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Cattle

Cattle

:"Cow" redirects here, for other uses, see Cow (disambiguation).
Cattle (called cows in vernacular usage) are domesticated ungulates, a member of the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. They are raised as livestock for meat (called beef and veal), dairy products (milk), leather and as draught animals (pulling carts, plows and the like). In some countries, such as India, they are subject to religious ceremonies and respect. It is estimated that there are 1.3 billion head of cattle in the world today [http://cattle-today.com/]. Cattle were originally identified by Carolus Linnaeus as three different species. These were Bos taurus, the European cattle, including similar types from Africa and Asia; Bos indicus, the zebu; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and European cattle. More recently these three have increasingly been grouped as one species, sometimes using the names Bos primigenius taurus, Bos primigenius indicus and Bos primigenius primigenius. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between European cattle and zebu but also with yaks, banteng, gaur, and bison, a cross-genera hybrid. For example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only humpless "Bos taurus-type" cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of European cattle, zebu and yak. Cattle cannot successfully be bred with water buffalo or African buffalo. (See aurochs for the history of domestication, and zebu for peculiarities of that group.)

Terminology

zebu The word "cattle" did not originate as a name for bovine animals. It derives from the Latin caput, head, and thus originally meant "unit of livestock" or "one head". The word is closely related to "chattel" (a unit of property) and to "capital" in the sense of "property." Older English sources like King James Version of the Bible refer to livestock in general as cattle, or sometimes the archaic kine (which comes from the same English stem as cow). Additionally other species of the genus Bos are often called cattle or wild cattle. This article refers to the common modern meaning of "cattle", the European domestic bovine. Young cattle are called calves. A young male is called a bull-calf; a young female before she has calved is called a heifer (pronounced "heffer"). Male cattle bred for meat are castrated unless needed for breeding. The castrated male is then called a bullock or steer, unless kept for draft purposes, in which case it is called an ox (plural oxen), not to be confused with the related wild musk ox. If castrated as an adult, it is called a stag. An intact male is called a bull. An adult female over two years of age (approximately) is called a cow. The adjective applying to cattle is bovine. There is no singular equivalent in modern English to cattle other than the various gender and age-specific terms (though "catron" is occasionally seen as a half-serious proposal). Strictly speaking, the singular noun for the domestic bovine is ox: a bull is a male ox and a cow is a female ox. That this was once the standard name for domestic bovines is shown in placenames such as Oxford. But "ox" is no longer used in this general sense, being restricted to the sense given above. Today "cow" is probably the closest to being gender-neutral, although it is usually understood to mean female (females of other animals, such as whales or elephants, are also called cows.) To refer to a specific number of these animals without specifying their gender, it must be stated as (for example) "ten head of cattle." Some Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and Scottish farmers use the term "cattlebeast". "Neat" (horned oxen, from which "neatsfoot oil" comes from), "beef" (young ox) and "beefing" (young animal fit for slaughtering) are obsolete terms. Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the older term beef (plural beeves) is still used to refer to an animal of either gender. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called dairy cows. Herds are counted as, for example, "one hundred head". The term cattle itself is not a plural, but a mass noun. Thus one may refer to some cattle, but not three cattle. The word cow can also be used derogatively, when describing a person, whom one expresses a dislike for. In some countries, such as the UK, this slur is used exclusively for women whereas in others it may be used for both genders.

Biology

|mass noun |- |mass noun |{{Commons|Bos taurus{Wikibooks|Raising Cattle

Cow (disambiguation)

Cow may refer to:
- Cattle regardless of sex (in vernacular usage).
- The COW programming language, an esoteric programming language. COW may refer to:
- Can of worms
- Casualty of War
- Cell On Wheels
- City of Westminster
- Cluster of Workstations
- Coalition of the Willing
- Computer Originated World, referring to the globe ID the BBC1 TV network used from 1985 to 1991
- Code Optimization Ware, as used in the game Tron 2.0
- Cold work
- College of Wooster
- Commanding Officer's Wife
- Copy-on-write
- Cost of war
- Crude oil washing

Domestication

Domesticated animals, plants, and other organisms are those whose collective behavior, life cycle, or physiology has been altered as a result of their breeding and living conditions being under human control for multiple generations. Humans have brought these populations under their care for a wide range of reasons: for help with various types of work, to produce food or valuable commodities (such as wool, cotton, or silk), and to enjoy as pets or ornamental plants. In a related way the notion of domestication is used in domestication theory that describes the process of the 'taming' or appropriation of technology by its users.

Process of domestication

There is debate within the scientific community over how the process of domestication works. Some researchers give credit to natural selection, wherein mutations outside of human control make some members of a species more compatible to human cultivation or companionship. Others have shown that carefully controlled selective breeding is responsible for many of the collective changes associated with domestication. These categories are not mutually exclusive and it is likely that natural selection and selective breeding have both played some role in the processes of domestication throughout history. The domestication of wheat provides an example of how natural selection and mutation can play a key role in the process. Wild wheat falls to the ground to reseed itself when it is ripe, but domesticated wheat stays on the stem when it is ripe. There is evidence that this critical change came about as a result of a random mutation near the beginning of wheat's cultivation. Wheat with this mutation was much more useful to farmers and became the basis for the various strains of domesticated wheat that have since been developed. The example of wheat has led some to speculate that mutations may have been the basis for other early instances of domestication. It is speculated that a mutation made some wolves less wary of humans. This allowed these wolves to start following humans to scavenge for food in their garbage dumps. Presumably something like a symbiotic relationship developed between humans and this population of wolves. The wolves benefited from human food scraps, and humans may have found that the wolves could warn them of approaching enemies, help with hunting, carry loads, provide warmth, or supplement their food supply. As this relationship evolved, humans eventually began to raise the wolves and breed the types of dogs that we have today. Nonetheless, some researchers maintain that selective breeding rather than mutation or natural selection best explains how the process of domestication typically worked. Some of the most well-known evidence in support of selective breeding comes from an experiment by Russian scientist, Dmitri Belyaev, in the 1950s. His team spent many years breeding the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes) and selecting only those individuals that showed the least fear of humans. Eventually, Belyaev's team selected only those that showed the most positive response to humans. He ended up with a population of grey fox whose behavior and appearance was significantly changed. These foxes no longer showed any fear of humans and often wagged their tails and licked their human caretakers to show affection. Despite the success of this experiment, it is clear that selective breeding cannot always achieve domestication. Attempts to domesticate several kinds of wild animals in this way have failed repeatedly. The zebra is one example. The historical process of domestication cannot be fully explained by any one principle acting alone. Some combination of natural selection and selective breeding has played a role in the domestication of the various species that humans have come into close contact with throughout history.

Domestication of animals

According to physiologist Jared Diamond, animal species must meet six criteria in order to be considered for domestication: #Flexible diet — Creatures that are willing to consume a wide variety of food sources and can live off less cumulative food from the food pyramid are less expensive to keep in captivity. Most carnivores can only be fed meat, which requires the expenditure of many herbivores. #Reasonably fast growth rate — Fast maturity rate compared to the human life span allows breeding intervention and makes the animal useful within an acceptable duration of caretaking. Large animals such as elephants require many years before they reach a useful size. #Ability to be bred in captivity — Creatures that are reluctant to breed when kept in captivity do not produce useful offspring, and instead are limited to capture in their wild state. Creatures such as the panda and cheetah are difficult to breed in captivity. #Pleasant disposition — Large creatures that are aggressive toward humans are dangerous to keep in captivity. The African buffalo has an unpredictable nature and is highly dangerous to humans. #Temperament which makes it unlikely to panic — A creature with a nervous disposition is difficult to keep in captivity as they will attempt to flee whenever they are startled. The gazelle is very flighty and it has a powerful leap that allows it to escape an enclosed pen. #Modifiable social hierarchy — Social creatures that recognize a hierarchy of dominance can be raised to recognize a human as its pack leader. A herding instinct arguably aids in domesticating animals: tame one and others will follow, regardless of chiefdom.

Domestication of plants

Given agriculture's importance to humans, the domestication of plants is even more important than the domestication of animals. Plants were first domesticated around 9000 BC in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. The first plants domesticated were generally annuals with large seeds or fruits. These included certain pulses such as peas and grains such as wheat. Reflecting human cultural proclivity to alter consciousness, plants with psychoactive properties were also domesticated early, such as the opium poppy, the cannabis plant and grapes for fermenting into wine. The Middle East was especially suited to these species; the dry climate was conducive to large seeds, and the variety of elevations led to a great variety of species. As it took place humans began to move from a nomadic hunter-gatherer society to a settled agricultural society. This change would eventually lead, some 4000 to 5000 years later, to the first city states and eventually the rise of civilization itself. Domestication was gradual, a process of trial and error that occurred slowly. Over time perennials and small trees began to be domesticated including apples and olives. Some plants were not domesticated until recently such as the macadamia nut and the pecan. In different parts of the world very different species were domesticated. In the Americas squash, maize, and beans formed the core of the diet. In East Asia rice, and soy were the most important crops. Some areas of the world such as Australia never saw local species domesticated. Over the millennia many domesticated species have become utterly unlike their natural ancestors. Corn cobs are now dozens of times the size of their wild ancestors. A similar change occurred between wild strawberries and domesticated strawberries. See also: Cultigen

Degrees of domestication

The boundaries between surviving wild populations and domestic clades of elephants, for example, can become vague. This is due to their slow growth. Similar problems of definition arise when, for example, domesticated cats go feral. A classification system that can help solve this confusion might be set up on a spectrum of increasing domestication:
- Wild: These species experience their full life cycles without deliberate human intervention.
- Raised at zoos or botanical gardens: These species are nurtured and sometimes bred under human control, but remain as a group essentially indistinguishable in appearance or behavior from their wild counterparts. (It should be noted that zoos and botanical gardens sometimes exhibit domesticated or feral animals and plants such as camels, dingoes, mustangs, and some orchids.)
- Raised commercially: These species are ranched or farmed in large numbers for food, commodities, or the pet trade, but as a group they are not substantially altered in appearance or behavior. Examples include the ostrich, deer, alligator, cricket, pearl oyster, and ball python. (These species are sometimes referred to as partially domesticated.)
- Domesticated: These species or varieties are bred and raised under human control for many generations and are substantially altered as a group in appearance or behavior. Examples include dogs, sheep, cattle, chickens, guinea pigs and laboratory mice. This classification system does not account for several complicating factors: genetically modified organisms, feral populations, and hybridization. Many species that are farmed or ranched are now being genetically modified. This creates a unique category because it alters the organisms as a group but in ways unlike traditional domestication. Feral organisms are members of a population that was once raised under human control, but is now living and multiplying outside of human control. Examples include mustangs and probably the Australian dingo. Hybrids can be wild, domesticated, or both: a liger is a hybrid of two wild animals, a mule is a hybrid of two domesticated animals, and a beefalo is a cross between a wild and a domestic animal. A great difference exists between a tame animal and a domesticated animal. The term "domesticated" refers to an entire species or variety while the term "tame" can refer to just one individual within a species or variety. Humans have tamed many thousands of animals that have never been truly domesticated. These include the elephant, giraffes, and bears. There is debate over whether some species have been domesticated or just tamed. Some state that the elephant has been domesticated, while others argue the cat has never been. One dividing line is whether a specimen born to wild parents would differ in behavior from one born to domesticated parents. For instance a dog is certainly domesticated because even a wolf (genetically the origin of all dogs) raised from a pup would be very different from a dog.

History of domestication

The earliest known domestic animal seems to probably have been the dog, possibly as early as 10000 BC in the Natufian culture of the Levant. However there is evidence of an association between humans and wolves going back 150000 years. Also some early evidence of beekeeping, in the form of rock paintings, dates to 13,000 BC. The next three - the goat, sheep and pig - were domesticated around 8000 BC, all in Asia. However, there is recent archaeological evidence from Cyprus of domestication of a type of cat by perhaps 7500 BC: this might make the cat second. The earliest evidence of horse domestication (probably in northern Russia) dates to near 4000 BC. Local equivalents and smaller species were domesticated from the 2500s BC. The processes of domestication and the distribution of domesticated species were both radically affected by the establishment of regular contact between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following the voyages of Christopher Columbus. This sudden increase in the transmission of organisms between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres is referred to as the Columbian Exchange.

Approximate dates and locations of first domestication
Species	Date	Location
Dog	10000 BC to 150000 BC	Asia
Sheep	8000 BC	Middle East
Goat	8000 BC	Middle East
Pig	8000 BC	China
Cow	8000 BC	Egypt or Sub-sahara [http://www.comp-archaeology.org/WendorfSAA98.html]
Horse	4000 BC	Ukraine
Donkey	4000 BC	Egypt
Water buffalo	4000 BC	China
Honeybee	4000 BC	Southern Asia
Chicken	3500 BC	Southeast Asia
Cat	3500 BC to 7500 BC	Egypt or Cyprus
Llama	3500 BC	Peru
Alpaca	3500 BC?	Peru?
Silkworm	3000 BC	China
Bactrian camel	2500 BC	Central Asia
Dromedary (Arabian camel)	2500 BC	Arabia
Turkey	100	Mexico
Guinea pig	900	Peru
Rabbit	1500	Europe
Fox	1800s	Europe
Mink	1800s	Europe
Hamster	1930s	United States
Deer	1970s	New Zealand

Obviously, these are not dates that are set in stone. In fact, these dates are possibly far from being accurate due to scanty evidence. The earliest estimates, however, are that animals started to be domesticated approximately 10,000 years ago (8000 B.C).

Limits of domestication

Despite long enthusiasm about revolutionary progress in farming, few crops and probably even fewer animals ever became domesticated. While the process continues with plants (berryfruits, for example), it appears to have ceased with animals. Domesticated species, when bred for tractability, companionship or ornamentation rather than for survival, can often fall prey to disease: several sub-species of apples or cattle, for example, face extinction; and many dogs with very respectable pedigrees appear prone to genetic problems. One side-effect of domestication has been disease. For example, cattle have given humanity various viral poxes, measles, and tuberculosis; pigs gave influenza; and horses the rhinoviruses. Humans share over sixty diseases with dogs. Many parasites also have their origins in domestic animals.

External links

- [http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1499.htm Discussion of animal domestication]
- Guns, Germs and Steel by Jared Diamond (ISBN 0393038912)
- [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2004/0408cats.shtml News story] about an early domesticated cat find
- [http://www.devbio.com/article.php?ch=23&id=223 Belyaev experiment] with the domestic fox
- [http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/domestic.htm Use of Domestic Animals in Zoo Education]
- [http://www.primitivism.com/future-primitive.htm An essay on the effects of domestication on ecology and civilization] Category:Agriculture Category:Biology Category:Domesticated animals Category:Prehistory

Ungulate

s -- "even toed" ungulates]] Ungulates (meaning roughly "hoofed" or "hoofed animal") make up several orders of mammals, of which six to eight survive. There is some dispute as to whether ungulate should be treated as an actual cladistic (evolution-based) group, or merely a phenetic group (similar, but not necessarily related), in light of the fact that all ungulates do not appear to be as closely related as once believed (see below). Ungulates include:
- Artiodactyla: even-toed ungulates, such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, antelope, and many others
- Cetacea: whales and dolphins
- Perissodactyla: odd-toed ungulates such as horses and rhinos
- Proboscidea: elephants
- Sirenia: dugongs and manatees
- Hyracoidea: hyraxes (Disputed:)
- Tubulidentata: aardvarks
- Macroscelidea: Elephant shrew

Relationships

Cetacea and Artiodactyla are thought to be closely related, and to form the Cetartiodactyla. The Hyracoidea, Sirenia and Proboscidea are the Paenungulata. The Tubulidentata are also thought to be Ungulates. The Macroscelidea have been interpreted as Ungulates, and there is dental evidence supporting this interpretation. The Macroscelidea and Tubilidentata have recently been united with the Paenungulata in the Pseudungulata. Suggestions that Cetaceans and Hyracoids are not closest to at least some other ungulates are out of favour, and so is the suggestion that the aardvark is related to South American Xenarthrans. Most large land mammals are ungulates. Ungulate groups represented in the fossil record include the Embrithopods, Demostylians, Mesonychids, Condylarths and various South American and Paleogene lineages. In addition to hooves, ungulates developed reduced canine teeth, bunodont molars (molars with low, rounded cusps), and an astragalus (one of the ankle bones at the end of the lower leg) with a short, robust head. Ungulates diversified rapidly in the Eocene, but are thought to date back as far as the late Cretaceous. Most ungulates are herbivores, but a few are omnivores or even predators: the Mesonychia and whales.

Recent Developments

That these groups of mammal are most closely related to each other has occasionally been questioned on anatomical and genetic grounds. Molecular phylogenetic studies have suggested that Perissodactyla and Cetartiodactyla are closest to Carnivora and Pholidota rather than to the Pseudungulata. The Pseudungulata are by some scientists united with the Afrosoricida in the cohort or super-order Afrotheria based on molecular and DNA analysis. This means they are not related to other ungulates. The extinct South-American ungulates, evolved when the continent was in isolation, are united in the super-order Meridiungulata. They are by some thought to be unrelated to the other ungulates. Instead, they are united with the Afrotheria and the Xenarthra in the supercohort Atlantogenata. The position of other extinct ungulates is unclear. Embrithopods, Desmostylians and other related groups are seen as relatives of the Paenungulata, thus members of the Afrotheria. The Condylarths are, as a result, no longer seen as the ancestors of all ungulates. Instead, it is now believed the condylarths are members of the cohort Laurasiatheria. So it seems that, of all the ungulates, only the Perissiodacyla and Artiodactyla descended from the condylarths. As a result of all this, it seems the typical Ungulate morphology originated three times independantly: in the Meridiungulata, the Afrotheria and the "true" ungulates in the Laurasiatheria. A great example of convergent evolution. This is met with scepticism by some scientists, who say there is no morphological evidence to split the ungulates up in so many unrelated clades.

Bovinae

Bovini
Boselaphini
Strepsicerotini The biological subfamily Bovinae includes a diverse group of about 24 species of medium-sized to large ungulates, including domestic cattle, Bison, the Water Buffalo, the Yak, and the four-horned and spiral-horned antelopes. The evolutionary relationship between the members of the group is obscure, and their classification into loose tribes rather than formal sub-groups reflects this uncertainty. The Boselaphini or four-horned antelope tribe are the last survivors of a form very similar to that of the ancestors of the entire subfamily. Both species have relatively primitive anatomical and behavioural characteristics and the females have no horns. They are native to the rapidly diminishing forests of India, and tend to avoid open plains. The Nilgai has been introduced into southern Texas where a population of a little under 10,000 animals provides some long-term insurance for its survival. The Bovini tribe is made up of large to very large grazers, including large animals of great economic significance to humans in Domestic Cattle, Water Buffalo, and the Yak, as well as smaller Asian relatives, and large free-roaming bovids in the African Buffalo and the American Bison. Where the Boselaphini and Bovini are mostly Asian, members of the Strepsicerotini tribe, the spiral-horned antelopes, are found only in Africa. This group tends to large size, a lighter build, longer necks and considerable sexual dimorphism. Seven of the 9 species are of conservation concern, being classified as lower-risk, conservation dependent, the remaining two, the Common Eland and the Giant Eland are secure. In some countries, bovinae are used as food. In Europe and North America, cows are raised for human consumption. Some of the largest cow breeding areas in the United States are Texas, Oklahoma and Montana. In some countries, bovinae are considered sacred. One of these countries is India, where the cow is considered a sacred animal.
- FAMILY BOVIDAE
- Subfamily Bovinae
- Tribe Boselaphini
- Genus Tetracerus
-
- Four-horned Antelope, Tetracerus quadricornis
- Genus Boselaphus
-
- Nilgai or Bluebuck, Boselaphus tragocamelus
- Tribe Bovini
- Genus Bubalus
-
- Water Buffalo, Bubalus arnee
-
- Lowland Anoa, Bubalus depressicornis
-
- Mountain Anoa, Bubalus quarlesi
-
- Tamaraw, Bubalus mindorensis
- Genus Bos
-
- Aurochs, Bos primigenius, extinct
-
- Banteng, Bos javanicus
-
- Gaur, Bos frontalis
-
- Yak, Bos mutus
-
- Domestic Cattle, Bos taurus, Bos indicus (today often counted as B. primigenius)
-
- Kouprey, Bos sauveli
- Genus Pseudoryx
-
- Saola, Pseudoryx nghetinhensis
- Genus Syncerus
-
- African Buffalo, Syncerus caffer
- Genus Bison
-
- American Bison, Bison bison
-
- Wisent, Bison bonasus
-
- Steppe Wisent, Bison priscus, extinct
- Tribe Strepsicerotini
- Genus Tragelaphus
-
- Sitatunga, Tragelaphus spekeii
-
- Nyala, Tragelaphus angasii
-
- Bushbuck, Tragelaphus scriptus
-
- Mountain Nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni
-
- Lesser Kudu, Tragelaphus imberbis
-
- Greater Kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros
-
- Bongo, Tragelaphus eurycerus
- Genus Taurotragus
-
- Common Eland, Taurotragus oryx
-
- Giant Eland, Taurotragus derbianus
- Subfamily Cephalophinae: duikers, 19 species in 2 genera
- Subfamily Hippotraginae: grazing antelopes. 23 species in 11 genera
- Subfamily Antilopinae: gazelles, dwarf antelopes and the Saiga, 38 species in 14 genera
- Subfamily Caprinae: sheep, goats, Musk Ox and allies
- Subfamily Panthalopinae: Chiru The term "bovine," in some cultures, is considered extremely vulgar when used as an insult (i.e., "You bovine!"). See also: Boanthropy Category:Bovids Category:Bovines

Bovidae

Bovinae
Cephalophinae
Hippotraginae
Antilopinae
Caprinae
Reduncinae
Aepycerotinae
Peleinae
Alcelaphinae A bovid is any of almost 140 species of cloven-hoofed mammals belonging to the family Bovidae. The family is widespread, being native to all continents except Australia and Antarctica, and diverse: members include buffalo, bison, antelopes, gazelles, and both wild and domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, and water buffalo. The largest bovids weigh well over a ton and stand 2 metres high at the shoulder; the smallest weigh about 3 kg and stand no taller than a large domestic cat. Some are thick-set and muscular, others lightly built with small frames and long legs. Many species congregate into large groups with complex social structures, but others are mostly solitary. Within their extensive range, they occupy a wide variety of habitat types, from desert to tundra and from thick tropical forest to cliff-faces. All members of the family are herbivorous and have a four-chambered stomach which allows most of them to digest foods that are too low in nutriment for many other animals, notably grasses. No animal is able to directly digest cellulose: like (for example) kangaroos and termites, bovids rely on stomach bacteria to break down cellulose by fermentation. Because of the size and weight of their complex digestive systems, many bovids have a solid, stocky build; the more gracile members of the family tend to have more selective diets, and be browsers rather than grazers. Their canine teeth are either missing or else modified to act as extra incisors. All bovids have a two-toed hoof. All males (and many females) have horns; the size and shape varies greatly but the basic structure is always a single bony protrusion without branches and covered in a sheath of keratin. The family is known through fossil records from the early Miocene. The largest number of modern bovids are found in Africa, with substantial but less diverse populations in Asia and North America. It is thought that many of the bovid species, which evolved in Asia, were unable to survive the sudden advent of a new and unfamiliar predator when humans first emerged from Africa in the late Pleistocene, the African species, on the other hand, had many thousands of years, perhaps a few millions, in which to gradually adapt to the equally gradual development of human hunting skills. It is notable that many of the commonly domesticated bovid species—goats, sheep, water buffalo, the Yak—are of Asian origin: it is believed that the Asian bovids had less fear of humans and were more docile.

image:Mountain-Goat.jpeg
Mountain Goat.

The small number of modern American bovids are relatively recent arrivals over the Bering Land Bridge. All of the large grazing animals native to North America died out immediately after the arrival of the Clovis people about 12,000 years ago. This left a number of ecological niches vacant, and the ancestors of the modern American Bison, Mountain Goat and American Bighorn Sheep moved in to occupy them.
- ORDER ARTIODACTYLA: even-toed ungulates
- Suborder Ruminantia: ruminants
- Family Tragulidae: chrevrotains, 6 species in 4 genera
- Family Moschidae: musk deer, 4 species in one genus
- Family Cervidae: deer, 43 species in 16 genera
- Family Bovidae
- Subfamily Bovinae: cattle and spiral-horned antelopes, 24 species in 9 genera
- Subfamily Cephalophinae: duikers, 19 species in 2 genera
- Subfamily Hippotraginae: grazing antelopes, 6 species in 5 genera
- Subfamily Antilopinae: gazelles, dwarf antelopes and the saiga, 38 species in 14 genera
- Subfamily Caprinae: sheep, goats, 26 species in 12 genera
- Subfamily Reduncinae: reedbucks, lechwe, 8 species in 2 genera
- Subfamily Aepycerotinae: impala, 1 species in 1 genus
- Subfamily Peleinae: rhebok, 1 species in 1 genus
- Subfamily Alcelaphinae: wildebeest, topi/tsessebe, 7 species in 4 genera
- Suborder Suina: pigs and allies
- Suborder Tylopoda: camels and llamas Category:Bovids ja:ウシ科

Livestock

Livestock are domesticated animals intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to make produce such as food or fibre, or for their labour. Livestock include pigs, cows, goats, deer, sheep, yaks and poultry. The type of livestock reared varies worldwide and depends on factors such as climate, consumer demand, native animals, local traditions, and land type. Livestock may be raised for subsistence food or for profit. Raising animals (animal husbandry) is an important component of modern agriculture. It has been practiced in many societies, since the transition to farming from hunter-gather lifestyles.

Origins of Livestock

hunter-gather Animal-rearing has its origins in the transition of societies to settled farming communities rather then hunter-gather lifestyles. Animals are ‘domesticated’ when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans. Over time, the collective behaviour, life cycle, and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild. Goats, sheep, and pig were domesticated around 8000BC in Asia. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BC].

Types of livestock

The term ‘livestock’ is nebulous and may defined narrowly or broadly. Domesticated animals such as include pigs, cows, goats, deer, sheep, donkeys or mules, horses, yaks and chickens are certainly livestock. In addition, camels, llamas, emus, ostriches may be intentionally reared and be ‘livestock’. This definition includes mammals and birds. On a broader view, ‘livestock’ could incorporate the intentional rearing of butterflies [http://butterflywebsite.com/exchange] and honey bees. [http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/er/publications/wolfplan/plan8.htm] [http://www.nhb.org/info-pub/min/BDMIN600.pdf][http://www.ngo.grida.no/soesa/nsoer/general/glossary.htm#L] [http://www.futureharvest.org/about/glossary.shtml#l][http://thomas.loc.gggggggggov/cgi-bin/query/B?r106:@FIELD(FLD003+s)+@FIELD(DDATE+20000322)] [http://www.nhb.org/news/2000/july2000.html]. Taking ‘livestock’ to mean ‘domesticated animal’ could include aquaculture, including fish, mollusks, shrimp or other water-borne invertebrates. By contrast, on a very narrow view, ‘livestock’ refers to red meat animals: cattle and lamb. This article considers ‘livestock’ based on the middle view. The following table summarises types of livestock.

Purpose of Animal Rearing

lamb ‘Livestock’ are defined, in part, by their end purpose as the production of food or fiber, or labour. The economic value of livestock includes: ; Meat: the production of a useful form of dietary protein and energy. ; Dairy products : Mammalian livestock can be used as a source of milk, which can in turn easily be processed into other dairy products such as yogurt, cheese, butter, ice cream, kefir, and kumiss. Using livestock for this purpose can often yield several times the food energy of slaughtering the animal outright. ; Fiber : Livestock produce a range of fiber/textiles. For example, sheep and goats produce wool; cows, deer, and sheep can make leather; and bones, hooves and horns of livestock can be used. ; Fertiliser : Manure can be spread on fields to increase crop yields. This is an important reason why historically, plant and animal domestication have been intimately linked. Manure is also used to make plaster for walls and floors and can be used as a fuel for fires. The blood and bone of animals are also used as fertilizer. ; Labour : Animals such as horses, donkey, and yaks can be used for mechanical energy. Prior to steam power livestock were the only available source of non-human labour. They are still used for this purpose in many places of the world, including ploughing fields, transporting goods, and military functions. ; Land Management : The grazing of livestock is sometimes used as a way to control weeds and undergrowth. For example, in areas prone to wild fires, goats and sheep are set to graze on dry scrub which removes combustible material and reduces the risk of fires. Due to the history of animal husbandry many secondary products have arisen which attempt to increase carcase utilisation. For example, animal offal and non-edible parts can be transformed into products such as stock-feed and fertilizer (see scrapie and prion).

Farming practices

Farming practices vary dramatically world-wide and between types of animals. Livestock are generally kept in an enclosure, are fed by access to natural or human-provided food and are intentionally bred. The type of ‘enclosure’ may vary from a small crate or to a large fenced pasture. The type of feed may vary from natural growing grass, to highly sophisticated processed feed. Animals are usually intentionally bred through artificial insemination or through supervised mating. Indoor production systems are generally used only for pigs and poultry, as well as for veal cattle. Indoor animals are generally farmed intensively, as large space requirements would make indoor farming unprofitable and impossible. However, indoor farming systems are controversial due to: the waste they produce, odour problems, the potential for groundwater contamination and animal welfare concerns. For further discussion on intensively farmed livestock, see factory farming, and intensive pig farming for an illustration. Other livestock are farmed outside, although the size of enclosure and level of supervision may vary. In large open ranges animals may be only occasionally collected in "round-ups" or "musters". Herding dogs such as sheep dogs and cattle dogs may be used for mustering as are cowboys, musterers and jackaroos on horseback or in helicopters. Since the advent of barbed wire (in the 1870s) and electric fencing technology, fencing pastures has become much more feasible and pasture management simplified. In some cases very large numbers of animals may be kept in indoor or outdoor feeding operations (on feedlots), where the animals' feed is processed, offsite or onsite, and stored onsite then fed to the animals. Modern farming techniques seek to minimize human involvement, increase yield, and improve animal health. Economics, quality and consumer safety all play a role in how animals are raised. Drug use and feed supplements (or even feed type) may be regulated, or prohibited, to ensure yield is not increased at the expense of consumer health, safety or animal welfare. Practices vary around the world, for example growth hormone use is permitted in the United States but not in the European Union or in countries selling meat/produce in the EU such as Australia and New Zealand. Livestock may be branded, marked, or tagged to denote ownership or for inventory, breeding, health management, product identification and tracing, or other purposes.

Disease

Livestock diseases compromise animal welfare, reduce productivity, and in extreme cases have animal diseases that can infect humans. Animal diseases may be tolerated; reduced through animal husbandry; or reduced through antibiotics and vaccines. In developing countries animal diseases are tolerated in animal husbandry, resulting in considerably reduced productivity, especially given the low health-status of many developing country herds. Gains in productivity through disease management is often a first step taken in implementing an agriculture policy. Disease management can be achieved through changes in animal husbandry. These measures may aim to control spread by: controlling animal mixing, controlling entry to farm lots and the use of protective clothing, and quarantining sick animals. Disease management may be controlled by the use of vaccines and antibiotics. Antibiotics may also be used as a growth-promotant. The issue of antibiotic resistance has limited the practices of preventative dosing such as antibiotic-laced feed. Countries will often require the use of veterinary certificates are often required before transporting, selling or showing animals. Disease-free areas are often rigorously enforced, and may be notified to the OIE.

Livestock transportation and marketing

Since many livestock are herd animals, they were historically driven to market "on the hoof" to a town or other central location. During the period after the American Civil War, the abundance of Longhorn cattle in Texas and the demand for beef in Northern markets led to the popularity of the Old West cattle drive. This method is still used in some parts of the world. Truck transport is now common in developed countries. Local and regional livestock auctions and commodity markets facilitate trade in livestock. In other areas livestock may be bought and sold in a bazaar, such as may be found in many parts of Central Asia, or a flea market type setting such as the First Monday Trade Days in Canton, Texas.

Stock shows and fairs

Stock shows and fairs are events where people bring their best livestock to compete with one another. Organizations like 4-H and Future Farmers of America encourage young people to raise livestock for show purposes. Special feeds are purchased and hours may be spent prior to the show grooming the animal to look its best. In cattle, sheep, and swine shows, the winning animals are frequently auctioned off to the highest bidder and the funds placed into a scholarship fund for its owner. The movie Grand Champion, released in 2004, is the story of a young Texas boy's experience raising a prize steer.

Animal welfare and rights

The intensive rearing of livestock has led to practices that some people consider repugnant and unethical. This has resulted in laws that specify minimum welfare levels and in political campaigns by those who wish to see them extended. Animal welfare groups campaign for tighter laws and more enforcement. Animal rights groups may go even further and seek the end to all exploitation of livestock. Animal husbandry practices that have led to legislation in some countries and that may be the subject of current campaigns
- Confinement of livestock in small and unnatural spaces: : For economic reasons animals may be kept in the minimum size of cage or pen with no space to turn or exercise. Mostly applied to chickens and pigs.
- Restricted and unnatural diets: : Feed companies produce pellet-feed with little visibility of its contents or origin or both. This led to herbivores being fed the processed protein of other animals and including their own species and led directly to BSE.
- Unnatural living environments: : Even when allowed to move, animals may be denied environment essential to their health. For example ducks may be kept in free-range barns but have no access to water in which to swim.
- Gratuitous use of pharmaceuticals and hormones: : The stressful conditions in which some livestock are kept, in turn, leads to a deterioration of their health and the necessary large-scale use of antibiotics to prevent disease. Antibiotics and hormones are also fed to livestock simply to produce rapid weight gain.
- Overwork and exhaustion of animals: : Where livestock are used as a source of power they may be pushed beyond their limits to the point of exhaustion. The public visibility of this abuse meant it was one of the first areas to receive legislation in the nineteenth century in European countries but it still goes on in parts of Asia.
- Unwarranted modification to the bodies of living animals: : Broiler hens may be de-beaked, pigs have teeth pulled, cattle de-horned and branded, dairy cows have tails cropped, merino sheep mulesed, many types of male animals castrated.
- Long distance transportation of livestock: : The advent of the railway, ship and road transport have meant that to find the best price the farmer may send livestock long distances to market and slaughter. Overcrowded conditions, heat from tropical-area shipping and lack of food, water and rest breaks have been subject to legislation and protest. (See Live Export)
- Slaughter of livestock: : Slaughter was an early target for legislation. Campaigns continue to target Halal and Kosher religious ritual slaughter.

Environmental impact

Livestock can have an enormous impact on its local environment. Since livestock is often kept in huge numbers, or unnaturally concentrated numbers, their most basic needs can place huge burdens on ecosystems. The most obvious problem is with their waste matter. If improperly handled it can seep into groundwater with devastating results. Browsing species, such as goats, sheep and deer can completely defoliate certain areas, destroying rare plants and the animals that depend on them and sometimes leading to erosion. Most environmental impacts can be eliminated or lessened by regulating the numbers of animals in a given area and by other animal husbandry techniques.

Notes

#For example, in the Book of Genesis, Jacob gave the following as a peace offering to his estranged brother Esau: "Two hundred female goats, twenty male goats, two hundred ewes, twenty rams, thirty milk camels with their colts, forty cows, ten bulls, twenty female donkeys and ten foals". #Livestock are among the most docile animals on earth. Bovine, an English word meaning "cow-like", also means "dull, sluggish, and patient".

External links

- [http://www.asas.org American Society of Animal Science]
- [http://www.hlsr.com/ Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo]
- [http://www.nlpa.org/ National Livestock Producers Association]
- [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/ Oklahoma State University Breeds of Livestock Resource]
- [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/library/ Oklahoma State University Virtual Livestock Library]
- [http://dmoz.org/Business/Agriculture_and_Forestry/Livestock/ Open Directory category: livestock]
- [http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/farmanimals/farm.htm USDA Animal Welfare Information Center Farm Animals Page]
- Category:Animal liberation movement zh-min-nan:Cheng-siⁿ

Veal

Veal is the meat of young calves, specifically the male offspring of dairy cattle, and is appreciated for its delicate taste, tender texture and nutritious qualities. Dairy cows must give birth annually to continue producing milk naturally, but male dairy calves are of little value to dairy farmers except as meat. Veal is often associated with Italian, French, German cuisines, as well as cuisines of other middle-European countries. North American consumers tend to prepare veal dishes for special occasions only.

Controversy

Veal calves are traditionally raised by restricting their physical movement in order to minimize the growth of tough muscle fibre and to keep their flesh white and tender. The finest veal meat comes from calves still unweaned. Because of the short, restricted lives of veal calves, veal farming is used by animal rights activists and others as an example of the cruelty of modern factory farming in order to further their agenda. Such activists ignore that the basic method of veal production dates back hundreds of years. In the United Kingdom, where the animal rights agenda has had significant success, traditional use of veal has become rare for this reason. A health risk which has come to be associated with modern veal farming is that of drug residues in veal. Less ethical farmers have been known to compensate for stressful, unhealthy living conditions by administering tranquilising medication and high levels of antibiotics to the calves. Another ethical gray area is the administering of growth hormones to calves in order to produce more meat. In practice, living conditions for veal calves vary greatly, with many modern farms providing clean, well-lit and -ventilated environments, with enough room for calves to stand, stretch, groom themselves and lay down in a natural position. As veal calves are typically at risk of becoming anaemic—resulting in weakness and loss of appetite—modern farmers also often feed calves a carefully controlled, iron-rich diet.

Links and references

- [http://www.vealfarm.com/industry-info/faqs.asp Frequenty Asked Questions] of the American Veal Farming Industry
- An article on [http://www.freefarmanimals.org/vc_intro.htm Veal Crates] by FreeFarmAnimals.org
- [http://www.noveal.org/ "Say No to Veal"]: NoVeal.org
- [http://beef-mag.com/mag/beef_thinking_outside_box/ Thinking Outside the Box] an article about Dutch veal farming from Beef magaizine. Category:Meat

Dairy product

Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk. A production plant for such processing is called a dairy. Raw milk for processing generally comes from cows, but occasionally from other mammals such as goats, sheep, water buffalo, yaks, or horses. horse There are more than 30 main products made from milk with a number of sub-products in each category. Dairy products include:
- Milk, after optional homogenization, pasteurization, in several grades after standardization of the fat level
- Cream, the fat skimmed off the top of milk or separated by machine-centrifuges
- Sour cream, cream that has been fermented by the bacteria Streptococcus lactis and Leuconostoc citrovorum
- Crème fraîche, slightly fermented cream
- Cultured buttermilk, fermented concentrated (water removed) milk using the same bacteria as sour cream
- Milk powder (or powdered milk), produced by removing the water from milk
- Whole milk & buttermilk
- Skim milk
- Cream
- High milk-fat & nutritional powders (for infant formulas)
- Cultured and confectionary powders
- Condensed milk, milk which has been concentrated by evaporation, often with sugar added for longer life in an opened can
- Evaporated milk, (less concentrated than condensed) milk without added sugar
- Khoa
- Infant formula, dried milk powder with specific additives for feeding human infants
- Butter, mostly milk fat, produced by churning cream
- Buttermilk, the liquid left over after producing butter from cream, often dried as stock food
- Butter cream?
- Ghee, clarified butter, by gentle heating of butter and removal of the solid matter
- Anhydrous milkfat
- Cheese, produced by coagulating milk, separating from whey and letting it ripen, generally with bacteria and sometimes also with certain molds
- Curds, the soft curdled part of milk (or skim milk) used to make cheese (or casein)
- Whey, the liquid drained from curds and used for further processing or as a stock food
- Cottage cheese
- Cream cheese, produced by the addition of cream to milk and then curdled to form a rich curd or cheese made from skim milk with cream added to the curd
- Fromage frais
- Casein
- Caseinates
- Milk protein concentrates and isonates
- Whey protein concentrates and isonates
- Hydrolysates
- Mineral concentrates
- Yogurt, milk fermented by Streptococcus salivarius ssp. thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus sometimes with additional bacteria, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus
- Ayran
- Lassi
- Gelato, slowly frozen milk and water
- Ice cream, slowly frozen cream and emulsifying additives
- Ice milk
- Frozen custard
- Frozen yogurt, yogurt with emulsifiers that is frozen
- Other
- Kumiss/Airag
- Viili
- Kajmak
- Kephir
- Filmjölk
- Piimä Got Milk? is an international organization supporting dairy products, especially milk.

History

Most dairy products were developed in Europe, the Middle East and Africa; the people of these continents have traditionally been the most active in terms of exploiting cattle as a primary food source. Dairy products were exported to the rest of the world during the 16th and 17th centuries. They are now universally popular, despite the fact that the majority of the human species cannot consume them in adulthood without embarassing side effects. See lactose intolerance.

Eggs as dairy?

eggs and milk products are in some circumstances grouped together under the heading of dairy. For example, the Open Directory Project at one point listed cooking eggs as a subcategory of cooking dairy products. However, dictionary definitions of "dairy" are limited to milk products and, as a result, will always exclude eggs and egg products.

Beef as dairy?

Although milk comes from cows, beef is not considered a dairy product. Dairy products are considered to be vegetarian while beef, as meat, is not.

External links

- [http://www.gotmilk.com/ Got Milk?]
- [http://www.moomilk.com MooMilk.com -- Dairy Industry information for children and dairy professionals]
- [http://www.nzmp.com/cda/frontpage/0,,c400210_g400076,00.html NZMP list of ingrediants manufactured from milk]
- [http://www.food-info.net/uk/qa/dairy.htm Questions and Answers on dairy products]
- [http://www.idswageningen.nl International Dairy School] Category:Nutrition
- ja:乳製品

Leather

Leather is a material created through the tanning of hides, pelts and skins of animals, primarily cows. Leather was a very important clothing material, and its other uses were legion. Together with wood, leather formed the basis of much ancient technology. Leather with the fur still attached is simply called fur.

Forms of leather

There are a number of processes whereby the skin of a dead animal can be formed into a supple, strong material commonly called leather.
- Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannin (hence the name "tanning") and other ingredients found in vegetable matter, tree bark, and other such sources. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and the color of the flesh. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water; it tends to discolor, and if left to soak and then dry it will shrink and become less supple and harder. In hot water, it will shrink drastically and plasticize, becoming a rigid, brittle material of little use.
- Alum-tanned leather is tanned using aluminum salts mixed with a variety of binders and protein sources, such as flour, egg yolk, etc. Purists argue that alum-tanned leather is technically "tawed" and not tanned, as the resulting material will rot in water. Very light shades of leather are possible using this process, but the resulting material is not as supple as vegetable-tanned leather.
- Rawhide is made by scraping the skin thin, soaking it in lime, and then stretching it while it dries. Like alum-tanning, rawhide is not technically "leather", but is usually lumped in with the other forms. Rawhide is stiffer and more brittle than other forms of leather, and is primarily found in uses such as drum heads where it does not need to flex significantly; it is also cut up into cords for use in lacing or stitching.
- Boiled leather is a hide product (vegetable-tanned leather) that has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, or in boiled wax or similar substances. Historically, it was used as armour due to its hardness and light weight, but it has also been used for book binding.
- Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and other salts of chromium. It is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather, and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. More esoteric colors are possible using chrome tanning. Leather—usually vegetable-tanned leather—can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil, neatsfoot oil or a similar material, keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically. For further information on the production of leather see tanning.

Leather types

In general, leather is sold in three forms:
- Full-Grain leather, made from the finest raw material, are clean natural hides which have not been sanded to remove imperfections. Only the hair has been removed. The grain remains in its natural state which will allow the best fiber strength, resulting in greater durability. The natural grain also has natural breathability, resulting in greater comfort. The natural Full-Grain surface will wear better than other leather. Rather than wearing out, it will develop a natural "Patina" and grow more beautiful each passing year. The finest furniture, and footwear are made from Full Grain leather.
- Corrected-Grain Leather. Corrected Leather is fuzzy on one side and smooth on the other. The smooth side is the side where the hair and natural grain used to be. The hides, which are made from inferior quality raw materials, have all of the natural grain sanded off, and an artificial grain applied. Top grain leather generally must be heavily painted to cover up the sanding and stamping process.
- Suede is the interior split of the hide. It is "fuzzy" on both sides. Suede is less durable than top-grain. Suede is cheaper because many pieces of suede can be split from a single thickness of hide, whereas only one piece of top-grain can be made. However, as the look of full-grain is in demand, manufacturers use a variety of techniques to make suede appear to be full-grain. For example, in one process, glue is mixed with one side of the suede, which is then pressed through rollers; these flatten and even out one side of the material, giving it the smooth appearance of full-grain. Latigo is one of the trade names for this product. Other less-common leathers include:
- Patent leather is leather that has been given a high gloss finish. The original process was developed by Newark, New Jersey based inventor Seth Boyden in 1818. Modern patent leather usually has a plastic coating.
- Shagreen is a rough and grainy type of untanned leather, formerly made from a horse's back, or that of a wild ass, and typically dyed green. Shagreen is now commonly made of the skins of sharks and rays.
- Buckskin or brained leather is a tawing process that uses animal brains or other fatty materials to alter the leather. The resulting supple suede-like hide is usually smoked heavily to prevent it from rotting. There are two other descriptions of leather commonly used in speciality products, such as briefcases, wallets, and luggage.
- Belting leather is a full grain leather that was originally used in driving pulley belts and other machinery. It is often found on the surface of briefcases, portfolios, and wallets, and can be identified by its thick, firm feel and smooth finish. Belting leather is the only kind of leather used in luxury products that can retain its shape without the need for a separate frame; it is generally a heavy weight of full-grain, vegetable-tanned leather.
- Napa leather, or Nappa leather, is extremely soft and supple, and is commonly found in higher quality wallets, toiletry kits, and other personal leather goods. Leather is sold in a variety of thicknesses. In some parts of the world top-grain thicknesses are described using weight units of ounces. Although the statement is in ounces only, it is an abbreviation of ounces per square foot. The thickness value can be obtained by the conversion:
- 1 oz/ft² = 1/64 inch (0.4 mm) Hence leather described as 7 to 8 oz is 7/64 to 8/64 inches (2.8 to 3.2 mm) thick. The weight is usually given as a range because the inherent variability of the material makes ensuring a precise thickness very difficult. Other leather manufacturers state the thickness directly in millimetres

Leather from other animals

Buckskin] Today, most leather is made of cow hides, but many exceptions exist. Lamb and deer skin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparels. Kangaroo leather is used to make items which need to be strong but flexible, such as motorcycle gloves. Kangaroo leather is favored by motorcyclists specifically because of its lighter weight and higher abrasion resistance as compared to cowhide. Leather made from more exotic skins has at different times in history been considered very beautiful. For this reason certain snakes and crocodiles have been hunted to near extinction. In the 1970s, farming of ostriches for their feathers became popular. As a side product, ostrich leather became available and is currently used by all the big fashion houses like Hermès, Prada and Gucci. Ostrich leather has a characteristic "goose bump" look because of the large follicles from which the feathers grew. In Thailand, sting ray leather is used in wallets and belts in the same way as regular cow leather. Sting ray leather is as tough and durable as hard plastic. The leather is often dyed black and covered with tiny round bumps in the natural pattern of the back ridge of an animal. These bumps are then usually dyed white to highlight the decoration.

Preservation and Conditioning of Leather

The natural fibers of leather will break down as time goes by. Various treatments are available:
- Conditioners

Working with leather

Leather can be decorated by a variety of methods, including:
- leather dying
- leather painting
- leather carving
- leather stamping
- leather embossing
- pyrography
- beading

Leather in modern culture

beading Leather, due to its excellent abrasion and wind resistance, found a use in rugged occupations. The enduring image of a cowboy in leather chaps gave way to the leather-jacketed and leather-helmeted aviator. When motorcycles were invented, some riders took to wearing heavy leather jackets to protect from road rash and wind blast; some also wear chaps or full leather pants to protect the lower body. Leather fetishism is the name popularly used to describe a fetishistic attraction to people wearing leather, or in certain cases, to the garments themselves. There is a thriving Leather subculture in lesbian, gay male, bisexual, transgender, and BDSM culture. A number of rock groups, particularly Heavy Metal groups such as the Scorpions and Judas Priest, are well-known for wearing leather clothing. Many vegetarians and vegans avoid the use of leather, as it is the hide of slaughtered animals, often specifically for this particular use.

Cart

: "Cart" may also mean cartridge. "CART" may mean Championship Auto Racing Teams or Center for Advanced Research and Technology. Center for Advanced Research and Technology Center for Advanced Research and Technology. One man sits by the shafts to ensure the horse pulls against a downward load.]] A cart is a vehicle or device using, usually, two wheels for transport. A dray is a heavy transport version of a cart, usually with four wheels. Hand-carts pushed by humans have been used around the world. In the 19th century, for instance, some Mormons travelling across the plains of the USA between 1857 and 1865 used handcarts. Perhaps the most common example today is the shopping cart (British English: shopping trolley), which has also come to have a metaphorical meaning in relation to online purchases (here, British English uses the metaphor of the shopping basket). Shopping carts first made their appearance in Oklahoma City in 1937. The golf cart, designed to carry golfers and their clubs around a golf course faster and with less effort than walking, is another well known modern type of cart – in this case, self-propelled. Larger carts may be drawn by animals, such as horses, mules, or oxen. They have been in continuous use since the invention of the wheel, in the 5th millennium BC. Carts may be named for the animal that pulls them such as horsecarts or oxcarts. A dogcart, however, was usually a cart designed to carry hunting dogs: an open cart with two cross-seats back to back; the dogs could be penned between the rear-facing seat and the back end. An animal-drawn cart can bear the archaic name of wain, (from the Old English and German root-word for wagon), for example a haywain, and the builders of such vehicles became known as "cartwrights" or "wainwrights". These terms survive as surnames of those descended from those practising these trades. Note too the surname "Carter". Carts have many different shapes but the basic idea of transporting material (or maintaining a collection of materials in a portable fashion) remains. Carts usually have two or four wheels. Those with four wheels (drays or wagons) will often have a pivoting front axle that has a pole connected to the collars or yoke of the two guiding draught animals. The traces from the draught animals are connected to the pivoting axle and then, by chain, to the rear axle. Two-wheeled carts normally have shafts, one along each side of the draught animal that supports the forward-balanced load in the cart. The shafts are supported by a saddle on the horse. The draught traces attach to the axle of the vehicle. In all cases the traces are attached to a collar (on horses), to a yoke (on other heavy draught animals) or to a harness on dogs or other light animals. One-horse carts are common, on the other hand drays are pulled by many animals, as many as 8 or 10 depending on what is being hauled. Traces are made from a range of materials depending on the load and frequency of use. Heavy draught traces are made from iron or steel chain. Lighter traces are often leather and sometimes hemp rope but plaited horse-hair and other, similar, decorative materials can be used. The Dray is often associated with the transport of barrels, particularly of beer. The term "Kart", derived from "cart", refers to a small racing car - also known as a "Go-Kart". A soap-box cart (also known as a Billy Cart, Go-Cart, Trolley etc.) is a popular children's construction project.

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-membe