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Chamber Music

Chamber music

Chamber music is a form of classical music, written for a small group of instruments which traditionally could be accommodated in a palace chamber. Most broadly, it includes any "art music" that is performed by a small number of performers with one performer to a part. The word "chamber" signifies that the music can be performed in a small room, often with an intimate atmosphere. However, it usually does not include, by definition, solo instrument performances.

Definition

The phrase chamber music suggests a piece for at least two instruments, but there is no theoretical upper limit to the number of instruments. In practice, chamber works for more than five instruments are unusual, and works scored for more than eight are rare. When dealing with a piece for ten or more players, it is generally considered a small chamber orchestra. Chamber works exist for many different combinations of instruments, with the string quartet often seen as the most important. Popular chamber groups other than the string quartet include the string trio, the piano trio, the piano quintet and the string quintet. Woodwind instruments and brass instruments are used less often. Several composers have written works for mixed groups of wind and strings, and some have written for wind instruments alone, but with the exception of the French horn, brass instruments are very rarely used. This is probably in part due to the fact that at the time chamber music was first being written, brass instruments did not have valves, and so could only produce a limited number of notes. While chamber music is frequently played in public concerts, it is usually heard in halls much smaller than those used for orchestral concerts. The more intimate acoustics of a smaller space, imitating the drawing rooms in which such music was originally played, are more suitable for a small group of instruments.

History

While the term is most often applied to instrumental performances, the madrigals of the Renaissance period in the 16th century may be considered chamber music. The most prominent Baroque form of this type is the trio sonata. In the Classical period, new forms were developed, most importantly the string quartet. These pieces were often written for amateurs, and not intended to be played in public. Many of the string quartets of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, for example, were written to be played for fun and in private, by a string quartet of which they were both members. One of the composers responsible for bringing chamber music to the concert hall is Ludwig van Beethoven. He wrote chamber music for amateurs, such as the Septet of 1800, but his last string quartets are very complex works which amateurs would have struggled to play. They are also seen as pushing the boundaries of acceptable harmony of that time, and are regarded as some of his most profound works. Following Beethoven in the romantic period, many other composers wrote pieces for professional chamber groups.

Resources

Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, edited by Walter Willson Cobbett in 1923, and updated and reprinted in 1963, is a comprehensive guide to chamber music compositions and composers up to that time. Sir Donald Francis Tovey, British pianist and musicologist, wrote many insightful essays on the subject of chamber music, some of them available in the volume of his Essays in Musical Analysis that he devotes to it.

Performance

Many classical musicians enjoy playing chamber music. In most cases, chamber music is performed without a conductor, so each performer has greater artistic freedom. For organizing a performance, the expense is lower and the logistics simpler than that for even a modest orchestra. While the repertoire is not suitable for beginners, there are pieces within the technical and artistic capabilities of most serious amateurs.

Ensembles

This is a partial list of the types of ensembles found in chamber music. The standard repertoire for chamber ensembles is rich, and the totality of chamber music in print in sheet music form is nearly boundless. See the articles on each instrument combination for examples of repertoire.

External links

- The [http://www.acmp.net Amateur Chamber Music Players] publishes a contact list of musicians worldwide who play chamber music for their own enjoyment. They also publish lists of repertoire.
- http://www.composerplanet.com/cgi-bin/wiki.cgi?ChamberMusic
- [http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/instsearch.pl?inst=CHAMBER%2FSMALL Art of the States: Chamber/small] chamber music (3-8 instruments) by American composers
- [http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/instsearch.pl?inst=CHAMBER%2FLARGE Art of the States: Chamber/large] chamber music (9+ instruments) by American composers Category:Chamber music Category:Musical groups ja:重奏

European classical music

:This article is about the genre of classical music or art music in the Western musical tradition. For articles on classical music of non-Western cultures, see: Classical music, For the period of music in the late 18th century see Classical music era, Classical music is a broad, somewhat imprecise term, referring to music produced in, or rooted in the traditions of, European art, ecclesiastical and concert music, encompassing a broad period from roughly 1000 to the present day. The central norms of this tradition, according to one school of thought, developed between 1550 and 1825, focusing on what is known as the common practice period.

Timeline

According to one school of thought, musical works are best understood in the context of their place in musical history; for adherents to this approach, this is essential to full enjoyment of these works. There is a widely accepted system of dividing the history of classical music composition into stylistic periods. According to this system, the major time divisions are:
- Medieval, generally before 1450. Chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian Chant, was the dominant form until about 1100.
- Renaissance, about 1450–1600, characterized by greater use of instrumentation, multiple melodic lines and by the use of the first bass instruments.
- Baroque, about 1600–1750, characterized by the use of complex counterpoint and growing popularity of keyboard music (harpsichord and pipe organ, since pianos didn't exist until the early 1700s, and didn't become popular until the classical music era) and orchestral music (it must be noted that orchestras, by that time, were of a much smaller constituition- see Chamber Music).
- Classical, about 1730–1820, an important era which established many of the norms of composition, presentation and style. Also, the classical era is marked by the disappearance of the harpsichord in favour of the piano, which from then on would become the central source for keyboard performance and composition.
- Romantic, 1815–1910 a period which codified practice, expanded the role of music in cultural life and created institutions for the teaching, performance and preservation of works of music.
- Modern, 1905–1975 a period which represented a crisis in the values of classical music and its role within intellectual life, and the extension of theory and technique. Some theorists, such as Arnold Schoenberg in his essay "Brahms the Progressive," insist that Modernism represents a logical progression from 19th century trends in composition; others hold the opposing point of view, that Modernism represents the rejection or negation of the method of Classical composition.
- 20th century, usually used to describe the wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed through 2000, which includes late Romantic, Modern and Post-Modern styles of composition.
- The term contemporary music is sometimes used to describe music composed in the late 20th century through present day
- The prefix neo is usually used to describe a 20th Century or Contemporary composition written in the style of an earlier period, such as classical, romantic, or modern. So for example, Prokofiev's Classical Symphony is considered a Neo-Classical composition. The dates are generalizations, since the periods overlapped. Some authorities subdivide the periods further by date or style. However, it should be noted that these categories are to an extent arbitrary; the use of counterpoint and fugue, which is considered characteristic of the Baroque era, was continued by Mozart, who is generally classified as typical of the Classical period, by Beethoven who is often described as straddling the Classical and Romantic periods, and Brahms, who is often classified as Romantic. This chart shows a selection of the most famous classical composers. For a more complete overview see Graphical timeline for classical composers

Classical music as "music of the classical era"

Main article: Classical music era In music history, a different meaning of the term classical music is occasionally used: it designates music from a period in musical history covering approximately Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach to Beethoven – roughly, 1730–1820. When used in this sense, the initial C of Classical music is sometimes capitalized to avoid confusion.

The nature of classical music

Classical music is primarily a written musical tradition, preserved in music notation, as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or in recordings. While differences between particular performances of a classical work are recognized, a work of classical music is generally held to transcend any particular performance of it. Works that are centuries old often are performed far more often than works recently composed. The use of notation is an effective vehicle for transmitting classical music because all active participants in the classical music tradition are able to read music and are schooled in both historical and contemporary performance practices. Normally, this ability comes from formal training, which usually begins with learning to play an instrument, and sometimes continues with instruction in music theory and composition. However, there are many passive participants in classical music who enjoy it without being able to read it or perform it. Classical music is meant to be experienced for its own sake. It is unlike other forms of music that serve merely as an adjunct to other forms of entertainment. Performances of classical music often take place in a relatively solemn atmosphere, with the audience expected to maintain silence and remain immobile during the performance, so that everyone can hear each note and nuance. The performers usually dress formally, a practice which is often taken as a gesture of respect for the music, and performers normally do not engage in casual banter or other direct involvement with the audience. Amateur private readings of chamber music are more informal home occasions. Written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on classical works, has important implications for the performance of classical music. To a fair degree, performers are expected to perform a work in a way that realizes the original intentions of the composer, which during the 19th century became stated ever more explicitly (down to the level of small, note-by-note details) in the score. Indeed, deviations from the composer's intentions are sometimes condemned as outright ethical lapses. Yet the opposite trend--admiration of performers for new "interpretations" of the composer's work, can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for achieving a better realization of the composer's original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus, classical music performers often achieve very high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves. Classical composition often aspires to a very complex relationship between the affective (emotional) content of the music, and the idea content. There is, in the most esteemed works of Classical music, an intensive use of Musical development, the process by which a musical germ idea or motif is repeated in different contexts, or in altered form, so that the mind of the listener consciously or unconsciously compares the different versions. The classical genres of sonata form and fugue employ particularly rigorous forms of musical development. (See also History of sonata form) Another consequence of the primacy of the composer's written score is that improvisation plays a relatively minor role in classical music--in sharp contrast to traditions like jazz, where improvisation is central. Improvisation in classical music performance was far more common during the Baroque era, and recently the performance of such music by modern classical musicians has been enriched by a revival of the old improvisational practices. During the Classical period, Mozart and Beethoven sometimes improvised the cadenzas to their piano concertos--but tended to write out the cadenzas when other soloists were to perform them. Art music, concert music, and orchestral music are terms sometimes used as synonyms of classical music.

Complexity

Classical works are generally considered to display great musical complexity through heavy use of development, modulation (changing of keys), little outright repetition, a wide use of musical phrases that are not default length--that is, four or eight bars long- counterpoint, polyphony and sophisticated harmony. Also, in classical music very long works (30 minutes to three hours) may be built up hierarchically from smaller units (phrases, periods, sections, and movements). Structural levels are distinguished by Schenkerian analysis.

Emotional content

As with many fine art forms, classical music often aspires to communicate a quality of emotion which has a transcendent quality, expressing universals of the human condition. They argue that this deeper reserve of expression allows classical music to reach what has been called the "sublime" in art. Examples often cited in this argument are religious works such as the Masses of Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven or Dvořák, or in works such as Beethoven's setting of Friedrich Schiller's poem, Ode to Joy, in the 9th symphony, which has often been used as a celebratory work at moments of national liberation or celebration, as in the Japanese practice of performing it to observe the New Year.

Instruments

Classical and popular music are distinguished to some extent by their choice of instruments. For the most part, the instruments used in common practice classical music are non-electrical and were invented prior to the mid-19th century (often, much earlier), and codified in the 18th and 19th centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an orchestra, together with a few other solo instruments (such as the piano, harpsichord, organ). The electric guitar plays an extremely prominent role in popular music, but naturally plays no role in classical music, and only appears occasionally in the classical music of the 20th and 21st centuries. Both classical and popular musicians have experimented for the last several decades with electrical or electronic instruments (for instance, the synthesizer or electronic tape), and instruments from other cultures (such as the gamelan). It must be noted that all the bass instruments didn't exist until the Renaissance (in Medieval Music, instruments are divided in two categories: outdoor/church, which sound loud, and indoor instruments). Also, many instruments which are associated today with popular music used to have important roles on early classical music, such as bagpipes, vilhuelas, hurdy-gurdys and some woodwind instruments. On the other hand, the acoustic guitar, for example, which used to be associated with popular music, started to gain proeminence on classical music since the 19th century, what culminated in the 20th century, and today has a prestige it never had before. Finally, it is important to know that the manners that a classical instrument is tuned may vary drastically according to the period from which the instrument is typical and the period in which the piece was composed. See musical tuning.

Permanence

One criterion that might be said to distinguish classical music is staying power. For instance, some of the works of J. S. Bach are now almost 300 years old, yet they continue to be widely performed. In contrast, big band music, for instance, a popular music genre of several decades ago, seems to be proving ephemeral in comparison. Bach had many contemporaries whose music was mediocre at best, and today their music is forgotten, surviving perhaps in libraries. The repertoire of classical music is skewed toward works recognized as excellent by listeners over long periods of time.

Influences between classical and popular music

Classical music has always been influenced or taken material from popular music. Examples include Erik Satie, Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and postminimalism, as well as much postmodern classical music.

Classical music and folk music

Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music, that is, music created by untutored musicians, spread by word of mouth. Often, they have done so with an explicit nationalist ideology; in other cases they have simply mined folk music for thematic material. See: European Classical Composers Noted for Use of Folk Music

Classical music in education

Throughout history, parents have often made sure that their children receive classical music training from a young age. Early experience with music provides the basis for more serious study later. Some instruments, such as the violin, are almost impossible to learn to play at a professional level if not learned in childhood. Some parents pursue music lessons for their children for social reasons or in an effort to instill a useful sense of self-discipline; lessons have also been shown to increase academic performance. Some consider that a degree of knowledge of important works of classical music is part of a good general education. The 1990s marked the emergence in the United States of research papers and popular books on the so-called Mozart effect: a temporary, small elevation of a Mozart listener's scores on certain tests. The popularized version of the controversial theory was expressed succinctly by a New York Times music columnist: "researchers have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter." Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the original researchers commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs." See also:
- Mozart effect
- Orff Schulwerk
- Suzuki method

Composers of classical music

- List of classical music composers

Terms of classical music

For terms relating specifically to the performance of classical music, see the Musical terminology.

Literature

- Norman Lebrecht, When the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical Music, Simon & Schuster 1996

Sources

- Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0335152759.
- Becker, Judith (1969). "The Anatomy of a Mode", Ethnomusicology 13(2):267–279.

External links

- [http://www.classiccat.net/ Classic Cat] – A directory of free classical MP3.
- [http://www.classical.net/ Classical.net] – review, database and mailing-list resource
- [http://www.classicalarchives.com/ ClassicalArchives] – music, artists, composers, MIDI files
- [http://www.chopinmusic.net/forum ChopinMusic Forum] – a community of romantic music lovers
- [http://www.download-latest-online-music.com/free-classical-music-downloads.html European Classical Music] – chronology and free downloads
- [http://www.musicweb-international.com MusicWeb International] – CD reviews, composer articles, timelines, concert and book reviews
- [http://thegclef.blogspot.com The G Clef] All about Indian and European classical music. Also fine information on Classical Guitar and Recorder.
- [http://www.violinmp3.com/ ViolinMP3.com - Violin Information website, containing several classical music resources and composer guides] Classical music ko:서양 고전음악 ja:古典派音楽

Chamber orchestra

An orchestra is a musical ensemble used most often in classical music. A small orchestra is called a chamber orchestra. A full size orchestra may sometimes be called a "symphony orchestra" or "philharmonic orchestra"; these prefixes do not indicate any difference either to the instrumental content or role of the orchestra, but can be useful to distinguish different orchestras based in the same city (for instance, the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra). A symphony orchestra will usually have over eighty musicians on its staff, in some cases over a hundred, but the number of musicians used in a performance varies according to the work being played. A leading chamber orchestra might be forty or fifty strong; some are much smaller than that. The typical symphony orchestra consists of four groups of musical instruments. In the order in which they appear on the score they are:
- the woodwinds (flutes, piccolos, oboes, cor anglais, clarinets, bass clarinets, bassoons, contrabassoons),
- the brass (horns, trumpets, trombones, bass trombones, tuba), and
- the percussion (timpani, snare drum, bass drum, celesta, piano, etc.)
- the strings (violins, violas, cellos, double basses). Other instruments are not standard members of the orchestra but are called to play when the orchestra performs a peice that has a part written for that instrument. For example, saxophones appear in a limited 19th and 20th century repertoire. While they are occasionally only featured solo instruments in these works, as in Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Pictures at an Exhibition, other pieces such as the same composer's Bolero contain writing for saxophones as members of the orchestral ensemble. In addition, the euphonium, sometimes called the tenor tuba, is featured in a few Romantic and 20th century works. Unless these instruments are played by members doubling with another instrument (for example, a trombone player changing to euphonium for a certain passage), orchestras will use freelance musicians to enable them to perform works which require instrumentalists which they do not have on staff. For instance, while most larger orchestras employ a harpist, those that don't or that require a second for a larger work will hire players who are not permanent members to play during those performances. Between the instrument groups and within each group of instruments, there is a generally accepted hierarchy of leadership. Every instrumental group (or section) has a principal (or soloist) who is generally responsible for playing solos within and leading the group. The violins are divided into two groups, first violin and second violin, and therefore have two principals. The principal first violin is called the concertmaster (or leader) and is considered the leader of not only the string section, but of the entire orchestra, subordinate only to the Conductor. The principal trombone is considered the leader of the low-brass (trombone, bass-trombone, tuba) section, while the principal trumpet is generally considered the leader of the entire brass section. Similarly, the principal oboe (or sometimes the principal flute) is considered the leader of the entire woodwind section. The horn, while technically a brass instrument, often acts in the role of both woodwind and brass. Most sections also have an Assistant principal (or Co-principal, or Associate principal), or in the case of the first violins, an Assistant concertmaster, who often plays a tutti part in addition to replacing the principal in his or her absence. A tutti (or section) player generally plays either a unique but non-solo part (in the case of winds, brass and percussion), or in unison with a group (in the case of the strings). Where a solo part is called for in a string section, for example in the violins, that part is invariably played by the section leader. In modern times, the musicians are usually directed by a conductor, although early orchestras did not have one, using instead the concertmaster or the harpsichordist playing the continuo for this role. Some modern orchestras also do without conductors, particularly smaller orchestras and those specialising in historically accurate performances of baroque music and earlier. The most frequently performed repertoire for a symphony orchestra is Western classical music or opera. However, orchestras are sometimes used in popular music.

History of the orchestra

In the 15th and 16th centuries in Italy the households of nobles had musicians to provide music for dancing and the court, however with the emergence of the theatre, particularly opera, in the early 17th century, music was increasingly written for groups of players in combination: which is the origin of orchestral playing. Opera originated in Italy, and Germany eagerly followed. Dresden, Munich and Hamburg successively built opera houses, and by the end of the 17th century opera flourished in England under Henry Purcell, and in France under Lully, who with the collaboration of Molière also greatly raised the status of the entertainments known as ballets, interspersed with instrumental and vocal music. In the 17th century and early 18th century instrumental groups were taken from all of the available talent. A composer such as Johann Sebastian Bach had control over almost all of the musical resources of a town, where as Handel would hire the best musicians available. This placed a premium on being able to rewrite music for whichever singers or musicians were best suited for a performance - Handel produced different versions of the Messiah oratorio almost every year. As nobility began to build retreats from towns, they began to hire standing bodies of musicians. Composers such as the young Joseph Haydn would have, then, a fixed body of instrumentalists to work with. At the same time, travelling virtuoso performers would write concerti which featured their skills, and travel from town to town, arranging concerts from whoever was there. The aristocratic orchestras worked together over long periods of time, making it possible for ensemble playing to improve over time. This change, from civic music making where the composer had some degree of time or control, to smaller court music making and one-off performance, placed a premium on music which was easy to learn, often with little or no rehearsal. The results were changes in musical style and emphasis on new techniques. Mannheim had one of the most famous orchestras of that time, where notated dynamics and phrasing, previously quite rare, became standard (see Mannheim school). It also attended a change in musical style from the complex counterpoint of the baroque period, to an emphasis on clear melody, homophonic textures, short phrases, and frequent cadences: a style which would later be defined as classical. Throughout the late 18th century composers would continue to have to assemble musicians for a performance, often called an "Academy", which would, naturally, feature their own compositions. In 1781, however, the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra was organized from the merchants concert society, and it began a trend towards the formation of civic orchestras which would accelerate into the 19th century. In 1818, Boston's Handel and Haydn Society was founded, in 1842 the New York Philharmonic and the Vienna Philharmonic were formed, and in 1858, the Hallé Orchestra was formed in Manchester. There had long been standing bodies of musicians around operas, but not for concert music: this situation changed in the early 19th century as part of the increasing emphasis in the composition of symphonies and other purely instrumental forms. This was encouraged by composer critics such as ETA Hoffman who declared that instrumental music was the "purest form" of music. The creation of standing orchestras also resulted in a professional framework where musicians could rehearse and perform the same works over and over again, leading to the concept of a repertoire in instrumental music. In the 1830s conductor François Antoine Habeneck, in order to perform the symphonies of Beethoven, which had not been heard in their entirety in Paris, began rehearsing a selected group of musicians. He developed techniques of rehearsing the strings separately, notating specifics of performance, and other techniques of cueing entrances which were spread across Europe. His rival and friend Hector Berlioz would adopt many of these innovations in his touring of Europe. This was paralleled by a rapid standardization of instruments. The invention of the piston or valve by Stolzel and Blilmel, both Silesians, in 1815, was the first in a series of innovations, including the use of valves for the flute by Theobald Boehm and the innovations of Adolphe Sax in the woodwinds. These advances would lead Hector Berlioz to write his famous book on instrumentation, which was the first systematic treatise on the use of instrumental sound as an expressive element of music. The effect of the invention of valves was felt at once: instrument-makers in all countries helped with each other in making use of the newly refined instruments and in bringing them to perfection; and the orchestra was before long enriched by a new family of valved instruments, variously known as tubas, or euphoniums and bombardons, having a chromatic scale and a full sonorous tone of great beauty and immense volume, forming a magnificent bass. This also made possible a more uniform playing of notes or intonation, which would lead to a more and more "smooth" orchestral sound which would peak in the 1950s with Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra and the conducting of Herbert von Karajan. During the transition to using these instruments, which made the performance of more difficult works easier, many composers, including Wagner and Berlioz, would demand the use of "natural" chromatic stops rather than the use of valves for their compositions. However, over time, use of the valved instruments became standard, indeed universal, until the revival of older instruments in the contemporary movement towards authentic performance (sometimes known as "historically informed performance"). New orchestral effects were possible now that standing orchestras had been formed, winds and brass had been expanded, and had an increasingly easy time playing in tune with each other: particularly the ability for composers to score for large masses of wind and brass which previously had been impractical. Works such as the Requiem of Berlioz would have been impossible to perform just a few decades earlier, with its demanding parts for twenty woodwinds, as well as a gigantic brass ensemble including six horns, eight trumpets, eight trombones, and three tubas. The next major expansion of symphonic practice came, ironically, from Wagner's Bayreuth orchestra, founded to play his musical dramas. Wagner needed to have a series of composers and notators for the complex scores which he wrote, and had a specific role for the conductor of an orchestra that he described in his influential work "On Conducting". This led to a revolution in orchestral practice, and set the style for orchestral performance for the next eighty years. Wagner's theories changed tempi, dynamics, bowing of string instruments and the role of principals in the orchestra. Conductors who studied his methods would go on to be influential themselves. As the early 20th century dawned, symphony orchestras were larger, better funded and better trained than ever before, and consequently composers could compose larger and more ambitious works for them. With the recording era beginning, the standard of performance reached a pinnacle, with many older conductors and composers remembering a time when simply "getting through" the music as best as possible was the standard. Since recordings could "fix" small errors in a particular studio performance, and reach people who would never have been able to travel to distant cities - the ability of listeners to compare performances across decades led to a renewed focus on particular conductors and on a high standard of orchestral execution. In the 1920s and 1930s economic and artistic considerations led to the formation of small concert societies, particularly those dedicated to the performance of music of the avant-garde, including Igor Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg. This tendency to start festival orchestras or dedicated groups would also be pursued in the creation of summer musical festivals, and orchestras for the performance of smaller works. Among the most influential of these was the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields under the baton of Sir Neville Marriner. With the advent of the early music movement, orchestras where players worked on execution of works in styles derived from the study of older treatises on playing became common. These include the London Classical Players under the direction of Sir Roger Norrington and the Academy of Ancient Music under Christopher Hogwood, among others. The late 20th century saw a crisis of funding and support for orchestras in the United States and, to a lesser extent, in Europe. The size and cost of a symphony orchestra, compared to the size of the base of supporters, became an issue which struck at the core of the institution. Along with the drastic falling off of revenues from recording, tied to no small extent to changes in the recording industry itself, a period of change began which has yet to reach its conclusion. Critics such as Norman Lebrecht were vocal in their diagnosis of the problem as the "jet set conductor" and the problems of orchestral repertory and management, while other music administrators such as Michael Tilson Thomas and Esa-Pekka Salonen argued that new music, new means of presenting it, and a renewed relationship with the community could revitalize the symphony orchestra.

A Conductorless Orchestra

The post-revolutionary Первый Симфонический Ансамбль (Pervyi Simfonicheskii Ansambl' - First Symphonic Ensemble) was formed in the USSR in 1922. The unusual aspect of the orchestra was that, believing that in the ideal Marxist state all men are equal, its members felt that there was no need to be led by the dictatorial baton of a conductor; instead they were led by a committee. Although it was a partial success, the principal difficulty with the concept was in changing tempo. The orchestra survived for ten years and had to be disbanded only when the individual talents began to rebel against the rigid control under which they were expected to play. Some ensembles, such as the Orpheus Ensemble, based in New York City, have had more success, although decisions are likely to be deferred to some sense of leadership within the ensemble (for example, the principal wind and string players). Others have returned to the tradition of a principal player, usually a violinist, being the artistic director and running rehearsals (such as the Australian Chamber Orchestra).

List of orchestras

This list contains orchestras with entries in the Wikipedia plus other particularly noted orchestras. There is also a summative list of notable orchestras worldwide. See the Orchestras category for entries that may not be included here.

Brazil

- São Paulo State Symphony Orchestra [http://www.osesp.art.br/ official site]

Canada

- Calgary Philharmonic Orchestra (also known as the CPO) [http://www.cpo-llive.com official site]
- CBC Radio Orchestra
- [http://www.edmontonsymphony.com/ Edmonton Symphony Orchestra] (official site)
- Montreal Symphony Orchestra (in French, Orchestre symphonique de Montréal) (also known as the OSM) [http://www.osm.ca official site]
- [http://www.kanatasymphony.ca/ Kanata Symphony Orchestra]] (official site)
- [http://www.manitobachamberorchestra.org/ Manitoba Chamber Orchestra] (official site)
- National Arts Centre Orchestra [http://www.nac-cna.ca/en/naco official site]
- [http://www.symphonynb.com/ Symphony New Brunswick] (official site)
- [http://www.nso-music.com/ Newfoundland Symphony Orchestra] (official site)
- [http://www.symphonynovascotia.ca/ Symphony Nova Scotia] (official site)
- [http://www.ottawasymphony.com Ottawa Symphony Orchestra] (also known as the OSO) (official site)
- [http://www.peisymphony.com/ Prince Edward Island Symphony Orchestra] (official site)
- Orchestre Symphonique de Québec [http://www.osq.qc.ca official site]
- [http://www.reginasymphonyorchestra.sk.ca/ Regina Symphony Orchestra] (official site)
- [http://www.rcmusic.ca/flash/Intro/playintro.html Royal Conservatory Orchestra] (official site)
- [http://www.saskatoonsymphony.org/ Saskatoon Symphony]] (official site)
- Toronto Philharmonia (formerly the North York Symphony) [http://www.torontophil.on.ca/ official site]
- Toronto Symphony Orchestra (also known as the TSO) [http://www.tso.on.ca official site]
- Vancouver Symphony Orchestra (also known as the VSO) [http://www.vancouversymphony.ca official site]
- [http://www.victoriasymphony.bc.ca/about/index.html Victoria Symphony Orchestra] (official site)
- Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra (also known as the WSO) [http://www.wso.mb.ca official site]

Czech Republic

- Czech Philharmonic Orchestra [http://www.ceskafilharmonie.cz official site]
- Prague Philharmonic Orchestra [http://www.praguephilharmonic.org official site]

France

- Orchestre du Conservatoire de Paris
- Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio-France [http://www.radiofrance.fr/chaines/orchestres/philharmonique/accueil/ official site]
- Orchestre National de France [http://www.radiofrance.fr/chaines/orchestres/national/accueil/ official site]
- Orchestre de Paris [http://www.orchestredeparis.com/ official site]
- Orchestre Lamoureux [http://www.orchestrelamoureux.com/index2.php official site]

Germany

- Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra
- Dresden Staatskapelle
- Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra
- Münchner Philharmoniker [http://www.muenchnerphilharmoniker.de/ official site]
- Muchener Bach-Orcester
- Staatskapelle Berlin [http://www.staatsoper-berlin.org/en/fs_f1.htm official site]
- Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra
- Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra [http://www.br-online.de/kultur-szene/klassik_e/pages/so/ official site]

Israel

- Haifa Symphony Orchestra
- Israel Philharmonic Orchestra
- Israel Symphony Orchestra
- Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra
- Kibbutz Symphony Orchestra
- Rehovot Orchestra
- Rishon LeZion Orchestra

Italy

- Orchestra of La Scala
- Camerata de' Bardi

The Netherlands

- Concertgebouworkest
- Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra

Poland

- Polska Filharmonia Bałtycka

Russia

- St. Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra
- Russian National Orchestra

Scandinavia

- Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra [http://www.filharmonien.no official site] - Bergen, Norway
- Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra - Sweden
- Kristiansand Symphony Orchestra - Kristiansand, Norway
- Lahti Orchestra - Finland
- Oslo Philharmonic Orchestra - Oslo, Norway
- Stavanger Symphony Orchestra - Stavanger, Norway
- Trondheim Symphony Orchestra - Trondheim, Norway

South Africa

- Johannesburg Philharmonic Orchestra

Switzerland

- Sinfonieorchester Basel
- Suisse Romande Orchestra

Turkey

- Presidential Symphony Orchestra - Ankara
- Bilkent Symphony Orchestra - Ankara
- Istanbul State Symphony Orchestra
- Borusan Istanbul Philharmonic Orchestra
- Izmir State Symphony Orchestra
- Dokuz Eylul University Symphony Orchestra - Izmir
- Eskisehir Metropolitan Municipality Symphony Orchestra
- Anadolu Symphony Orchstra - Eskisehir
- Antalya State Symphony Orchestra
- Bursa State Symphony Orchestra
- Cukurova State Symphony Orchestra

United Kingdom

- Academy of Ancient Music
- Academy of St. Martin in the Fields
- Birmingham Contemporary Music Group
- Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra
- BBC Concert Orchestra
- BBC National Orchestra of Wales
- BBC Philharmonic
- BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra
- BBC Symphony Orchestra
- Camerata of London
- City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra
- City of London Sinfonia
- English Chamber Orchestra
- Hallé Orchestra
- London Symphony Orchestra
- London Philharmonic Orchestra
- Manchester Camerata
- Northern Sinfonia
- Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment
- Philharmonia
- Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra
- Royal Philharmonic Orchestra
- Royal Scottish National Orchestra
- Scottish Chamber Orchestra
- Sheffield Symphony Orchestra
- Ulster Orchestra

United States

Other

- Flemish Radio Orchestra - Belgium

Other meanings

In ancient Greece the orchestra was the space between the auditorium and the proscenium (or stage), in which were stationed the chorus and the instrumentalists. This is how the modern orchestra got its name. In some theaters, the orchestra is the area of seats directly in front of the stage (called "primafila" or "platea"); the term more properly applies to the place in a theatre, or concert hall set apart for the musicians.

External links

- [http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/~ahugill/manual/ The Orchestra: A User's Manual] - A fairly concise overview, including detailed video interviews with players of each instrument and various resources
- [http://orcheseek.fc2web.com/ orcheseek] - professional orchestras' links of all over the world
- [http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/instsearch.pl?inst=ORCHESTRA Art of the States: Orchestra] works for orchestra by American composers

Sources

- ko:관현악단 ja:オーケストラ simple:Orchestra th:วงออร์เคสตรา

Piano trio

A piano trio is a group of piano and two other instruments, almost always a violin and a cello, or a piece of music written for such a group. It is one of the most common forms found in classical chamber music. The term can also refer to a group of musicians who regularly play together. Among the best known such groups were the one consisting of Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals, earlier in the 20th century, and the American-based Beaux Arts Trio whose commitment to using the same players in every concert pioneered a new generation of similarly committed groups. A more recent well-known trio in the United States consists of Emanuel Ax, Young Uck Kim, and Yo-Yo Ma. In Europe, leading trios include the Florestan Trio in the United Kingdom, the Trio Wanderer in France, the Trio Fontenay, the Trio Parnassus and the Trio Jean Paul in Germany, the Vienna Piano Trio in Austria and the Guarneri Trio of Prague in the Czech Republic.

Form

Traditionally, piano trios tend to be in the same overall form as a sonata, which can be roughly said to be as follows:
- First movement - a quick movement in sonata form
- Second movement - a slow movement
- Third movement - a minuet and trio or a scherzo in ternary form
- Fourth movement - another quick movement, often in rondo form or sonata-rondo form However, many variations on this form exist, and there are piano trios which bear no resemblance to this formal plan.

The role of the three instruments

The piano trios of the Classical era, notably those of Haydn, are dominated by the piano part. The violin only plays the melody a certain amount of the time, and is often doubled by the piano when it does. The cello part is very much subordinated, usually just doubling the bass line in the piano. It is thought that this practice was quite intentional on Haydn's part and was related to the sonority of the instruments of Haydn's day: the piano was fairly weak and "tinkling" in tone, and benefited from the tonal strengthening of other instruments. Mozart's trios are also rather dominated by the piano part. With time, a new ideal of piano trio composition arose, in which each of the three instruments was supposed to contribute equally to the music. This is seen, for instance, in Beethoven's trios, and was likely in part the result of the increase in the power and sonority of the piano that took place during Beethoven's career, making it more feasible for the piano to play independently in an ensemble. The new idea of equality was never implemented completely; the extent to which it is realized varies from one composition to the next, as well as among movements within a single composition. Certainly by the mid nineteenth century, all three instruments had been modified to have a very powerful sound, and each can hold its own in a modern ensemble. The earlier trios are now frequently performed and recorded using authentic instruments, of the kind for which they were originally written. Such performances restore the sonic balance the composer would have expected, and have proven popular.

Playing piano trios

Among the piano trios, works by Haydn and Mozart are considered the best starting point for pianists new to chamber music. Unlike string and wind players, who usually learn to play in an orchestra as students, most pianists have little ensemble experience and face a more difficult transition. Most pianists find that they must practice the trios alone before playing with others, because the repertoire is difficult to sightread. The extensive repertoire of violin sonatas generally contains less difficult piano parts, and is excellent preparation for pianists who wish to play the piano trios. Though fewer in number, there are chamber compositions for other string or wind instruments plus piano. The [http://www.acmp.net Amateur Chamber Music Players] publishes a contact list of musicians worldwide who play chamber music for their own enjoyment. They also publish lists of repertoire.

Piano trio repertoire

Among the fairly large repertoire for the standard piano trio (violin, cello, and piano) are the following works:
- Anton Arensky (1861-1906)
- Piano Trio #1 in d minor, op. 32
- Piano Trio #2 in f minor, op.73
- Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
- 3 Piano Trios (E-flat major, G major, c minor), op. 1
- Piano Trio #4 (arrangement of Septet in E-flat major, op. 20), op. 38
- Variations for Piano Trio in E-flat major, op. 44
- Piano Trio (arrangement of string quartet in E-flat major, op.4), op. 63
- 2 Piano Trios (D major "Ghost", E-flat major), op. 70
- Piano Trio in B-flat major "Archduke", op. 97
- Variations for Piano Trio in G major, op. 121a
- Leonard Bernstein (1918-1990)
- Piano Trio (1937)
- Ernest Bloch (1880-1959)
- Piano Trio (1925)
- Johannes Brahms (1833-1897)
- Piano Trio #1 in B major, op. 8
- Piano Trio #2 in C major, op. 87
- Piano Trio #3 in c minor, op. 101
- Ernest Chausson (1855-1899)
- Piano Trio in g minor, op. 3
- Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849)
- Piano Trio in g minor, op. 8
- Aaron Copland (1900-1990)
- Vitebsk: Study on a Jewish Theme for Piano Trio (1928)
- Claude Debussy (1862-1918)
- Piano Trio in g minor, L. 3 (1880)
- Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904)
- Piano Trio #1 in B flat major, B. 51
- Piano Trio #2 in g minor, B. 56
- Piano Trio #3 in f minor (once listed as Op. 64), B. 130
- Piano Trio #4 in e minor ("Dumky"), B. 166
- Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924)
- Piano Trio in d minor, op. 120
- Enrique Granados (1867-1916)
- Piano Trio, H. 140
- Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)
- Piano Trios, H XV 1-40
- Johann Nepomuk Hummel (1778-1837)
- Piano Trio #1 in E flat major, op. 12
- Piano Trio #2 in F major, op. 22
- Piano Trio #3 in G major, op. 35
- Piano Trio #4 in G major, op. 65
- Piano Trio #5 in E major, op. 83
- Piano Trio #6 in E flat major, op. 93
- Piano Trio #7 in E flat major, op. 96
- Charles Ives (1874-1954)
- Piano Trio, S. 86 (1904-11)
- Édouard Lalo (1823-1892)
- Piano Trio #1 in c minor, Op. 7
- Piano Trio #2 in b minor (Ode on Music “Descend, ye Nine?”)
- Piano Trio #3 in a minor, Op. 26
- Franz Liszt (1811-1886)
- Piano Trio La Lugubre Gondola (1882), also arranged for piano solo
- Bohuslav Martinů (1890-1959)
- Piano Trio #1 ("Cinq pièces brèves"), H. 193
- Piano Trio #2 in d minor, H. 327
- Piano Trio #3 in C major, H. 332
- Bergerettes (5) for piano trio, H. 275
- Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847)
- Piano Trio No. 1 in D minor, Op. 49 (1839)
- Piano Trio No. 2 in C minor, Op. 66 (1845)
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
- Piano Trio #1 in B flat major, K. 254
- Piano Trio #2 in G major, K. 496
- Piano Trio #3 in B flat major, K. 502
- Piano Trio #4 in E major, K. 542
- Piano Trio #5 in C major, K. 548
- Piano Trio #6 in G major, K. 564
- Vítězslav Novák (1870-1949)
- Piano trio in g minor, Op 1
- Piano trio in d minor "Quasi una ballata", Op 27
- Arvo Pärt (1935-)
- Mozart - Adagio for piano trio
- Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943)
- Trio élégiaque No.1 in G minor, Op. posth. (1892)
- Trio élégiaque No.2 in D minor, Op.9 (1893)
- Maurice Ravel (1875-1937)
- Piano Trio in a minor (1914)
- Albert Roussel (1869-1937)
- Piano Trio in E flat major, op. 2
- Camille Saint-Saëns (1835-1921)
- Piano Trio No. 1 in F major, Op. 18 (1863)
- Piano Trio No. 2 in E minor, Op. 92 (1892)
- Alfred Schnittke (1934-1998)
- Piano Trio (arrangement of string trio)
- Franz Schubert (1797-1828)
- Piano Trio #1 in B flat major, D. 898
- Piano Trio #2 in E flat major, D. 929
- Piano Trio in B flat major "Sonatensatz", D. 28
- Piano Trio in E flat major "Nocturne" (Adagio only), D. 897
- Clara Schumann (1819-1896)
- Trio for piano, violin & cello in G Minor, Op 17
- Robert Schumann (1810-1856)
- Piano Trio # 1 in d minor, op. 63
- Piano Trio # 2 in F major, op. 80
- Piano Trio # 3 in g minor, op. 110
- Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975)
- Piano Trio #1 in c minor, Op. 8
- Piano Trio #2 in e minor, Op. 67
- Bedřich Smetana (1824-1884)
- Piano Trio in g minor, JB 1:64 (Op. 15)
- Josef Suk (1874-1935)
- Piano Trio in c minor, Op 2
- Elegie for Piano Trio, Op 23
- Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893)
- Piano Trio in a minor, op. 50
- Joaquín Turina (1882-1949)
- Piano Trio #1, op. 35
- Piano Trio #2 in B minor, op. 76
- Circulo, for piano trio, op. 91
- Ellen Zwilich (1939- )
- Piano Trio Many works also exist for less conventional groupings of instruments, but can still be classified as piano trios. Among these:
- Béla Bartók (1881-1945)
- Contrasts (1938) for violin, clarinet, and piano
- Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
- Trio for clarinet, cello, piano in B-flat, op. 11
- Alban Berg (1885-1935)
- Adagio (arrangement of Chamber Concerto 2nd Mov’t) for violin, clarinet, piano, op. 7
- Johannes Brahms (1833-1897)
- Trio for violin, horn (or viola), piano in E-flat major, op. 40
- Trio for clarinet (or viola), cello, piano in a minor, op. 114
- Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857)
- Trio pathétique, for clarinet (or violin), bassoon (or cello), piano in d minor, G. iv173
- Aram Khachaturian (1903-1978)
- Trio for B-flat clarinet, violin, and piano in C minor, Op. 30 (1932)
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
- Trio for clarinet (or violin), viola, piano in E flat major "Kegelstatt", K. 498
- Francis Poulenc (1899-1963)
- Trio for oboe, bassoon, piano, FP 43
- Albert Roussel (1869-1937)
- Trio for flute, viola, piano, op. 40

External link

- [http://www.altenbergtrio.at/archiv_opus_e.php Extensive list of trio works]
- [http://www.beauxartstrio.org The Beaux Arts Trio] - official website ja:ピアノ三重奏曲 Category:Piano Category:Chamber music Category:Musical groups

Piano quintet

A piano quintet is a chamber musical ensemble made up of one piano and four other instruments, or the name of a piece written for such a group. The most common grouping is one piano, two violins, a viola, and a cello—that is, a piano with a string quartet. This combination of instruments is sufficiently prevalent in classical music that when the phrase piano quintet is used without qualification, it usually refers to this particular group. Several composers have written piano quintets, although few have written more than one, a rare exception being Gabriel Fauré, who wrote two. Other composers to have written for the usual grouping of a string quartet plus piano include Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Antonin Dvorak (who also wrote more than one, though only one is played with any regularity), and Dmitri Shostakovich. Franz Schubert's famous Trout Quintet is written for the less usual combination of piano, violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven both wrote pieces for a piano and four wind instruments (oboe, clarinet, French horn, and bassoon in both cases). Although these pieces could be called piano quintets, they are more often referred to as "quintets for piano and wind" so as to distinguish them from pieces with the more usual instrumentation.

List of works

The following is a partial list of piano quintets by famous composers. All works are for piano and string quartet unless otherwise noted.
- Amy Beach
- Piano Quintet
- Ludwig van Beethoven
- Piano Quintet (for piano, oboe, clarinet, horn, and bassoon; 1796)
- Johannes Brahms
- Piano Quintet (1864)
- Ernö Dohnányi
- Piano Quintet No. 1 (1895)
- Piano Quintet No. 2 (1914)
- Antonin Dvorak
- Piano Quintet No. 1 (1875)
- Piano Quintet No. 2 (1889)
- Edward Elgar
- Piano Quintet (1918)
- Gabriel Fauré
- Piano Quintet No. 1 (completed 1905)
- Piano Quintet No. 2 (completed 1921)
- César Franck
- Piano Quintet (1879)
- Sofia Gubaidulina
- Piano Quintet (1957)
- Johann Nepomuk Hummel
- Piano Quintet (for piano, violin, viola, cello, and double bass)
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
- Piano Quintet, K. 452 (for piano, oboe, clarinet, horn and, bassoon; 1784)
- Leo Ornstein
- Piano Quintet (1927)
- Camille Saint-Saëns
- Piano Quintet in A minor, op. 14 (1855)
- Alfred Schnittke
- Piano Quintet (1976)
- Franz Schubert
- Trout Quintet (for piano, violin, viola, cello, and double bass; 1819)
- Robert Schumann
- Piano Quintet (1842)
- Dmitri Shostakovich
- Piano Quintet (1940)
- Anton Webern
- Piano Quintet (1907) Category:Piano Category:Chamber music Category:Musical groups ja:ピアノ五重奏曲

Woodwind instrument

A woodwind instrument is a wind instrument in which sound is produced by blowing through a mouthpiece against an edge or by a vibrating reed, and in which the pitch is varied by opening or closing holes in the body of the instrument. As the name implies, they were originally made of wood.

Types of woodwind instruments

- Single-reed instruments use a reed, which is a thinly sliced piece of cane or plastic that is held against the aperture of the mouthpiece with a ligature. When air is forced between the reed and the mouthpiece, the vibrations create the sound. Single reed instruments include the clarinet and saxophone families of instruments.
- Double-reed instruments use two precisely cut, small pieces of cane joined together at the base. The finished, bound reed is inserted into the top of the instrument and vibrates as air is forced between the two pieces of bound cane. There are two sub-families:
- Exposed double reed instruments, where the reed goes between the player's lips. The oboe, cor anglais (also called english horn) and bassoon make up the more popular instruments within this family.
- Capped double reed reed instruments, where there is a cap covering up the reed with a hole in that the player just blows through. This family includes the bagpipes and the crumhorn.
- Flute woodwind instruments where the sound is produced by blowing against an edge. There are two sub-families:
- Open flute family, where the player uses his/her lips to form the stream of air which goes directly from the players lips to the edge, e.g. the transverse flute. Modern flutes are made of either silver or gold.
- Closed flute family, where the instrument forms and directs the stream over the edge. This family includes whistle and the recorder family. One interesting difference between woodwind and brass instruments is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a woodwind instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands.

Related lists

- Full List of woodwind instruments

External links

- [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/woodwind.html How do Woodwind Instruments work]
- [http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/fing.html Woodwind Fingering Chart]
- [http://www.prosono.co.za/english/Woods-for-woodwinds.html Woods for woodwinds]

Brass instrument

A brass instrument is a musical instrument whose tone is produced by vibration of the lips as the player blows into a tubular resonator (mouthpiece). Brass sousaphones weigh ca. 100lbs. Instruments are also called labrosones, literally meaning "lip-vibrated instruments" (Baines, 1993). The view of most scholars (see organology) is that the term "brass instrument" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass. Thus, as exceptional cases one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the cornett, and woodwind instruments made of brass, like the saxophone.

Families of brass instruments

Brass instruments nowadays generally come in one of three families:
- Natural brass instruments, where the player can only play notes in the instrument's harmonic series, for example the bugle. The trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. Natural instruments are still played in authentic performances of older music, and for some ceremonial functions.

Image:Kinkangakki_piston.png
Piston valve Image:Kinkangakki_rotary.png
Rotary valve Image:Kinkangakki_slide.png
Slide

- Valved brass instruments use a set of valves (typically 3 or 4 but as many as 7 or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing into the instrument, changing its overall length. This family includes the modern trumpet, cornet, flugelhorn, saxhorn, euphonium, tuba, sousaphone, mellophone, and horn. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary values. Rotary valves are the norm for the horn and are also prevalent on the tuba.
- Slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instrument in this family is the trombone (although some valve trombones are also made) and the slide trombone's ancestor the sackbut. Some modern day trombones also have rotary valves in addition to the slide. The folk instrument the bazooka is also in the slide family. In the past, a fourth type was common:
- Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a woodwind instrument. These included the cornett, serpent and keyed trumpet. Such instruments were difficult to play and became obsolete with the invention of the valve, though have had a renaissance with the growth of the early music movement.

Some other wind instruments

- alphorn (wood)
- conch (shell)
- shofar (horn)
- Vladimirsky rozhok (wood, Russia)
- Didgeridoo (wood, Australia)
- Wagner tuba
- Natural horn

Sound production in brass instruments

Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the prime vibrator (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the harmonic at which the instrument's column of air will vibrate. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see embouchure). Brass players call each harmonic a "partial". Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable mouthpiece. Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics. Trumpets are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while horns are fitted with a conical mouthpiece. One interesting difference between a woodwind instrument and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a woodwind instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands.

References

- Baines, Anthony (1993). Brass Instruments: Their History and Development (4th ed.). New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-27574-4.100lb brass instrument.

External links

- [http://www.civilization.ca/arts/opus/opus901e.html The traditional manufacture of brass instruments], a 1991 video (Real Player format) featuring maker Robert Barclay; from the web site of the [http://www.civilization.ca/indexe.asp Canadian Museum of Civilization].
- [http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/~ahugill/manual/brass.html The Orchestra: A User's Manual - Brass] Category:Wind instruments proper ja:金管楽器

French Horn

The horn is a brass instrument that consists of tubing wrapped into a coiled form. The instrument was first developed in France in about 1650 from the cor de chasse or hunting horn, and has been known as the French horn since it was refined and improved in England in 1750, although musicians, and particularly players of the instrument, generally refer to it simply as the horn. The horn (like the cornet and Saxhorns but unlike the trumpet and trombone) has a tapered bore, steadily increasing in diameter along its length. Compared to the other brass instruments commonly found in the orchestra, the typical range of the horn is set an octave higher in its harmonic series, facilitated by its small, deep mouthpiece, giving it its characteristic "mellow" tone. The typical playing range of a horn goes from the written F at the bottom of the staff in bass clef to the C above the staff in treble clef. The horn is notoriously difficult to play. Its harmonics are such that notes are unusually close together and it is easy to miss a note. The narrow mouthpipe and backward-facing bell also make it musically inefficient, but attempts to cure these problems have always resulted in a loss of its unique sound.

History

treble clef treble clef Early horns were much simpler than those in current use. These early horns were simply brass tubing wound a few times and flared into a larger opening at the end (called the bell of the horn). They evolved from the early hunting horns and, as such, were meant to be played while riding on a horse. The hornist would grip the horn on the piping near the mouthpiece and rest the body of the horn across his arm so that only one hand was needed to play and the other could be free to guide his steed. The only way to change the pitch was to use the natural harmonics of that particular length of tubing by changing the speed at which the lips vibrated against the mouthpiece; but by using a long tube and playing high in the harmonic series, considerable melodic variety was possible. The best-know example from this era is the Quoniam from JS Bach's Mass in B minor. Later, horns caught the interest of composers, and were used to invoke an outdoors feeling and the idea of the chase. Even in the time of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, however, the horn player (now a part of the early orchestra) still had a much simpler version of the horn; he carried with him a set of crooks, which were curved pieces of tube of different length which could be used to change the length of the horn by removing part of the tubing and inserting a different length piece. The player now held the horn with both hands, holding the tubing near the mouthpiece with one, and putting the other into the bell, which was either rested upon the right knee of the player or the entire horn was lifted into the air. Now the pitch played could be changed in several ways. First the player could change the harmonic series which the instrument as a whole had by removing and inserting different sized crooks into the instrument, changing the length of the horn itself. Less globally, given a particular crook, the vibration of the lips could be varied in speed, thus moving to a different pitch on the given harmonic series. Finally, now that the player had his hand in the bell, the hand became an extension on the length of the horn, and by closing and opening the space available for air to leave the bell, he could bend the pitch to interpolate between the elements of a harmonic series. This interpolation finally made the horn a true melodic instrument, not simply limited to a harmonic series, and some of the great composers started to write concerti for this new instrument. The Mozart Horn Concerti, for example, were written for this type of horn, called the natural horn in the modern literature. Around 1815, the horn took on a new form, as valves were introduced, which allowed the player to switch between crooks without the effort of manually removing one from the horn and inserting a new one. At this same time, the standard horn came to be the horn on the F harmonic series, and there were then three valves added to it. Using these three valves, the player could play all the notes reachable in the horn's range.

Types of horns

1815 Despite this improvement, the single F horn had a rather irksome flaw. As the player played higher and higher notes, the distinctions a player had to make with his or her embouchure from note to note became increasingly precise. An early solution was simply to use a horn of higher pitch -- usually B-flat. The relative merits of F versus B-flat were a hotbed of debate between horn players of the late nineteenth century, until the German horn maker Kruspe produced a prototype of the "double horn" in 1897. The double horn combines two instruments into a single frame: the original horn in F, and a second, higher horn keyed in B-flat. By using a fourth valve operated by the thumb, the horn player can quickly switch from the deep, warm tones of the F horn to the higher, brighter tones of the B-flat horn. The two sets of tones are commonly called "sides" of the horn. In the words of Reginald Morley-Pegge, the invention of the double horn "revolutionized horn playing technique almost as much as did the invention of the valve." [Morley-Pegge, "Orchestral," 195] The two most common styles ("wraps") of double horns are named Kruspe and Geyer (also known as Knopf), after the first instrument makers to develop and standardize them. The Kruspe wrap locates the Bb change valve above the first valve, near the thumb. The Geyer wrap has the change valve behind the third valve, near the pinky finger. In effect, the air flows in a completely different direction on the other model. Both models have their own strengths and weaknesses, and are a matter of personal choice among horn players.

Specialized horns

While most modern instruments are of the F/B-flat double horn variety, various special-purpose instruments are available (usually at a very high price).
- The most common is the descant horn, which is a single horn pitched in F alto, one octave higher than the traditional F horn. The descant is used largely for extended playing in the high register, such as in Bach's Brandenburg Concerti. Double horns in B-flat/High F (or High E-flat) are increasingly popular for works that only use the upper and upper-middle registers of the instrument.
- Single horns in F or B-flat still see use, notably in operatic settings. Their lighter weight renders them much more suitable for the extended and strenuous playing required of Wagnerian operas. Most beginners are started on a single horn for the sake of simplicity.
- The natural horn is still used by many horn players. It is helpful for understanding the context for pieces written before valves as it sounds and feels different than the modern horn.
- The triple horn is the result of merging an F/B-flat double horn with an F-alto descant, adding a fifth valve and an additional set of valve slides. Early models had problems such as uneven intonation, a difficult lower range, and added weight that made it less than optimal. However, current triple horns are suitable for work in nearly every register of horn literature. While the double horn remains the most popular instrument, in recent years the triple horn has been gaining more widespread acceptance.
- The Viennese Horn is a horn traditionally played in the Vienna Philharmonic. It is a standard single horn with a dual piston mechanism for each valve. [http://iwk.mdw.ac.at/Forschung/english/wrinst/vhorn.htm This page] shows a bit more about the differences between this and the other horns listed above. Viennese Horn
- The Wagner tuba is an instrument generally played by the horn players of the orchestra which resembles a mix of a horn and a tuba.
- The Alphorn is most famous from the Ricola commercials. It has been said that the horn solo in the fourth movement of Brahms' first symphony was inspired by this instrument.
- The mellophone is, in appearance, very different from any of the above types of horn, but it is nevertheless used in place of the horn in marching bands. In fact marching band is the only connection between the horn and the mellophone. This instrument is harmonically much more similar to an elongated trumpet.

Horn techniques

See the List of Horn Techniques.

Well-known horn players

See the List of Horn Players.

Pieces for horn

For a list of notable compositions featuring the horn, see List of compositions for horn.

Horn makers

See the List of Horn Makers.

External links

- [http://www.hornsociety.org The International Horn Society]
- [http://www.hornplayer.net hornplayer.net]
- [http://www.public.asu.edu/~jqerics/horn_links.htm Professor John Q. Ericson's Horn Links]
- [http://www.public.asu.edu/~jqerics/articles_online.htm Some online horn articles]
- [http://www.boerger.org/horn Ron Boerger's "Horn Players' FAQ"]
- [http://www.hornexcerpts.org/ An online collection of horn orchestral excerpts]
- [http://www.cosmos-club.org/journals/1999/bowles.html How the valved horn emerged from the early Industrial Revolution]
- [http://www.hornroller.com HornRoller.com, News from the Hornosphere] Category:Brass instruments ja:ホルン

Madrigal (music)

A madrigal is a setting for 4–6 voices of a secular text, often in Italian. The madrigal has its origins in the frottola, and was also influenced by the motet and the French chanson of the Renaissance. It is related mostly by name alone to the Italian trecento-madrigal of the late 13th and 14th centuries; those madrigals were settings for 2 or 3 voices without accompaniment, or with instruments possibly doubling the vocal lines. The madrigal was the most important secular form of music of its time. It bloomed especially in the second half of the 16th century, losing its importance by the third decade of the 17th century, when it vanished through the rise of newer secular forms as the opera and merged with the cantata and the dialogue. Its rise started with the Primo libro di Madrigali of Philippe Verdelot, published in 1533 in Venice, which was the first book of identifiable madrigals. This publication was a great success and the form spread rapidly, first in Italy and up to the end of the century to several other countries in Europe. Especially in England the madrigal was highly appreciated since the publication of Nicholas Yonge's Musica Transalpina in 1588, a collection of Italian madrigals with translated texts which started a madrigal-culture of its own. The madrigal had a much longer life in England than in the rest of Europe: composers continued to produce works of astonishing quality even after the form had gone out of fashion on the Continent (see English Madrigal School). Late madrigalists were particularly ingenious with so-called "madrigalisms" — passages in which the music assigned to a particular word expresses its meaning, for example, setting riso (smile) to a passage of quick, running notes which imitate laughter, or sospiro (sigh) to a note which falls to the note below. This technique is also known as "word-painting" and can be found not only in madrigals but in other vocal music of the period. The most important of the late madrigalists are certainly Luca Marenzio, Carlo Gesualdo, and Claudio Monteverdi, who integrated in 1605 the basso continuo into the form and later composed the book Madrigali guerrieri et amorosi (1638) (Madrigals of War and Love), which is, however, an example of the early Baroque madrigal; some of the compositions in this book bear little relation to the a cappella madrigals of the previous century.

Composers of early madrigals

- Jacques Arcadelt
- Adrian Willaert
- Costanzo Festa
- Cypriano de Rore
- Philippe Verdelot
- Bernardo Pisano

The classic madrigal composers

- Orlandus Lassus
- Andrea Gabrieli
- Claudio Monteverdi
- Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
- Philippe de Monte

The late madrigalists

- Giaches de Wert
- Luzzasco Luzzaschi
- Luca Marenzio
- Carlo Gesualdo
- Sigismondo d'India

Composers of Baroque "concerted" madrigals (with instruments)

- Orazio Vecchi
- Adriano Banchieri
- Giulio Caccini
- Claudio Monteverdi
- Heinrich Schütz
- Hans Leo Hassler
- Johann Hermann Schein

English madrigal school

- William Byrd
- John Dowland
- John Farmer
- Orlando Gibbons
- Thomas Morley
- Thomas Tomkins
- Thomas Weelkes
- John Wilbye

Chamber music

Definition

History

Resources

Performance

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External links

European classical music

Timeline

Classical music as "music of the classical era"

The nature of classical music

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Emotional content

Instruments

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Influences between classical and popular music

Classical music and folk music

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Chamber orchestra

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A Conductorless Orchestra

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Italy

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See also

Other meanings

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Piano trio

Form

The role of the three instruments

Playing piano trios

Piano trio repertoire

See also

External link

Piano quintet

List of works

Woodwind instrument

Types of woodwind instruments

Related lists

External links

See also

Brass instrument

Families of brass instruments

Some other wind instruments

Sound production in brass instruments

See also

References

External links

French Horn

History

Types of horns

Specialized horns

Horn techniques

Well-known horn players

Pieces for horn