :
- Denmark :
- Norway :
- Sweden These three countries have mutually recognized each other as parts of political and cultural region, since the height of the nationalist movements in these countries in the middle of the 19th century. The region takes its name from the peninsula, which in turn is thought to be named after Skåne (Scania) situated at the southern extreme of the Scandinavian peninsula. Prior to the mid-19th century, the region included a larger area of Northern Europe, comparable to the modern "Greater Scandinavia": :
- Denmark-Norway :
- Sweden-Finland The collective label "Scandinavia" nowadays primarily reflects the linguistic similarities, but also the strong historical and social ties between these countries despite their current political independence and different policies during the two World Wars and Cold War and membership in international organizations.

Greater Scandinavia (Norden)

Like other regions of the world, the usage and meaning of the term 'Scandinavia' can vary depending on defining criteria. Some or all of the following geo-political entities may variously be considered peripherally Scandinavian, since they traditionally have had strong political and economic ties with Scandinavia proper:
- Faroe Islands
- Finland (a sovereign republic since 1917-18)
- Greenland
- Iceland (a sovereign republic since 1944-45)
- Jan Mayen
- Svalbard
- Åland These alternative meanings are sometimes considered incorrect in some parts of Scandinavia, and occasionally some people may take offence at such usage. In recent years "Scandinavia" has again increasingly been used by scholars and teachers, in Scandinavia and other regions, in the historical sense with Finland included. [http://www.h-net.org] The term the Nordic countries is used unambiguously for the Scandinavian kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and the republics of Finland and Iceland. More infrequently, the term is also used occasionally to include Estonia, owing to its cultural ties with Sweden and Finland and its proximity to Scandinavia. The terms Fennoscandia and Fenno-Scandinavia are used either to include the Scandinavian peninsula, the Kola peninsula, Karelia, Finland and Denmark under the same term alluding to the Fennoscandian Shield, even if Denmark actually resides on the North European Plain, or they may be used in a more cultural sense, more or less as a synonym for the Nordic countries, to signify the historically close contact between Finnic, Sami and other Scandinavian peoples and cultures.

Etymology

The etymology for the names Scandinavia and Skåne (Scania) is considered to be the same. The name is most probably derived from the Germanic
- Skaðin- meaning "danger" (cf. English scathing and unscathed) and
- awjo meaning "island". It may have referred to the dangerous banks around Skanör (skan- is the same as in Scandinavia, and -ör means "sandbanks") and Falsterbo in Skåne in southernmost Scandinavia. Alternatively, the first element is sometimes attributed to the Scandinavian giantess Skaði from Norse mythology. The original form is considered to be
- Skaðinawjo, which gave rise to different forms in Germanic languages and by non-Germanic scribes. In Beowulf we meet the forms Scedenigge and Scedeland. Ptolemy uses the form Scandia, and Scatinavia appears in Roman texts, e.g. Pliny the Elder, whereas Pomponius Mela used the deviant form Codanovia. The form Scadinavia, the original home of the Langobards, appears in Paulus Diaconus' Historia Langobardorum[http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost08/PaulusDiaconus/pau_lan1.html], but in other versions of Historia Langobardorum appear the forms Scadan, Scandanan, Scadanan and Scatenauge[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/langobard/001.php]. In Jordanes' history of the Goths (AD 551) we meet the form Scandza their original home, separated by sea from the land of Europe (chapter 1, 4)[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html]. The name of the Scandinavian mountain range, Skanderna in Swedish, is artificially derived from Skandinavien in the 19th century, in analogy with Alperna for the Alps. The commonly used names are bergen or fjällen; both names meaning "the mountains".

History

Languages

Main articles: North Germanic languages, Finno-Ugric languages Most dialects of Danish, Swedish and Norwegian are mutually intelligible, and Scandinavians can with little trouble understand each other's standard languages as they appear in print and are heard on radio and television. However it is often assumed that Swedes have the greatest difficulties understanding the other two languages, which may be a consequence of limited access to Danish and Norwegian radio and television in Sweden. The reason why Danish, Swedish and Norwegian are traditionally viewed as different languages, rather than dialects of one language, is that they each are well established standardized languages (Ausbausprache) in their respective countries. They are related to, but not intelligible with, the other North Germanic languages, Icelandic and Faroese, which are descended from the Norwegian dialect of Old Norse. Danish, Swedish and Norwegian have, since medieval times, been influenced to varying degrees by Middle Low German and standard German. The Scandinavian languages are (as a language family) entirely unrelated to Finnish and Estonian, which as Finno-Ugric languages are distantly related to Hungarian. This said there still is a great deal of borrowings from the Swedish language in both the Finnish and Estonian language. Although Swedish speakers constitute a small but influential minority in Finland—and Finnish speakers constitute a minority in Sweden of similar relative size—and most ethnic Finns have studied Swedish as a mandatory school subject, the linguistic distance between the language families is often seen as indicative of a cultural distance and a reason not to classify the Finns as Scandinavian. This view was particularly prominent among Finns influenced by the ethnic nationalist movement called Fennoman in the beginning of the 20th century, as well as the language-based Scandinavian movement in the other Scandinavian countries in the 1850's. Only in 1902 was Finnish language granted an equal status with Swedish as an official language of Finland. Still in present day, the municipality with the highest fraction of native Swedish speakers of the population in the world, Korsnäs, resides in Finland. A rather typical folk-linguistic view might suggest the following. Finns and Icelanders who have studied Swedish and Danish, respectively, as foreign languages often also find it hard to understand the other Scandinavian languages. On the other end of the scale are the Norwegians, who with two parallel written standards, and a habit to hold on strongly to local dialects, are accustomed to variation and may perceive Danish and Swedish as only slightly more distant dialects. In a conversation between a Swedish speaker and a Dane there can be significant difficulties in understanding each other's spoken language, due to differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. In the Faroe Islands Danish is mandatory, and since Faroese people this way become bilingual in two very distinct Nordic languages find it relatively easy to understand the other two Mainland Scandinavian languages. [http://www.nordkontakt.nu/].

Politics

The modern use of the term Scandinavia rises from the Scandinavist political movement, which was active in the middle of the 19th century, chiefly between the First war of Schleswig (Slesvig in Scandinavian) (1848-1850), in which Sweden-Norway contributed with considerable military force, and the Second war of Schleswig (1864) when Sweden's parliament denounced the King's promises of military support. The King proposed the unification of Denmark, Norway and Sweden into a single united kingdom. The background for this was the tumultuous events during the Napoleonic wars in the beginning of the century leading to the partition of Sweden (the eastern part becoming the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland in 1809) and Denmark (whereby Norway, de jure in union with Denmark since 1387, although de facto merely a province, became independent in 1814 and thereafter was swiftly forced to accept a personal union with Sweden). Finland being a part of the Russian Empire meant that it would have to be left out of any equation for a political union between the Nordic countries. The geographical Scandinavia included Norway, Sweden and parts of Finland, but the political Scandinavia was also to include Denmark. Politically Sweden and Norway were united in a personal union under one monarch. Denmark also included the dependent territories of Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland in the Atlantic Ocean (which however historically had belonged to Norway, but unintentionally remained with Denmark according to the Treaty of Kiel). The end of the Scandinavian political movement came when Denmark was denied military support from Sweden-Norway to annex the (Danish) Duchy of Schleswig, which together with the (German) Duchy of Holstein had been in personal union with Denmark. The Second war of Schleswig followed in 1864. That was a brief but disastrous war between Denmark and Prussia (supported by Austria). Schleswig-Holstein was conquered by Prussia, and after Prussia's success in the Franco-Prussian War a Prussian-led German Empire was created, and a new power-balance of the Baltic sea countries was established. Even if a Scandinavian political union never came about there was a Scandinavian Monetary Union established in 1873, with the Krona/Krone as the common currency, and which lasted until World War I. The modern Scandinavian co-operation after World War I also came to include the independent Finland and (since 1944) Iceland and Scandinavian as a political term came to be replaced by the term Nordic countries; and eventually, in 1952, by the Nordic Council institution.

Historical political structure

1/ The original settlers of the Faroes and Iceland were of Pictish or Celtic origin (from Scotland or Ireland), then Nordic origin (mainly Norwegian). zh-min-nan:Skandinavia als:Skandinavien ko:스칸디나비아 ja:スカンディナヴィア simple:Scandinavia

1874

1874 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

January - April

- January 1 - New York City annexes The Bronx
- January 23 - Marriage of the Duke of Edinburgh, second son of Queen Victoria, to Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia, only daughter of Emperor Alexander III of Russia.
- January 23 - Camille Saint-Saëns' composition Danse Macabre is premiered.
- January - Signing of the Pangkor Treaty (also known as the Pangkor Engagement), by which the British extended their control over, first the Sultanate of Perak and later the other independent Malay States.
- February 21 - The Oakland Daily Tribune publishes its first newspaper.
- February 23 - Walter Clopton Wingfield patents a game called "sphairistike" which is more commonly called lawn tennis.
- March 18 - Hawaii signs a treaty with the United States granting exclusive trading rights.
- March - founding of a Young Men's Hebrew Association in Manhattan which still operates today as the 92nd Street Y

May - August

- 9 May - The first horse drawn carriage made its début in the city of Mumbai, plying on two routes.
- May 20 - Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis receive a US patent for blue jeans with copper rivets
- July 1 - the first public zoo in the U.S. opens, at Philadelphia.
- July 24 - Mathew Evans and Henry Woodward patent the first incandescent lamp with an electric light bulb.

September - December

- October 19 - modern University of Zagreb founded in Zagreb
- November 7 - A cartoon by Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly, is considered the first important use of an elephant as a symbol for the United States Republican Party [http://www.harpweek.com/09Cartoon/CartoonOfTheDay.asp?Year=2003?Month=November?Date=7].
- November 10 - John Ernst Worrell Keely demonstrates his "induction resonance motion motor" (later investigation reveals fraud behind another perpetual motion machine)
- November 25 - The United States Greenback Party is established as a political party made primarily of farmers financially hurt by the Panic of 1873.

Unknown date

- Iceland is granted a constitution and limited home rule.
- Home Rule Movement created to protest British Government control over Ireland. (see History of Ireland)
- First Impressionist exhibition, Paris; name coined in hostile review of Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise
- Opening of the Agra canal in India.
- Charles Russell's Bible Students group (Now known as Jehovah's Witnesses) first claims this year to be the invisible return of Jesus Christ to earth, before shifting to the currently believed year of 1914.

Births

January to June

- January 1 - Gustav Albin Weißkopf , German-American aviation pioneer (d. 1927)
- January 4 - Josef Suk, Czech composer and violinist (d. 1935)
- January 5 - Joseph Erlanger, American physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)
- January 16 - Robert W. Service, American poet (d. 1958)
- January 20 - Steve Bloomer, English footballer, cricketer and baseball player (d. 1938)
- January 21 - Frederick Madison Smith, American religious leader and author (d. 1946)
- January 25 - William Somerset Maugham, English author (d. 1965)
- January 29 - John D. Rockefeller Jr., American entrepreneur (d. 1960)
- February 1 - Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Austrian writer (d. 1929)
- February 3 - Gertrude Stein, American writer and patron of the arts (d. 1946)
- February 9 - Amy Lowell, American poet (d. 1925)
- February 11 - Elsa Beskow, Swedish writer (d. 1953)
- February 11 - Fritz Bennicke Hart, English-born Australian composer (d. 1949)
- February 15 - Sir Ernest Shackleton, Irish explorer (d. 1922)
- February 17 - Thomas J. Watson, American computer pioneer (d. 1956)
- February 24 - Honus Wagner, Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 1955)
- March 20 - Börries von Münchhausen, German poet (d. 1945)
- March 24 - Harry Houdini, Hungarian-American magician (d. 1926)
- March 26 - Robert Frost, American poet (d. 1963)
- March 29 - Lou Hoover, First Lady of the United States (d. 1944)
- April 8 - Stanisław Taczak, Polish general, commander-in-chief of the Greater Poland Uprising (1918-1919) against the Germans (d.1960)
- April 15 - Johannes Stark, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)
- April 19 - Ernst Rudin, Swiss psychiatrist and geneticist (d. 1952)
- April 25 - Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics (d. 1937)
- May 3 - François Coty, French perfume manufacturer (d. 1934)
- May 9 - Howard Carter, British archaeologist (d. 1939)
- May 14 - Polaire, French actress and singer (d. 1939)
- May 19 - Gilbert Jessop; English cricketer (d. 1955).
- May 29 - Gilbert Keith Chesterton, English author (d. 1936)
- June 11 - Lyman Gilmore, American aviation pioneer (d. 1951)
- June 16 - Arthur Meighen, ninth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1960)

July to December

- July 14 - Abbas II, last khedive of Egypt (d. 1944)
- July 26 - Serge Koussevitsky, Russian conductor (d. 1951)
- July 29 - J.S Woodsworth, Canadian politician (d. 1942)
- August 6 - Charles Fort, writer and researcher into anomalous phenomena
- August 27 - Carl Bosch, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
- September 13 - Arnold Schoenberg, Austrian composer (d. 1951)
- September 21 - Gustav Holst, English composer (d. 1934)
- October 20 - Charles Ives, American composer (d. 1954)
- October 26 - Martin Lowry, English chemist (d. 1936)
- November 15 - August Krogh, Danish zoophysiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1949)
- November 29 - Egas Moniz, Portuguese physician and neurologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1955)
- November 30 - Sir Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature (d. 1965)
- November 30 - Lucy Maude Montgomery, Canadian author (d. 1942)
- December 13 - Josef Lhévinne, Russian pianist (d. 1944)
- December 17- William Lyon Mackenzie King, Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1950)
- December 22 - Franz Schmidt, Austrian composer (d. 1939)

Deaths

- January 8 - Abbé Charles-Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, French writer and historian (b. 1814)
- January 19 - August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, German poet (b. 1798)
- February 8 - David Friedrich Strauss, German theologian (b. 1808)
- March 8 - Millard Fillmore, 13th President of the United States (b. 1800)
- June 20 - John Ruggles, American politician
- June 21 - Anders Jonas Ångström, Swedish physicist (b. 1814)
- July 24 - Gijsbert Haan, Dutch-American religious leader (b. 1801)
- October 6 - Samuel M. Kier, American oil magnate (b. 1813)
- December 7 - Constantin von Tischendorf, German Biblical scholar (b. 1815) Category:1874 ko:1874년 ms:1874 simple:1874 th:พ.ศ. 2417

Professional degree

Sweden

A professional degree is an academic degree that is regulated under common laws of the Swedish government and examined and awarded by prescribed schools and universities, and intended for those wishing to follow a given profession. The degree gives the undergraduate student a licence, chartered or special competence, which is often required - or sometimes legally needed - to practice as a medical doctor, nurse, teacher, engineer and accounting etc. Under certain conditions, such as being involved in a terrible accident that reduces you abilities, criminal acts or making too many mistakes in the given profession, there is a risk of losing one's licence for the particular profession, and thereby having no legal rights to practice the given profession anymore. The professional degree is often similar to Bachelor of Science or Master of Science, depending on the title of the profession and on the years of education which varies between 90-330 ECTS. In Sweden, all education is treated as undergraduate degrees up to the license or doctorate level, which are treated as postgraduate degrees. The 'undergraduate' studies is in the range 4-5.5 years, whilst the graduate studies varies between 2.5-5 years, corresponding to license and doctoral degrees, respectively. This education schemes also applies to the international degrees such as Bachelor's and Master's degrees, i.e. they corresponds to an 'undergraduate' degree, too. For those with a professional degree, further studies give a special graduate title, such as Licentiate of Philosophy, Licentiate of Science (a degree corresponding to a half completed PhD, i.e. 2 & 1/2 years) or Doctor of Juris, Doctor of Science, etc.. However, in the English, some of these are translated to Doctor of Philosophy. In Sweden, there are also international degrees such as Bachelor of Science or Master of Science, and especially the engineering education program has its goal to transform into those 'international standard degrees' during the next one or two decades (see the article Bologna process), not only in Sweden but in the whole of Europe.

United States

In the United States, professional degrees refer to graduate degrees that are specific to a particular vocation, or profession. Law school, medical school and architecture school are all examples of institutions where professional degrees can be earned.

Civil engineer

Scandinavian civil engineers

See also

Civil engineering

Sub-disciplines of civil engineering

General civil engineering

Structural engineering

Geotechnical engineering

Transportation engineering

Environmental engineering

Hydraulic engineering

Construction engineering

Material science

Surveying

Careers

Education and Licensure

See also

Engineer

See also

Lists of engineers by discipline

Other related lists

External links

Architectural engineering

Difference from component disciplines

Difference from architecture

Major specializations

Subjects of interest

External links

Electrical engineering

History

Early developments in electricity

The emergence of radio and electronics

Education

Training and certification

Tools and work

Demographics

Subfields

Related disciplines

References

See also

External links

Mechanical engineering

Subdisciplines

History

See also

[http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks_portal Wikibooks]

Civil engineering

Sub-disciplines of civil engineering

General civil engineering

Structural engineering

Geotechnical engineering

Transportation engineering

Environmental engineering

Hydraulic engineering

Construction engineering

Material science

Surveying

Careers

Education and Licensure

See also

Scandinavia

Greater Scandinavia (Norden)

Etymology

History

Languages

Politics

Historical political structure

1874

Events

January - April

May - August

September - December

Unknown date

Births

January to June

July to December

Deaths

Professional degree

Sweden

United States