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Century
This page is about centuries as units of time. For other meanings of the term, see Century (disambiguation). For a list of centuries, see Centuries.
A century (From the Latin cent, one hundred) is one hundred one hundred consecutive years.
- In all dating systems, centuries are essentially numbered ordinally, as time is a purely relative notion (its physical existence, though indispensable for our understanding of reality, still remains unproven in theory). Thus, the first century of a time frame is "The First Century" and not "Century 0".
- There is considerable disagreement about whether to count the centennial year (i.e. 2000) as the first or last year of a century. This confusion is documented for every centennial year from 1500 onward, and almost certainly arises from the introduction of Hindu-Arabic numerals and the concept of zero to Western Europe in the twelfth century.
The oldest dating systems were regnal, and considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. Thus, one speaks of the first year of the reign of King so-and-so. Obviously, the century problem does not arise in such systems. Somewhat later, systems arose dating from the founding of a dynasty, city or religion, and these continued ordinal, rather than cardinal, counting. Thus Ab Urbe Condita counts the Year 1 as the founding of Rome; Anno Domini as the first full year of Jesus Christ's life; the Islamic Calendar as the year of the Hejira, so it is also latinized as Anno Hejira.
More modern systems of dating, (such as the astronomical calendar, see proleptic Gregorian calendar) begin with a year zero. In these cardinal dating systems, it is perfectly logical to use 0 to 99 as the first century, and to regard 2000 as the first year of the twenty-first century.
See also
- decade (ten years)
- eon (undetermined)
- era (undetermined)
- indictio (fifteen years in Roman fiscality)
- lustrum (five years)
- Millennium (ten centuries)
Category:Units of time
Category:Ancient military unit types
ja:世紀
simple:Century
th:ศตวรรษ
zh-min-nan:Sè-kí
Century (disambiguation)Century may refer to any of the following:
- A unit of one hundred years: Century.
- The Roman military unit, the centuria.
- The Comitia Centuriata of the Roman Republic, mostly used for the election of magistrates.
- One of two places in the United States named Century City.
- One hundred runs in cricket
- A bicycle ride of 100 miles in a day.
- A collection of one hundred sonnets.
Category: Disambiguation
Latin
Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. It gained great importance as the formal language of the Roman Empire. All Romance languages, those being most notably Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian, are descended from Latin, and many words based on Latin are found in other modern languages such as English. The Latin alphabet, derived from the Greek, remains the most widely-used alphabet in the world. It is said that 80 percent of scholarly English words are derived from Latin (in a large number of cases by way of French). Moreover, in the Western world, Latin was a lingua franca, the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, being eventually replaced by French in the 18th century and English in the late 19th. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the formal language of the Roman Catholic Church to this day, and thus the official national language of the Vatican. The Church used Latin as its primary liturgical language until the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. Latin is also still used (drawing heavily on Greek roots) to furnish the names used in the scientific classification of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with Greek, is known as Classics.
Main features
Latin is a synthetic inflectional language: affixes (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, which is called declension; and person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect in verbs, which is called conjugation. There are five declensions (declinationes) of nouns and four conjugations of verbs.
There are six noun cases:
#nominative (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative),
#genitive (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English of or the addition of s to a noun),
#dative (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English to or for),
#accusative (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases),
#ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument, often represented by the English by, with, from),
#vocative (used of the person or thing being addressed).
In addition, some nouns have a locative case used to express location (otherwise expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as in), but this survival from Proto-Indo-European is found only in the names of lakes, cities, towns, small islands, and a few other words related to locations, such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin.
There are six general tenses in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive mood, however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative. The following examples are of the first conjugation verb "laudare" ("to praise") in the indicative mood and the active voice:
Primary sequence tenses
# present (laudo, "I praise")
# imperfect (laudabam, "I was praising")
# future (laudabo, "I shall praise," "I will praise")
Secondary sequence tenses
# perfect (laudavi, "I praised", "I have praised")
# pluperfect (laudaveram, "I had praised")
# future perfect (laudavero, "I shall have praised," "I will have praised")
The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...") and so may also sometimes be included in the primary sequence.
Latin and Romance
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Latin evolved into the various Romance languages. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese.
The Romance languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, the spoken language of common usage, which in turn evolved from an older speech which also produced the formal classical standard. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive.
Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and vocative.
In Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools as Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In Liceo Classico Ancient Greek is a compulsory subject.
Latin and English
See Latin influence in English for a more complete exposition.
English grammar is independent of Latin grammar, though prescriptive grammarians in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules — such as the prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English were derived from Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, hundreds of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English.
During the 16th and on through the 18th century English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words (as if they had spilled from a pot of ink). Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. Imbibe, extrapolate, dormant and inebriation are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymologia, meaning "true sense of the word."
Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings - perhaps 25% of the total [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/]. However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as the law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language GCSE in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.
Latin education
The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the Vatican and the University of Kentucky. In Britain the Classical Association encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus. In the United States there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the National Junior Classical League (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students. Many would-be international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful Interlingua considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (le latino moderne international e simplificate).
Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, and The Cat in the Hat have also helped boost interest in the language.
See also
About the Latin language
- Latin grammar
- Latin spelling and pronunciation
- Latin declension
- Latin conjugation
- Latin alphabet
- List of Latin words with English derivatives
- Latin verbs with English derivatives
- Latin nouns with English derivatives
- ablative absolute
- Word order in Latin
About the Latin literary heritage
- Latin literature
- Romance languages
- Loeb Classical Library
- List of Latin phrases
- List of Latin proverbs
- Brocard
- List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
- List of Latin place names in Europe
- Carmen Possum
Other related topics
- Roman Empire
- Internationalism
References
- Bennett, Charles E. Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
- N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
- Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
- Wheelock, Frederic. Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237
External links
- [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
- [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
- [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
- [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
- [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
- [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
- [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
- [http://augustinus.eresmas.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
- [http://www.learnlatin.tk LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin
- [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
- [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
- [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
- [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
- [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
- [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
- [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
- [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
- [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English.
Category:Classical languages
Category:Ancient languages
Category:Fusional languages
Category:Languages of Italy
Category:Languages of Vatican City
als:Latein
zh-min-nan:Latin-gí
ko:라틴어
ja:ラテン語
simple:Latin language
th:ภาษาละติน
One hundred100 (the Roman numeral is C for centum) is the natural number following 99 and preceding 101.
In mathematics
One hundred is the square of 10 (in scientific notation it is written as ). The standard SI prefix for a hundred is "hecto-".
It is the sum of the first nine prime numbers, as well as the sum of two prime numbers (47 + 53), and the sum of the cubes of the first four integers.
But perhaps this number is most important as the basis of percentages (literally "per hundred"), with 100% being a full amount.
One hundred is also an 18-gonal number. It is divisible by the number of primes below it, 25 in this case. But it can not be expressed as the difference between any integer and the total of coprimes below it, making it a noncototient.
100 is a Harshad number in base 10, and also in base 4, and in that base it is a self-descriptive number.
In astronomy
The Messier object M100, a magnitude 10.5 spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices.
The New General Catalogue object NGC 100, a magnitude 13.3 spiral galaxy in the constellation Pisces.
In other fields
April 22]
One hundred is also:
- The atomic number of fermium, an actinide.
- In degrees Celsius, the boiling temperature of water at sea level.
- The number of years in a century.
- The number of pounds in an American short hundredweight.
- The number of subunits into which many of the world's currencies are divided; for example, one euro is one hundred cents and one Pound Sterling is one hundred pence.
- The number of verses in the pop song 99 Bottles of Beer
- The denomination of the U.S. hundred-dollar bill with Benjamin Franklin's portrait.
- The denomination of American savings bonds with Thomas Jefferson's portrait.
- The denomination of American treasury bonds with Andrew Jackson's portrait.
- The number of tiles in a standard Scrabble set.
- The number of entries in many "all time" lists voted for by the public, e.g. The 100 Best Films, The 100 Worst Pop Songs
- In India and Israel, 100 is the police telephone number.
- In United Kingdom, 100 is the operator telephone number
- The year AD 100 or 100 BC.
- Hundred Days, aka the Waterloo Campaign
- The number of the first folder of photos in the DCIM folder created by a brand-new digital camera (or after a change of memory card if the camera is set to auto-reset numbering).
- The number of poems in the Japanese poetry anthology Hyakunin Isshu.
See also
- Hundred (word)
- hundred (division)
Category:Integers
ko:100
ja:100
Hindu-Arabic numeral system
This article is about the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. For Hindu-Arabic numeral symbols, see Arabic numerals.
The system of Hindu-Arabic numerals is a positional decimal numeral system that evolved from the Brahmi numeral system in ancient India. The Arabs brought this system to Europe after it found its way to Persia, the numeral system became to be called "Arabic" by the Europeans. An important characteristic of the system is the use of a digit zero, that precedes the positive 1. In a more developed form, the system also uses a decimal marker (at first a mark over the ones digit but now more usually a decimal point or a decimal comma which separates the ones place from the tenths place), and also a symbol for “these digits repeat ad infinitum” (recur). In modern usage, this latter symbol is usually a vinculum (a horizontal line placed over the repeating digits); the need for it can be removed by representing fractions as simple ratios with a division sign, but this obviates many of Arabic numbers’ more obvious advantages, such as the ability to immediately determine which of two numbers is greater. Historically, however, there has been much variation. In this more developed form, the numeral system can symbolize any rational number using only 13 symbols (the ten digits, decimal marker, vinculum or division sign, and an optional prepended dash to indicate a negative number).
Symbol sets
Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in this system, all of which evolved from the Brahmi symbols [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/POS/turchFigs/IMG.FIG9.4.GIF]. At present the following sets are being used:
;Arabic Numerals
These are the most widely-used symbols, used in Western countries and worldwide, and in Western parts of the Arab World; "Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya use only Western numerals"[http://www.contingencies.org/marapr05/0305cairo.asp]. In English they are known as the Arabic numerals, Hindu-Arabic numerals, Western numerals, European numerals, Western Arabic numerals, Arabic Western numerals. In Arabic they are called "Western Numerals". (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
;Devanagari numerals
These symobols are used in languages that use the Devanagari script. (०, १, २, ३, ४, ५, ६, ७, ८, ९) They are sometimes called late Devanagari numerals to distinguish them from the early Devanagari numerals.
;Arabic-Indic numerals
In English they are also called Eastern Arabic numerals, Arabic-Indic numerals, Arabic Eastern Numerals. In Arabic though, they are called "Indian numerals", أرقام هندية, arqam hindiyyah. They are sometimes called Indic Numerals in English, however, this nomenclature is sometimes discouraged as it "leads to confusion with the digits currently used with the scripts of India". They are used in Egypt and Arabic countries east of it, and were also in the no longer used Ottoman Turkish script (٠.١.٢.٣.٤.٥.٦.٧.٨٩)
;Eastern Arabic-Indic Numerals
Eastern variant of the Arabic-Indic Numerals Used in Farsi and Urdu languages. (۰,۱,۲, ۳, ۴, ۵, ۶, ۷, ۸, ۹)
;Gurumukhi numerals
Used in the Punjabi language. (੦, ੧, ੨, ੩, ੪, ੫, ੬, ੭, ੮, ੯)
;Bangla numerals
Used in Bengali language (০, ১, ২, ৩, ৪, ৫, ৬, ৭, ৮, ৯)
;Oriya numerals
Used in Oriya language (୦, ୧, ୨, ୩, ୪, ୫, ୬, ୭, ୮, ୯)
;Tamil numerals
Used in Tamil language (௦, ௧, ௨, ௩, ௪, ௫, ௬, ௭, ௮, ௯)
;Kannada numerals
Used in Kannada language (೦, ೧, ೨, ೩, ೪, ೫, ೬, ೭, ೮, ೯)
;Malayalam numerals
Used in Malayalam language (൦, ൧, ൨, ൩, ൪, ൫, ൬, ൭, ൮, ൯)
;Thai numerals
Used in Thai language (๐, ๑, ๒, ๓, ๔, ๕, ๖, ๗, ๘, ๙)
;Tibetan numerals
Used in Tibetan language (༠, ༡, ༢, ༣, ༤, ༥, ༦, ༧, ༨, ༩)
Origins of the Numeral system
Hindu numerals in the first century AD
Image:Indian numerals 100AD.gif
Category:Numeration
Category:Elementary mathematics
ko:아라비아 수 체계
ja:アラビア数字
Zero
__TOC__
Zero and 0 are used in many different contexts:
In mathematics
- 0 (number) is a number, glyph, and numeral. (See the article on the number for a detailed history and other mathematical uses.)
- The zero function is the constant function whose value is zero, for every element in its domain.
- The slashed zero glyph used to distinguish the number '0' from the letter 'O' on character displays in mainframe and early personal computing
- A root of a function is also known as a zero of the function.
As a year
- Year zero, used as the start of many calendars, for instance in numbering astronomical and Hindu years.
- Year Zero (political notion) - used to refer to the Cambodian genocide and to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq.
As a name
In names, zero sometimes means "start" or "origin":
- ZERO, a german art group [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZERO]
- Zero, bumpkin character in the Beetle Bailey comic strip
- Zero, canine companion of the title character in the Little Annie Rooney comic strip
- Zero, a major character in the novel Holes by Louis Sachar.
- Zero, Hershey's candy bar of caramel, peanut and almond nougat covered in white fudge
- Zero is an alternate name used by the 1980s Brisbane punk rock band Xero.
- Zero is a song by The Smashing Pumpkins
- Zero is the name of a video game character (See Mega Man).
- Zero is a video game character in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (See: List of characters in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas).
- Zero is also the name of a video game magazine.
- Zero (cartoonist) - Brazilian cartoonist.
- Zero Mostel - Tony Award-winning stage actor.
- Count Zero is a character that names a cyberpunk novel by William Ford Gibson.
- Ground Zero is the surface point in the vertical of the explosion of a nuclear bomb. This term has also been used figuratively for the area where the World Trade Center of Manhattan was located before the September 11 attacks.
- A6M Zero - The Mitsubishi A6M Japanese fighter aircraft used during the Second World War.
- Son Goku, a character from Dragon Ball, is known as "Zero" in a late 1980's dub of Dragon Ball.
- Zero Wing - a video game most notable for being the source of the "All your base are belong to us" meme.
- There are several works of literature named "Zero at the Bone", from a line in a poem by Emily Dickinson titled "A Narrow Fellow in the Grass".
- 0 is a god-like character in Greg Cox's Star Trek novel series The Q Continuum.
- Zero Milestone in Washington, D.C.
- Zero Kilometre Stone in Budapest, Hungary
- "Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea", a book by Charles Seife.
- Zero the dog. Jack Skellingtons ghost dog from The Nightmare Before Christmas
As a noun
- Zero (linguistics) - an element not realized in speech, as in a zero article.
- Zero day or 0day refers to software, media, or information that is obtained either prior to or on the day of the official release.
- Size Zero is a petite dress size for women.
As a verb
- In computing, to zero (or zeroise or zeroize) a set of data means to set every bit in the data to zero (or off). Zero is a default digit, meaning none and initial value. This is usually said of small pieces of data, such as bits or words (especially in the construction "zero out").
- to zero also means to erase, to discard all data from. This is often said of disks and directories, where "zeroing" need not involve actually writing zeroes throughout the area being zeroed. One may speak of something being "logically zeroed" rather than being "physically zeroed".
- In firearms, to zero a weapon means to adjust the iron sights or the telescopic sight so that it aims exactly where the bullet goes at a given distance. If the weapon was "zero-ed" at 100 yards, shooting at a target at 150 yards will require to aim higher, as dictated by the science of ballistics.
- In measurement, to zero means to calibrate to a value of zero, as with a balance, weighing scale, or other measuring instrument. In this sense it is synonymous with the verb [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tare tare].
Alternative pronunciations
The letter O (pronounced oh) often replaces the number 0 (zero) as a one-syllable alternative in spoken English, because of the digit's resemblance to the capital letter. For example, "area code 405" may be pronounced "area code Four Oh Five".
In cases when the number zero must be clearly distinguished from the letter O, it is sometimes contracted to "zoh" instead, although in most contexts this would not be appropriate. For example, one might pronounce "Part AO30" as "Part A Oh Three Zoh". These contractions are almost entirely exclusive to spoken language, and spellings are usually used only to describe pronounciation.
External links
- [http://ask.50webs.com/who-invented-the-0.html Who invented the zero?]
ja:0_(曖昧さ回避)
Zero
Ab urbe condita:For the book Ab Urbe Condita see Ab Urbe Condita (book).
Ab urbe condita (AUC or a.u.c.) is Latin for "from the founding of the city" (of Rome), supposed to have happened in 753 BC. It was one of several methods used for dating years in the Roman era, when the Roman calendar and the Julian calendar were in use. It appears to have been widely replaced by the anno Diocletiani (A.D.) system which in turn was gradually superseded by the anno Domini (A.D.) system of Dionysius Exiguus. Some modern historians claim that an era ab urbe condita (from the founding of the city of Rome) did not, in reality, exist in the ancient world, and the use of reckoning the years in this way is modern.
Significance
Dionysius Exiguus
From emperor Claudius onwards Varro's calculation (see below) superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honor of the city's anniversary, in 47 AD, eight hundred years after the supposed founding of the city. In 147/8 Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations, and in 248 Philip the Arab celebrated Rome's first millennium, together with Ludi saeculares for Rome's alleged tenth saeculum. Coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, Pacatianus, explicitely states '1001', which is an indication that the citizens of the Empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a Saeculum Novum. When the Roman Empire turned Christian in the following century, this imagery came to be used in a more metaphysical sense.
Calculation by Varro
The traditional date for the founding of Rome of April 21, 753 BC was initiated by Varro. In practice the Romans typically dated events from the reign year of the current ruler (during the republic a consul had a term of a single year). Varro may have used the consular list with its mistakes, and called the year of the first consuls "245 ab urbe condita" (a.u.c.), accepting the 244-year interval from Dionysius of Halicarnassus for the kings after the foundation of Rome. The correctness of Varro's calculation has not been proved scientifically but is still used worldwide.
Alternative calculations
According to Velleius Paterculus (VIII, 5) The foundation of Rome took place 437 years after the capture of Troy (1182 BC), It took place shortly before an eclipse of the Sun that was observed at Rome on June 25, 745 BC and had a magnitude of 50.3%. Its beginning occurred at 16:38, its middle at 17:28, and its end at 18:16.
However, according to Lucius Tarrutius of Firmum Romulus and Remus were conceived in the womb on the 23rd day of the Egyptian month Choiac, at the time of a total eclipse of the Sun. (This eclipse occurred on June 15, 763 BC, with a magnitude of 62.5% at Rome. Its beginning took place at 6:49, its middle at 7:47 and its end at 8:51.) He was born on the 21st day of the month Thoth. The first day of Thoth fell on March 2 in that year (Prof. E.J. Bickerman, 1980: 115). It means that Rhea Silvia's pregnancy lasted for 281 days. Rome was founded on the ninth day of the month Pharmuthi, which was the 21st of April, as universally agreed. The Romans add that about the time Romulus started to build the city, an eclipse of the Sun was observed by Antimachus, the Teian poet, on the 30th day of the lunar month. This eclipse on June 25, 745 BC (see above) had a magnitude of 54.6% at Teos, Asia Minor. It started at 17:49 it was still eclipsed at sunset, at 19:20. Romulus vanished in the 54th year of his life, on the Nones of Quintilis (July), on a day when the Sun was darkened. The day turned into night, which sudden darkness was believed to be an eclipse of the Sun. It occurred on July 17, 709 BC, with a magnitude of 93.7%, beginning at 5:04 and ending at 6:57. (All these eclipse data have been calculated by Prof. Aurél Ponori-Thewrewk, retired director of the Planetarium of Budapest.) Plutarch placed it in the 37th year from the foundation of Rome, on the fifth of our July, then called Quintilis, on "Caprotine Nones," Livy (I, 21) also states that Romulus ruled for 37 years. He was slain by the senate or disappeared in the 38th year of his reign. Most of these have been recorded by Plutarch (Lives of Romulus, Numa Pompilius and Camillus), Florus (Book I, I), Cicero (The Republic VI, 22: Scipio's Dream), Dio (Dion) Cassius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (L. 2). Dio in his Roman History (Book I) confirms our data by telling that Romulus was in his 18th year of age whan he had founded Rome. Therefore, three eclipse records prove that Romulus reigned from 746 BC to 709 BC, and Rome was founded in 745 BC.
Q. Fabius Pictor (c. 250 BC) tells that Roman consuls started for the first time 239 years after Rome's foundation (Enciclopedia Italiana, XIV, 1951: 173). Livy (I, 60) gives almost the same, 240 years for that interval. Polybius, The Histories (III, 22. 1-2) tells that 28 years after the expulsion of the last Roman king (or, in the 28th year, we believe), Xerxes crossed over to Greece, and that event is fixed to 478 BC by two solar eclipses.
According to all these, the a.u.c. system should be handled accordingly, with due precaution.
See also
- List of Latin phrases
Category:Latin phrases
Category:Roman calendar
ja:ローマ建国紀元
Islamic calendar
The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar (also called "Hijri calendar", Arabic التقويم الهجري) is the calendar used to date events in many predominantly Muslim countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Muslim holy days. It is a purely lunar calendar having 12 lunar months in a year of about 354 days. Because this lunar year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year, Muslim holy days, although celebrated on fixed dates in their own calendar, usually shift 11 days earlier each successive solar year, such as a year of the Gregorian calendar. Islamic years are also called Hijra years because the first year was the year during which the Hijra occurred—Muhammad's emigration from Mecca to Medina. Thus each numbered year is designated either H or AH, the latter being the initials of the Latin anno Hegirae (in the year of the Hijra).
Pre-Islamic calendar
The predecessor to the Islamic calendar was a lunisolar calendar in that it used lunar months but was also kept synchronized with the seasons by the insertion of an additional, intercalary, month when required. Whether the intercalary month (Nasi) was added in the spring like that of the Hebrew calendar or in autumn is debatable. It is assumed that the intercalary month was added between the twelfth month (the month of the pre-Islamic Hajj) and the first month (Muharram) of this pre-Islamic year. The two Rabi' months denote grazing and the modern Meccan rainy season (only slightly less arid than normal), which would promote the growth of grasses for grazing, occurs during autumn. These imply a pre-Islamic year beginning near the autumnal equinox. But the rainy season after which these months are named may have been different when the names originated (before Muhammad's time) or the calendar may have been imported from another region which did have such a rainy season. On the other hand, Muhammad forbade the intercalary month (released the calendar from the seasons) near the end of his life, which implies a pre-Islamic year beginning near the vernal equinox because that is when the modern lunar year began during his last year.
Numbering the years
Abraha, a governor of Yemen, then a province of the Christian nation of Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia), attempted to destroy the Kaaba with an army which included an elephant (possibly several). Although the raid was unsuccessful, the elephant so impressed the Meccans that that year became known as the Year of the Elephant, which was also the year that Muhammad was born. (See surat al-Fil.) Although most Muslims equate it with the Western year 570, a minority equate it with 571. Later years were numbered from the Year of the Elephant, whether for the years of the pre-Islamic lunisolar calendar, the lunisolar calendar used by Muhammad before he forbade the intercalary month, or the first few years of the lunar calendar thus created. In 638 (AH 17), the second Caliph Umar began numbering the years of the Islamic calendar from the year of the Hijra, which was postdated AH 1. The first day of the first month (1 Muharram) of that proleptic Islamic year, that is, after the removal of all intercalary months between the Hijra and Muhammad's prohibition of them nine years later, corresponded to July 16, 622 (the actual emigration took place in September). The first surviving attested use of the Hijri calendar is on a papyrus from Egypt in 22 AH, PERF 558.
Months
Each month has either 29 or 30 days, but usually in no discernible order. Traditionally, the first day of each month was the day (beginning at sunset) of the first sighting of the lunar crescent (the hilal) shortly after sunset. If the hilal was not observed immediately after the 29th day of a month, either because clouds blocked its view or because the western sky was still too bright when the moon set, then the day that began at that sunset was the 30th. Such a sighting had to be made by one or more trustworthy men testifying before a committee of Muslim leaders. Determining the most likely day that the hilal could be observed was a motivation for Muslim interest in astronomy, which put Islam in the forefront of that science for many centuries. This traditional practice is still followed in a few parts of the world, like Pakistan and Jordan. However, in most Muslim countries astronomical rules are followed which allow the calendar to be determined in advance, which is not the case using the traditional method. Malaysia, Indonesia, and a few others begin each month at sunset on the first day that the moon sets after the sun (moonset after sunset). In Egypt, the month begins at sunset on the first day that the moon sets at least five minutes after the sun.
The official Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia used a substantially different astronomical method until recent years [http://www.jas.org.jo/sau.html]. Before AH 1420 (before April 18, 1999), if the moon's age at sunset in Riyad was at least 12 hours, then the day ending at that sunset was the first day of the month. This often caused the Saudis to celebrate holy days one or even two days before other Muslim countries, including the dates for the Hajj, which can only be dated using Saudi dates because it is performed in Mecca. During one memorable year during the AH 1380s (the 1970s), different Muslim countries ended the fast of Ramadan on each of four successive days! The celebrations became more uniform beginning in AH 1420. For AH 1420-22, if moonset occurred after sunset at Mecca, then the day beginning at that sunset was the first day of a Saudi month, essentially the same rule used by Malaysia, Indonesia, and others (except for the location from which the hilal was observed). Since the beginning of AH 1423 (March 16, 2002), the rule has been clarified a little by requiring the geocentric conjunction of the sun and moon to occur before sunset, in addition to requiring moonset to occur after sunset at Mecca. This ensures that the moon has moved past the sun by sunset, even though the sky may still be too bright immediately before moonset to actually see the crescent. Strictly speaking, the Umm al-Qura calendar is intended for civil purposes only. Their makers are well aware of the fact that the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent (hilāl) can occur up to two days after the date calculated in the Umm al-Qura calendar. Since AH 1419 (1998/99) several official hilāl sighting committees have been set up by the government of Saudi Arabia to determine the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent at the begin of each lunar month. Nevertheless, the religious authorities of Saudi Arabia also allow the testimony of less experienced observers and thus often announces the sighting of the lunar crescent on a date when none of the official committees could see the lunar crescent. In nearly all of these cases, a retrospective analysis indicates that these extremely early reports of the lunar crescent are impossible and are based on false sightings.
The moon sets progressively later than the sun for locations further west, thus western Muslim countries are more likely to celebrate some holy day one day earlier than an eastern Muslim country.
Microsoft uses the "Kuwaiti algorithm" to convert Gregorian dates to the Islamic ones. It is based on statistical analysis of historical data from Kuwait.
There exists a variation of the Islamic calendar known as the tabular Islamic calendar in which months are worked out by arithmetic rules rather than by observation or astronomical calculation. It has a 30-year cycle in with 11 years are leap years with 355 days instead of 354 days. In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2500 years. It also deviates up to about 1 or 2 days in the short term.
Forbidding intercalary months
In the ninth year after the Hijra, Muslims believe God forbade the intercalary month. This is expressed in the Qur'an (9:36-37):
The number of months with Allah has been twelve months by Allah's ordinance since the day He created the heavens and the earth. Of these four are known as sacred; That is the straight usage, so do not wrong yourselves therein, and fight the Pagans.
Verily the transposing (of a prohibited month) is an addition to Unbelief: The Unbelievers are led to wrong thereby: for they make it lawful one year, and forbidden another year, of months forbidden by Allah and make such forbidden ones lawful. The evil of their course seems pleasing to them. But Allah guideth not those who reject Faith.
This prohibition was repeated by Muhammad during his last sermon on Mount Arafat which was delivered during his farewell pilgrimage to Mecca on 9 Dhu al-Hijja AH 10 (this paragraph is often deleted from the sermon by its modern editors as now unimportant):
O People, the unbelievers indulge in tampering with the calendar in order to make permissible that which Allah forbade, and to forbid that which Allah has made permissible. With Allah the months are twelve in number. Four of them are holy, three of these are successive and one occurs singly between the months of Jumada and Shaban.
The three successive holy months are Dhu al-Qada, Dhu al-Hijja, and Muharram, thus excluding an intercalary month before Muharram. The single holy month is Rajab.
Names of the Islamic months
The Islamic months are named as follows:
# Muharram ul Haram (or shortened to Muharram) محرّم
# Safar صفر
# Rabi`-ul-Awwal (Rabi' I) ربيع الأول
# Rabi`-ul-Akhir (or Rabi` al-THaany) (Rabi' II) ربيع الآخر أو ربيع الثاني
# Jumaada-ul-Awwal (Jumaada I) جمادى الأول
# Jumaada-ul-Akhir (or Jumaada al-THaany) (Jumaada II) جمادى الآخر أو جمادى الثاني
# Rajab رجب
# Sha'aban شعبان
# Ramadan رمضان
# Shawwal شوّال
# Zil Khad ذو القعدة (or Thw al-Qi`dah)
# Zil Hijjah ذو الحجة (or Thw al-Hijjah)
Of all the months in the Islamic calendar, Ramadan is the most sacred, during the daytime of which no Muslim may eat food or drink liquid, except for those who are ill or traveling, who must make up the days missed later. Daytime begins at dawn, traditionally when a white thread can be distinguished from a black thread, but now often equated with astronomical dawn, which occurs when the center of the sun is 18° below the eastern geometric horizon. It ends at sunset, when the entire disk of the sun has gone below the actual western horizon, even if substantially elevated above the ideal horizon by mountains.
Names of the days of the week
The Islamic week is derived from the Jewish week, as was the medieval Christian week, all of which have numbered weekdays in common. All three coincide with the Sunday through Saturday planetary week. The Islamic and Jewish weekdays begin at sunset, whereas the medieval Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight. Muslims gather for worship at a Masjid or mosque at noon on "gathering day", which corresponds to the sixth day of the Jewish and medieval Christian weeks, and to Friday of the planetary week.
# yaum as-sabt يوم السَّبْت (sabbath day)
# yaum al-ahad يوم الأحد (first day)
# yaum al-ithnayn يوم الإثنين (second day)
# yaum ath-thalatha' يوم الثُّلَاثاء (third day)
# yaum al-arba`a' يوم الأَرْبعاء (fourth day)
# yaum al-khamis يوم الخَمِيس (fifth day)
# yaum al-jum`a يوم الجُمْعَة (gathering day)
Sacred days
Important dates in the Islamic (Hijri) year are:
- 1 Muharram (Islamic new year)
- 10 Muharram (Day of Aashurah, a day of mourning for Shia Muslims and the flight of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt and Pharo's oppression to the Blessed Land for Sunni Muslims)
- 27 Rajab (Isra and Miraj)
- 15 Shabaan (Shab-e-Br'aat)
- 1 Ramadhan (first day of fasting)
- 17 Ramadhan (Nuzul Al-Qur'an) (Malaysia only; often 27 Ramadhan elsewhere)
- 19-22 Ramadan (Shia Muslims mourn the death of Imam Ali.
- Last 10 days of Ramadhan which include Laylat al-Qadr
- 1 Shawwal (Eid ul-Fitr)
- 8-10 Thw al-Hijjah (the Hajj to Makkah)
- 10 Thw al-Hijjah (Eid ul-Adha).
Current correlations
Portions of the Islamic calendar years 1424 and 1425 occur in the Gregorian calendar year 2004. January 1, 2004 is 8 Dhu al-Qa'da 1424 AH. 1 Muharram 1425 AH is February 22, 2004.
For a very rough estimate, multiply the Islamic year number by 0.97, and then add 622 to get the Gregorian year number.
The Islamic calendar year of 1429 occurs entirely within the Gregorian calendar year of 2008. Such years occur once every 33 or 34 Islamic years (32 or 33 Gregorian years).
More are listed here:
External links
- [http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/islamyear_en.htm Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar)]
- [http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/mecca/ummalqura.htm The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia]
- [http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~jkatz/The%20Islamic%20Jewish%20Calendar.pdf Correspondence between Hebrew and Islamic calendars, months and holidays (pdf)]
Category:Islam
Category:Specific calendars
ms:Takwim Hijrah
ja:ヒジュラ暦
th:ปฏิทินฮิจญ์เราะหฺ
Decade:For other uses of the term, see decade (disambiguation).
This is a list of decades which have articles with more information about them. See also centuries and history.
During the 20th Century and continuing today it became popular to look at that century's decades as historical entities in themselves. Particular trends, styles, and attitudes would be associated with and define different decades of the century, and thus the names of the decades themselves have come to be synonymous with them. Some commentators suggest that this phenomenon will not continue into the 21st Century with its decades.
ja:10年紀
simple:Decade
Category:Decades
EON
The EON, officially the EON Cyber Account, is an electronic savings account offered by Union Bank of the Philippines, or UnionBank. It is a savings account, a checking account, and a debit card all in one and has two firsts attributed to its name in terms of two things: first, it is the first electronic savings account in the Philippines, and second, it is a technologival marvel in the Philippine setting.
The EON project essentially made UnionBank well-known for its technological advances. At present, UnionBank has over 178,000 EON account holders.
History
The EON project is related to the Internet savings accounts offered in the United States at the time, which permitted 24-hour account access from anywhere in the world. Today, this has become the popular product known as online banking and encompasses various types of deposits.
online banking
EON was launched in June 2000 as the Philippines' first true cyber account. Other than balance inquiries and bill payments over the Internet, the EON also introduced electronic fund transfers and the electronic cheque. Both are Philippine banking firsts and have thrusted UnionBank into the spotlight, making it known for its technological ingenuity.
On March 29, 2001, the EON added the capabilities of Visa Electron to all its cards. Before this, EON cards were ATM cards with a 13-digit number for use with MegaLink and MegaLink-affiliated ATMs. With the advent of Visa Electron, EON cards became distinct from other products within its type of savings accounts. It became a savings account, a checking account, and a debit card all in one. With Internet shopping capabilities, the EON became the Philippines' first Visa Electron card with such capabilities.
Internet shopping
The EON today
Today, the EON is one of UnionBank's most successful products. Its offerings currently make it different from similar products, which are discussed in the next few paragraphs.
The EON sets it apart from other banks' offerings. While offerings like BPI's Express Cash card and Equitable PCI Bank's Fastcard also exist, the EON differs from these accounts in three ways: first, the EON is a savings account, unlike the Express Cash card and the Fastcard, which are purely debit cards. Second, the EON has guaranteed worldwide acceptance. While this is the case for all of Equitable PCI Bank's cards (the Fastcard and others), the Express Cash card does have international capability (it uses the MasterCard Electronic brand), but due to fears from BPI over the processing of international transactions, the card is recommended only for use in the Philippines (to make sure of this, the card is printed with "Valid only in the Philippines" on the front left side).
Finally, unlike the Fastcard and the Express Cash card, the EON can be used for Internet purchases. Both the Fastcard and the Express Cash card cannot be used for Internet transactions, even if they do bear their respective card brands. This is especially the case for the Express Cash card.
Features and services
The EON has many features and services, of which some are exclusive to it.
When the EON launched in 2000, the following features and services were introduced, and these services remained until today:
- Account access via the Internet
- ATM access (at MegaLink and MegaLink-affiliated ATMs)
- Bill payment
- Electronic fund transfer
- Electronic cheques
When the EON was added with the capabilities of Visa Electron in 2001, the following features were added:
- Internet shopping capabilities
- Use as a worldwide debit card
- Use as a worldwide ATM card (the EON is linked to PLUS)
See also
- Union Bank of the Philippines
External links
- [http://www.unionbankph.com/content.asp?paramID=AMZZZZZZZZ The EON Cyber Account]
Category:Debit cards
LustrumLustrum was a sacrifice for expiation and purification offered by one of the censors of Rome in name of the Roman people at the close of the taking of the census, and which took place after a period of five years, so that the name came to denote a period of that length.
Millennium
__NOTOC__
A millennium is a period of time, literally equal to one thousand years (from Latin mille, thousand, and annum, year). The term may implicitly refer to calendar millennia; periods tied numerically to a particular dating system, specifically ones that begin at the starting (initial reference) point of the calendar in question (typically the year 0 or the year 1) or in later years which are whole number multiples of a thousand years after it. This concept is the one primarily discussed in this article.
The term can also refer to an interval of time beginning on any date. Frequently in the latter case (and sometimes also in the former) it may have religious or theological implications (see Millenarianism). Especially in religious usage such an interval may be interpreted less precisely, being not necessarily exactly 1,000 years long.
In the common Western calendar, which lacks a year numbered zero and begins instead with the year 1, there are two main viewpoints about naming millennia. There was a popular debate leading up to the celebrations of the year 2000 as to whether 2000 was the beginning of a new millennium. Historically, there has been debate around the turn of previous decades, centuries, and millennia.
Counting years
Ordinal
The original method of counting years was ordinal, whether 1st year AD or regnal 10th year of King Henry VIII. This ordinal numbering is still present in the names of the millennia and centuries, for example 1st Millennium or the 20th century, and sometimes in the names of decades, e.g. 1st decade of the 21st century.
Cardinal
In recent years, most people have moved to counting individual years as cardinal numbers, for example 1945 or 1998. The usage 1999th year AD is no longer found. This follows scientific usage, for example astronomical year numbering. As a result, some other calendar names have also moved to cardinals, e.g. 1980s is an acceptable name for a particular decade. However, 1600s could be understood as either a decade or a century.
Ranges
Although the above change from ordinals to cardinals is incomplete or may never be completed, the main issues arise from the content of the various year ranges. Similar issues affect the contents of decades and centuries.
Those following ordinal year names naturally choose
- 2001-2010 as the current decade
- 2001-2100 as the current century
- 2001-3000 as the current millennium
Those following cardinal year names equally naturally choose
- 2000-2009 as the current decade
- 2000-2099 as the current century
- 2000-2999 as the current millennium
Arbitrariness
As a side-note to the debate on timing of the turn of the millennium, the arbitrariness of the exact date deserves attention. Firstly, the widely-used Gregorian calendar is a (secular) de facto standard, but is based on a significant Christian event, the birth of Jesus; thus the foundation of the calendar has little or no meaning to any non-Christian celebrants. Additionally, the calendar is one amongst many still in use and those used historically. Secondly, adjustments and errors in the calendar (such as Dionysius Exiguus's incorrect calculation of AD 1) make the particular dates we use today arbitrary.
However, given that Gregorian calendar is an accepted standard, it is valid to discuss the significant dates within it, be it the timing of religious festivals (such as the moving date of Easter which Dionysius Exiguus was involved in calculating) or the delineation of significant periods of time, such as the end of a millennium.
Finally, although post-2000 the significance of the debate is greatly diminished, we have only to wait until the turn of the next decade, century or millennium for it to rear its head again.
Viewpoint 1: xx01-xx00
Those holding that the new millennium should be celebrated in the transition from 2000 to 2001 (i.e. December 31 2000), argued that since the Gregorian calendar has no year zero, the millennia should be counted from AD 1. Thus the first period of one thousand complete years would be from the beginning of AD 1 to the end of AD 1000, and the beginning of the second millennium would be celebrated in the transition from 1000 to 1001. The second millennium would then end at the end of the year 2000.
Arthur C Clarke gave this analogy (from a statement received by Reuters): "If the scale on your grocer's weighing machine began at 1 instead of 0, would you be happy when he claimed he'd sold you 10 kg of tea?". Jeopardy! game show host Alex Trebek proudly welcomed his guests and contestants to the "first day of the twenty-first century" on the January 1, 2001 episode.
Viewpoint 2: xx00-xx99
The "year 2000" has also been a popular phrase referring to an often utopian future, or a year when stories in such a future were set, adding to its cultural significance. There was also media and public interest in the Y2K bug. Thus, the populist argument was that the new millennium should begin when the zeroes of 2000 "rolled over", i.e. December 31 1999. People felt that the change of hundred digit in the year number, and the zeros rolling over, created a sense that a new century had begun. This is similar to the common demarcation of decades by their most significant digits, e.g. naming the period 1980 to 1989 as the 1980s or "the eighties". Similarly, it would be valid to celebrate the year 2000 as a cultural event in its own right, and name the period 2000 to 2999 as "the 2000s".
Illustration of years with a 99-00 demarcation (starting AD 1)
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