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CAT

CAT

:See also Cat (disambiguation) The acronym CAT may stand for: #Cable Avoidance Tool #California Achievement Test #Call Any Time #Calling All Troops #Camarillo Area Transit #Cambridge Antibody Technology, the UK biotechnology company #Canadian Association of Transplantation #Canby Area Transit, a public transportation bus service in Canby, Oregon #Canine Agility Team #Capital Acquisitions Tax #Capital Area Transit #Capsule Ariane Technologies #Carboxyatractyloside #Carburetor Air Temperature #Casual American Teenager #Catalan language #Catalonia #Catalunya #Catalyst #Catalytic Converter #Catamaran #Catapult #Cataract #Catastrophe #Catch Airboat Thieves #Catechism #Catenate #Caterpillar #CECOM Accreditation Team #Cellular Action Team #Center for Advanced Technologies #Center for Appropriate Transport #Central African Time #Central Alaska Time #Central Area Transit, the free bus transit system that running in Perth City. #Central Arizona Trails #Central Arkansas Transit #Central Artery-Tunnel #Centre for Alternative Technology, an eco-centre in Wales #Certified Automotive Technician #Change Agent Team #Channel Available Time #Charges, easy Access and fair Terms #Chemical Addition Tank #Chicago Area Theatres #Chromatic Adaptation Transform #Citizens Against Tolls #Citizens Area Transit, public transportation by bus in Clark County, Nevada (Las Vegas) #Citizens' Army Training #Civic Action Team #Civil Air Transport, the airline forerunner of Air America that was formed after World War II by General Claire Lee Chennault of the Flying Tigers #Civil Aviation Tribunal #Civilian Augmented Training #Clear air turbulence, a term in aviation #Clemson Area Transit #Cloud Arrival Time #Cockpit Automation Technology #Cognitive Ability Test #Coital Alignment Technique #Collaborative Access Team #College Ability Test #College of Advanced Technology #Combat AGE Team #Combat Aircraft Technology #Combat Aircrew Training #Combat Application Tourniquet #Combat Auto Theft #Combined Acceptance Trials #Combined Arms Team #Combined Arms Training #Command Action Team #Commodity Action Team #Common Admission Test, a graduate test in India, conducted by the Indian Institutes of Management or by Cochin University of Science and Technology #Common Aptitude Test #Common Authentication Technology #Communications Assist Team #Community Action Team #Compact Audio Technology #Competency Assessment Tool #Complementary Angle Theorem #Compliance Assessment Team #Component Advanced Technology #Computer-adaptive test, a type of test that dynamically adapts to the testee's ability level #Computer-aided tomography #Computer Aided Transceiver, a class of software application and communications interface used for the control of radio transmitting and receiving equipment, especially amateur (ham) radios. #Computer-aided technology #Computer-aided training #Computer-aided transcription #Computer-aided translation #Computer-assisted translation, a form of computer software used to help human translators #Computed axial tomography, a tomographical X-ray technique #Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope, the first telescope to measure fine details in the fireball from the Big Bang #Culture, Art, & Technology, the core writing courses that all Sixth College UC San Diego students are required to take. ja:CAT

Cat (disambiguation)

:See also CAT Cat commonly refers to either:
- the housecat, a domestic pet, Felis silvestris catus
- any member of the broader cat family, containing domestic and wild cats, Felidae Cat may also refer to:
- .cat, a top-level domain
- Cat (Unix), the concatenate program in the Unix operating system
- The Cat (Red Dwarf), a character in the TV show Red Dwarf.
- Cat Glover, dancer and singer, Prince Protege
- Cat Stevens, a singer
- Schrödinger's cat, a thought experiment to demonstrate the incompleteness of quantum mechanics Cat may also be an abbreviation for:
- Category, for example "Cat 5 cable"
- Catalonia An european historic territory
- Catalonia an autonomous communities in Spain
- Catalan language
- Catalytic converter, used in automobiles
- Caterpillar Inc., a manufacturer of large construction and industrial equipment
- Catamaran, a kind of boat
- Catboat, a kind of boat
- Catherine, a feminine name, or any other name derived from Greek katharos meaning "pure"
- Cat o' nine tails, a multi-tailed whip used for svere physical punishment, e.g. in the British military
- Clear-Air Turbulence, a natural phenomenon
- Concatenation, the act of joining two strings of characters end to end. Cats may refer to:
- Cats (musical), a musical
- Cats, the main antagonist of the computer game Zero Wing who utters the immortal phrase "All your base are belong to us" ja:CAT

Canby Area Transit

Canby Area Transit or simply The CAT is a bus service that provides public transit in the US city of Canby, Oregon, and north to Oregon City. It is operated by the City of Canby, with a hub at the downtown Canby Transit Center. The newest transit agency in the area, CAT began operations on August 20, 2002, when Canby withdrew from the TriMet service area. The system replaces the southern legs of two TriMet bus routes , as well as offering expanded service within the city of Canby. CAT offers six-day a week service and no fares are collected. Financing is supported by state and federal grants, as well as a city payroll tax. =Connecting systems= CAT connects to the following systems:
- TriMet at the Oregon City Transit Center.
- SMART service to Wilsonville at Canby Transit Center
- South Clackamas Transportation District service to Molalla at Canby Transit Center

External links

- [http://www.ci.canby.or.us/transportation/CAThomepage.htm CAT official website] Category:Mass transit in Oregon Category:Bus transit

Canby, Oregon

Canby is a city located in Clackamas County, Oregon. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 12,790.

Geography

2000Canby is located at 45°15'58" North, 122°41'26" West (45.266002, -122.690663). This puts it about 20 miles SW of Portland. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 9.8 km² (3.8 mi²). 9.8 km² (3.8 mi²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water. Canby is separated from its larger urban neighbors by a beautiful stretch of farmland in rolling hills and fields. Entering Canby from the north brings visitors past the beautiful Willamette River and from the south through the historic community of Aurora.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 12,790 people, 4,489 households, and 3,366 families residing in the city. The population density is 1,309.9/km² (3,390.0/mi²). There are 4,743 housing units at an average density of 485.8/km² (1,257.1/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 88.42% White, 0.47% African American, 0.77% Native American, 1.00% Asian, 0.13% Pacific Islander, 7.47% from other races, and 1.74% from two or more races. 15.52% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 4,489 households out of which 40.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.3% are married couples living together, 10.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 25.0% are non-families. 21.2% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.83 and the average family size is 3.27. In the city the population is spread out with 30.6% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 29.7% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 95.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.4 males. The median income for a household in the city is $45,811, and the median income for a family is $49,690. Males have a median income of $42,145 versus $28,775 for females. The per capita income for the city is $19,322. 7.4% of the population and 6.0% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 9.3% of those under the age of 18 and 5.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Community

Canby is a place where the best of small town living meets proximity to the urban culture and amenities in Portland. It is separated by rolling farmland from the Metro area and maintains an active historic downtown core, home to a revitalized business district and family-oriented community events. The community features excellent schools, neighborhood and regional parks, and active neighborhood groups. The community values its small-town feel and seeks to maintain this even as growth continues to occur.

Name

Canby is named for Gen E. R. S. Canby, a Civil War general who was later killed in the Modoc War by Captain Jack and his group of warriors.

External links

- [http://www.ci.canby.or.us/ Official Canby Website] Category:Cities in Oregon Category:Clackamas County, Oregon

Catalan language

Catalan (Català) or Valencian (Valencià) is a Romance language, the national language of Andorra and co-official in several regions of Spain. Spain has the majority of active Catalan speakers, and Catalan is the country's second most widely spoken language. It is spoken or understood by as many as 12 million people who live not only in Andorra and Spain, but also in parts of France and Italy.

Classification

Catalan is a Romance language. According to the Ethnologue, its specific classification is a member of the East Iberian branch of the Ibero-Romance branch of the Gallo-Iberian branch of the Western sub complex of the Italo-Western complex of the Romance group of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family. It shares many features with both Spanish and French, and is the language nearest to Occitan, and is often thought of as a sort of "transitory" language between the Iberian and Gallic languages when comparing the modern descendants of Latin.

Geographic distribution

Estimates of the number of Catalan speakers vary from four million to twelve million. [http://www.caib.es/conselleries/educacio/dgpoling/user/catalaeuropa/reduides/tripticangles.pdf] (pdf), [http://www.brazilbrazil.com/roman.html], [http://193.2.100.60/SALTMIL/history/review.htm], [http://www.scbwi.org/pubs/bulletin/bull_archives/jan_feb_2003/intl_news.htm], [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=CLN]. Catalan is spoken in:
- Catalonia in Spain.
- An adjacent strip of Aragon, Spain, in particular the comarques of Baixa Ribagorça, Llitera, Baix Cinca, and Matarranya.
- Balearic Islands in Spain.
- Andorra.
- Part of the Land of Valencia in Spain, where the language is officially named Valencian.
- Northern Catalonia in France.
- The city of Alghero (l'Alguer) on Sardinia, an island in Italy.
- A small region in Murcia, Spain, known as el Carche in Castilian and el Carxe in Catalan. All these areas are informally called Catalan countries (Catalan Països Catalans), a denomination based originally on cultural affinity and common heritage, that some have subsequently interpreted politically.

Official status

Catalan is the official language of Andorra. It is co-official in the Spanish regions of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and Valencia. It has no official status in the parts of Aragon where it is spoken, but has gained some recognition by Aragonese laws since 1990. It has no official status in the other places where it is spoken.

Number of Catalan speakers

Territories where Catalan is official

Other territories

World

Notes: The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it. Sources: Catalonia: Statistic data of 2001 census, from Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya, Generalitat catalana [http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B]. Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana [http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf]. Balearic Islands: Statistical data from 2001 census, from Institut Balear d'Estadística, Govern de les Illes Balears [http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm]. Northern Catalonia: Media Pluriel Survey commissioned by Prefecture of Languedoc-Roussillon Region done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 [http://www.linmiter.net/information_catalan.html]. Andorra: Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999 [http://www.catala.ad/CatalaAnd/DadSocLin.htm]. Aragon: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html]. Alguer: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html]. Rest of World: Estimate for 1999 by the Federació d'Entitats Catalanes outside the Catalan Countries.

Dialects

Languedoc-Roussillon Region Languedoc-Roussillon RegionIn 1861, Manuel Milà i Fontanals proposed a dialectal division of Catalan in two major blocks: Eastern Catalan and Western Catalan. There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects, (except for dialects specific to an island). The main difference between both blocks is:
- Western Catalan (Bloc o Branca del Català Occidental):
- Unstressed vowels: . Distinctions between e and a and o and u.
- Initial or post-consonatic x is affricate . Between vowels or final preceded of i, .
- 1st person of Indicative's present desinence is -e or -o.
- Inchoative in -ix, -ixen, -isca
- Maintenance of medieval nasal plural in proparoxiton words: hòmens, jóvens
- Specific Vocabulary: espill, xiquet, granera, melic...
- Eastern Catalan (Bloc o Branca del Català Oriental):
- Unstressed vowels . The unstressed vowels e and a becomes /ə/ and o and u becomes /u/.
- Initial or post-consonatic x is fricative . Between vowels or final preceded of i, .
- 1st person of Indicative's present desinence is -o, -i or ø.
- Inchoative in -eix, -eixen, -eixi.
- The -n- of medieval nasal plural falls in proparoxiton words: homes, joves.
- Specific Vocabulary: mirall, noi, escombra, llombrígol... In addition, neither dialect is completely homogenous: any dialect can be subdivided into several sub dialects. Catalan can be subdivided in two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects: See Catalan dialect examples for examples of each dialect.

The status of Valencian

Catalan dialect examples]] The issue, as with Serbian and Croatian, of whether Catalan and Valencian constitute different languages or merely dialects has been the subject of political agitation several times after the Franco era. The latest political controversy regarding Valencian occurred on the occasion of the approval of the European Constitution in 2004. The Spanish government supplied the EU with translations of the text into Basque, Catalan, Galician, and Valencian, but the Catalan and Valencian versions were identical. While professing the unity of the Catalan language, the Spanish government claimed to be constitutionally bound to produce distinct Catalan and Valencian versions because the Statute of the Autonomous Land of Valencia refers to the language as "Valencian". In practice, the "Catalan", "Valencian", and "Balearic" versions of the EU constitution are identical, although some compromises over spelling may have been involved in making them so. Most current (21st century) Valencian speakers and writers use spelling conventions (Normes de Castelló, 1932) that allow for several diverse idiosyncrasies of Valencian, Balearic, North-Western Catalan, and Eastern Catalan. All universities teaching Romance languages, and virtually all linguists, consider these all to be linguistic variants of the same language (similar to Canadian French versus Metropolitan French). The criterion used by most linguists to decide whether two language varieties are a separate language is the criterion of mutual intelligibility; by this criterion Valencian and other varieties of Catalan are dialects of the same language. Consider also the web sites of the Valencian universities: Universitat Jaume I de Castelló, Universitat de València or Universitat d'Alacant. Nevertheless, differences do exist: the accent of a Valencian is recognisable, there are differences in subjunctive terminations, and there are a large number of words unique to Valencian; but those differences are not any wider than among North-Western Catalan and Eastern Catalan. In fact, Northern Valencian (spoken in the Castelló province and Matarranya valley, a strip of Aragon) is more similar to the Catalan of the lower Ebro basin (spoken in southern half of Tarragona province and another strip of Aragon) than to apitxat Valencian (spoken in the area of L'Horta, in the province of Valencia).

Sounds and writing system

Grammar

History

Catalan developed by the 9th century from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern part of Pyrenees mountains (counties of Roussillon, Empuries, Besalú, Cerdagne, Urgell, Pallars and Ribagorça). It shares features with Gallo-romance and Ibero-romance, and it could be said to be in its beginnings no more than an eccentric dialect of Occitan (or of Western Romance). The language was spread to the south by the Reconquista in several phases: Barcelona and Tarragona, Lleida and Tortosa, the ancient Kingdom of Valencia, and transplanted to the Balearic Islands and l'Alguer (Alghero). Catalan was exported in the 13th century to the Balearic Islands and the newly created Valencian Kingdom by the Catalan and Aragonese invaders (note that the area of Catalan language still extends to part of what is now the region of Aragon). During this period, almost all of the Muslim population of the Balearic Islands were expelled, but many Muslim peasants remained in many rural areas of the Valencian Kingdom, as had happened before in the lower Ebro basin (or Catalunya Nova). During the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries the Catalan language was important in the Mediterranean region. Barcelona was the pre-eminent city and port of the so-called Aragonese Empire, a confederation nominally ruled by the King of Aragon (Aragon, Catalonia, Roussillon, Valencia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and — later — Sardinia and Naples). All prose writers of this era used the name 'Catalan' for their common language (e.g. the Catalan Ramon Muntaner, the Majorcan Ramon Llull, etc.) The matter is more complicated among the poets, as they wrote in a sort of artificial Langue d'Oc in the tradition of the troubadors. Italian resentment of this Catalan dominance appears to have been one of the wellsprings of the so-called "Black Legend". Black Legend]] During the 15th and 16th centuries the city of Valencia gains pre-eminence in the confederation, due to several factors, including demographic changes and the fact that the royal court moved there. Presumably as a result of this shift in the balance of power within the confederation, in the 15th century the name 'Valencian' starts to be used by writers from Valencia to refer to their language. In the 16th century the name 'Llemosí' (that is to say, "the Occitan dialect of Limoges") is first documented as being used to refer to this language. This attribution has no philological base, but it is explicable by the complex sociolinguistic frame of Catalan poetry of this era (Catalan versus troubadoresque Occitan). Ausias March himself was not sure what to call the language he was writing in (it is clearly closer to his contemporary Catalan or Valencian than to the archaic Occitan). Then, during the 16th century, most of the Valencian elites switched languages to Castilian Spanish, as can be seen in the balance of languages of printed books in Valencia city: at the beginning of century Latin and Catalan (or Valencian) were the main languages of the press, but by the end of the century Spanish was the main language of the press. Still, rural areas and urban working classes continued to speak their vernacular language. During the first half of the 19th century Catalan and Valencian experienced a major revival among urban elites due to the Renaixença, a romantic cultural movement. The effects of this revival persist to this day. During the Franco regime (1939-1975), the use of Catalan was banned, along with other regional languages in Spain such as Basque and Galician. Following the death of Franco in 1975 and the restoration of democracy, the ban was lifted and the Catalan language is now used in politics, education and the media, including the newspapers Avui ('Today'), El Punt ('The Point') and El Periódico de Catalunya (sharing content with its Spanish release and with El Periòdic d'Andorra, printed in Andorra; El Periódico de Catalunya has Spanish-language and Catalan-language editions, with identical content) and the television channels of Televisió de Catalunya (TVC): TV3 and Canal 33/K3 (culture and cartoons channel) as well as a 24 hour news channel 3/24; there are also many local channels available in region in Catalan, such as BTV and CityTV (Barcelona), Canal L'Hospitalet (L'Hospitalet de Llobregat) and Canal Terrassa (Terrassa).

Examples

Some common Catalan phrases (pronounced as in the Central dialect -Barcelona and outskirts-):
- Catalan: Català
- hello: hola
- good-bye: adéu (sing.); adéu siau (pl.)
- please: si us plau
- thank you: gràcies ; mercès
- sorry: perdó
- that one: aquest (masc.); aquesta (fem.)
- how much?: quant val? ; quant és?
- yes: sí
- no: no
- I don't understand: No ho entenc
- where's the bathroom?: on és el bany? ; on és el lavabo?
- generic toast: salut! ;
- Do you speak English?: Que parla l'anglès?
- Do you speak Catalan?: Que parla el català?

Learning Catalan

- Digui, digui... Curs de català per a estrangers. A Catalan Handbook. — Alan Yates and Toni Ibarz. — Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Cultura, 1993. -- ISBN 84-393-2579-7.
- Teach Yourself Catalan. — McGraw-Hill, 1993. — ISBN 0844237558.
- Colloquial Catalan. — Toni Ibarz and Alexander Ibarz. — Routledge, 2005. — ISBN 0415234123. Catalan courses are given at many universities in the EU and USA.

English words of Catalan origin

- Allioli, from all i oli, a typical sauce.
- Barracks, from barraca, used for several kinds of buildings.
- Mayonnaise, one of the proposed etymologies is the name of the city of Maó/Mahón.

External links

Institutions

- [http://www.iec.es/ Institut d'Estudis Catalans]
- [http://www.avl.gva.es/ Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]

About the Catalan language

- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=cat Ethnologue report for Catalan]
- [http://catalunya-lliure.com/recursos.html Catalan resources in the Web]
- [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/viewtopic.php?t=7983&postdays=0&postorder=asc&start=0 GRAMÀTICA CATALANA] A Catalan grammar

Dictionaries and phrasebooks

- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Catalan-english/ Catalan English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
- [http://pdl.iec.es/entrada/diec.asp Diccionari Català de l'IEC]
- [http://www.grec.net/home/cel/dicc.htm/ Online Catalan dictionary] from Enciclopèdia Catalana
- [http://dcvb.iecat.net/ Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear]. In Catalan, published by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans and Editorial Moll.
- [http://www.dilc.org/ Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana]
- [http://www.catalandictionary.org/ DACCO]. Open source English-Catalan / Catalan-English dictionary project.
- [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Catalan_phrasebook Wikitravel Catalan phrasebook]
- [http://www.geocities.com/learn_catalan/ Learn Catalan!]. An introduction for the Catalonia-bound traveler.

Catalan-language media

- [http://www.tvcatalunya.com/ Televisió de Catalunya]
- [http://www.avui.com/ Diari Avui] — Catalan-language daily newspaper
- [http://www.elpunt.com/ Diari El Punt] — Catalan-language daily newspaper
- [http://www.vilaweb.com/ VilaWeb] The main Catalan online newspaper
- [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/P%C3%A0gina_principal Catalan Wikibooks]

Catalan-language web searching

- [http://ct.yahoo.com/ Yahoo! Català] Searching in Catalan
- [http://www.nosaltres.com/ Nosaltres.com]
- [http://www.google.com/intl/ca/ Google (Catalan language)]

Catalan-language online encyclopedia

- [http://www.enciclopedia-catalana.com/ Enciclopèdia Catalana] (in Catalan)
- [http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portada/ Viquipèdia] (Wikipedia in Catalan) Category:Catalan language Category:Languages of France Category:Languages of Italy Category:Languages of Spain Category:Languages of Andorra Category:Romance languages ko:카탈루냐어 ja:カタルーニャ語 simple:Catalan language

Catalunya

:There is a separate article on the historic territory of Catalonia. :For the part of historical Catalonia which is now part of France, see Northern Catalonia. Catalonia (Catalan: Catalunya; Spanish: Cataluña; Aranese: Catalonha) is one of the seventeen autonomous communities that constitute Spain. Its territory corresponds to most of the historic territory of the former Principality of Catalonia. The autonomous community of Catalonia covers an area of 31,950 km² with an official population of 6.8 million (2004). Immigrants represent 6.8 % of total population. Catalonia was officially recognised as a nationality in the Catalan Statute of Autonomy enacted in 1979 pursuant to the Spanish Constitution of 1978. Official languages are Catalan, Castilian (also known as Spanish), and (in Val d'Aran) Aranese.
Administration and Government of Catalonia
The Generalitat is the institution of government in Catalonia. It consists of a Parliament, a President and an Executive Council. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/index.jsp] The Parliament of Catalonia has 135 seats and serves as the legislative body of government.[http://www.parlament-cat.net/portal/page?_pageid=34,33596&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL] The President and the Executive Council serve as the executive authority and are elected by the Parliament. The Government of Catalonia comprises 16 departments or ministries. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/departaments.jsp] See comarques of Catalonia for the official division in comarca (roughly equivalent to counties), used by the Generalitat. Local administration consists also of municipalities. Catalonia is divided in four provinces: Barcelona, Girona (Gerona in Spanish), Lleida (Lérida in Spanish, Lhèida in Aranese), Tarragona.Tarragona
Restoration of Catalan self-government
After Franco's death (1975) and the adoption of a democratic constitution in Spain (1978), Catalonia recovered its autonomous status (lost with the fall of the Second Spanish Republic at the conclusion of the Spanish Civil War in 1939). With a few exceptions, most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions. The legal system is common to all Spanish territories except for the civil law, which is regulated and administered independently within Catalonia [http://civil.udg.es/normacivil/catalunya.htm]. Catalan civil law regulates an ombudsman (Síndic de Greuges) [http://www.sindicgreugescat.org] to handle problems that may arise between private citizens or organizations and the Generalitat or other local governments. The region has gradually achieved a greater degree of autonomy since 1979. After the Navarre and the Basque Country regions, Catalonia has the greatest level of self-government in Spain. The Generalitat holds exclusive jurisdiction in various matters of culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local governments. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/competencies/exclusives.jsp] In many aspects relating to education, health and justice, the region shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/competencies/concurrents.jsp] One good example of Catalonia's degree of autonomy is its own police force, the Mossos d'Esquadra (literally 'squad lads'), which is currently in the process of taking over most of the role within Catalonia of the Guardia Civil and Policía Nacional, which are under the authority of the Spanish national government. However, even at the end of the transition process in 2008 [http://www.gencat.net/mossos/cme/desplegapdf/despleg.pdf], the Spanish government will keep a few agents in the region for matters relating to terrorism and immigration. Like the Mossos d'Esquadra, national police forces are under the authority of the government of Catalonia [http://www.gencat.net/mossos/cme/organitzacio/contingutpdf/FuncPGME.pdf]. As an autonomous community of Spain, Catalonia has no official status or recognition at an international level. However, as the region has progressively gained a greater degree of autonomy in recent years, the Catalan Government has opened some representative offices overseas. Most of these carry out limited functions such as the promotion of Catalan culture, trade and foreign investment, and even the contracting of foreign labour (with a view to easing problems with illegal immigration). [http://www.copca.com][http://www.cidem.com/cidem/cat/elcidem/info/cidem_en.jsp][http://www.copec.es/][http://nosaltres.vilaweb.com/info/vilaweb/vilaweb.generar_directori?p_idint=670561]
Language
Catalonia is the original heartland of Catalan, and remains the most important and largest territory where the language is spoken. Catalan is one of the two official languages of Catalonia, as laid down in the Catalan Statute of Autonomy [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/cat/generalitat/estatut/index.jsp]: the other is Castilian (Spanish), which is the majority language throughout Spain (its official status confirmed by the 1978 Spanish Constitution). Catalonia has regulated its institutions and their various competences within the framework provided by the Spanish constitution in the "Sau Statute." The similarity of Spanish and Catalan eases bilingualism, but they are certainly not dialects of a single language. Catalan is regarded by most linguists as being an Ibero-Romance language (the group that includes Spanish), but it has many features of Gallo-Romance languages such as French. Occitan, in its Aranese variety (a dialect of Gascon) is official and subject to special protection in the Val d'Aran (Aran Valley), which is notable, as this small region of 7,000 is the only place where Occitan (spoken mainly in France and some Italian valleys) has full official status.
Literacy
According to the 2001 Linguistic Census [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/socio/docs/censling2001.pdf], about 5,900,000 people in Catalonia, nearly 95% of residents, understand the Catalan language. The percentage of people aged two and older who can speak, read and write Catalan is as follows:
Over the last 20 years, knowledge of Catalan has advanced significantly in all these areas, with the ability to write it having experienced the most pronounced increase, from 31.6% of the population in 1986 to 49.8% in 2001. By age groups, those between 10 and 29 have the higher level of Catalan-language literacy (e.g., 98.2% aged 10–14 understand it, and 85.2% can write it); this is attributed to these individuals having received their full education in Catalan. Geographically, Catalan is most understood in northwest Catalonia (Alt Pirineu, Val d'Aran), at 97.4%, followed by south and western Catalonia, whereas Barcelona's metropolitan area sees the lowest knowledge, at 93.8%. The situation is analogous for written-language skills, with central Catalonia scoring the highest percentages (61.4%), and Barcelona the lowest (46.4%). Barcelona is one of the centres of the Spanish book industry in Spanish and the main one for Catalan-language publishing.
Social Use
According to a study carried out in 2003 by the Generalitat de Catalunya [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/socio/docs/usos2003.pdf], Catalan is used by 50.1% of the population in everyday situations. Significantly, over 55% of respondents use Spanish to address their parents (versus 42% who choose Catalan). This is attributed to massive immigration from southern Spain from the second half of the 20th century until the 1980s, as a consequence of which many Catalans have one or both parents from outside Catalonia. However, a majority (52.6%) use Catalan with their children (42.3% Spanish). This can be attributed to some Spanish-speaking citizens shifting from their mother tongue to Catalan at home. Outside the family, 48.6% of the population indicate that they address strangers exclusively or preferentially in Catalan, while the proportion of those who use Spanish is 41.7%. 8.6% claim to use both equally. See Catalan language for further information.
Aranese
According to the 2001 Aranese Linguistic Census [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/aran/docs/a_aran_cens.pdf], knowledge of Aranese in the Occitan-speaking territory of Aran is as follows:
Comparing to previous data from 1996, the number of those able to understand Aranese has declined slightly (90.5% in 1996), while at the same time there has been a marginal increase in the number of those able to write it (24.97% in 1996). By age groups, the largest percentage of those with knowledge of Aranese is in the 15-19 and 65-69 groups (both above 96%), while those aged 30-34 score lowest (just over 80%). Literacy is higher in the 10-19 group with over 88% declaring themselves able to read, and 76% able to write Aranese. Those over 80 are the least literate, with only about 1.5% of them being able to write the language. According to their place of origin, it is significant to note that in the Val d'Aran those born outside Spain outnumber Spaniards born outside Aran and Catalonia in the active use of Aranese (17% of non-Spaniards can write Aranese, while the percentage for Spaniards excluding Catalans is 10%). Aranese]
Politics of Catalonia
:See also Politics of Catalonia The first Catalan constitutions are of the Corts of Barcelona from 1283. The last ones were promulgated by the court of 1702. The compilations of the constitutions and other rights of Catalonia followed the Roman tradition of the Codex. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Catalonia was one of the main centres of Spanish industrialisation. The struggle between the Barcelonese conservative bourgeoisie and the working class, often immigrants from the rest of Spain, dominated Catalan politics. Catalan nationalist and federalist movements arose in the nineteenth century, and when the Second Republic was declared in 1931, Catalonia became an autonomous region. Following the fall of the Second Republic after the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, the authoritarian dictatorship of General Francisco Franco annulled Catalonia's autonomy statute and prohibited any official promotion or recognition of the Catalan language (although its private everday use was never proscribed). During the last decade of Franco's rule, there was a resurgence of nationalist sentiment in Catalonia as in the other 'historic' region of the Basque provinces. Following Franco's death in 1975 and the restoration of full democracy by 1978, Catalonia regained its status as an autonomous region within Spain. The Catalan nationalist leader Jordi Pujol came to power in the first regional elections in 1980 and his two-party coalition, Convergence and Unity (Convergència i Unió or CiU), won successive elections for 23 years. Terra Lliure ("Free Land"), which was essentially a terrorist group, sought to achieve independence through violence against Spanish interests and the wider population, but it never achieved the infamy or reach of the Basque terrorist organisatoin ETA, and disbanded after negotiations with the national government. Following the 1996 national elections in Spain, and despite his long track-record as a Catalan nationalist (especially during the Franco era), Pujol surprised many by lending CiU's support to the minority government formed by the conservative - and essentially centralist - People's Party (Partido Popular or PP) led by José María Aznar. Some nationalist factions became increasingly dissatisfied with Pujol's rule, especially the ERC. At the same time, the Party of Catalan Socialists (Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya or PSC), a sister-party of Spain's main socialist party (Partido Socialista Obrero Espanol or PSOE) based in the industrial heartland of Barcelona, began to enjoy renewed electoral popularity. One of the 'fault-lines' in contemporary Catalan politics arises from the fact that Barcelona, with its strong metropolitan economy, continues to attract migrants from all over Spain and Latin America. As a result, Spanish remains the language spoken by the majority of Barcelona's inhabitants, particularly in working-class areas. By contrast, Catalan remains the predominant language in middle-class and upper-class urban areas, as well as among the region's rural population. The PSC has to some extent become the party of those who resent the dominance of middle-class Catalan nationalists over Barcelona. In any case, while Catalan has undoubtedly experienced a spectacular revival since the death of Franco, the dominant presence of Spanish-speakers will continue to make universal or exclusive use of Catalan unlikely. Recently there has been an influx of African and East European immigrants, but this has not yet influenced the political scene, even though the demographic impact of immigration can clearly be seen on the streets. At the regional elections held on November 16 2003, at which Pujol retired, the combined parties of the left defeated the CiU for the first time and Pasqual Maragall i Mira became President of the Generalitat. Maragall's Socialists, however, actually lost seats: the big winners were the Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya or ERC), which favours full Catalan independence, and the Greens. While PSC mantains the post of President of the Generalitat (Maragall), ERC nominates the conseller primer (prime minister) — currently, Bargalló. Maragall's government is a somewhat uneasy coalition between the PSC, the ERC, and the ICV.
Current political issues
Unlike the autonomous communities of Navarre and the Basque Country, Catalonia lacks its own fiscal system; thus the economic financing of the regional administration depends almost entirely on funds raised by national-government taxation and budgeted to Catalonia. This has become a mainstream issue, particularly as the the proposed reform of the Catalan Statute of Autonomy is currently the subject of intense political debate at regional and national level. From an economic perspective, the regional government aims to achieve a high degree of fiscal autonomy (based on the argument that the region pays in more to the national Spanish coffers than it receives). There is currently (Autumn 2005) a raging political controversy in Spain as a result of the Catalan parliament's proposed draft of a replacement Autonomy Statute (supported by some 90% of the parliament's elected deputies) which seeks to define Catalonia as a 'nation'[http://www.gencat.net/nouestatut/]. The polemic centres on the politically sensitive issue of whether such a definition (though already implicit in the constitutional reference to the historic "nationalites" of Spain) can be said to harbour separatist overtones contrary to Article 2 of Spain's 1978 Constitution, that states "the indissoluble unity of Spain."
Parties

- CiU — Convergència i Unió (Convergence and Unity) - federation
- CDC — Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya (Democratic Convergence of Catalonia)
- UDC — Unió Democràtica de Catalunya (Democratic Union of Catalonia)
- ERC — Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (Republican Left of Catalonia)
- ICV-EUiA — Iniciativa per Catalunya-Verds – Esquerra Unida i Alternativa (Green Initiative for Catalonia-Left United Alternative)
- PP — Partit Popular (People's Party)
- PSC-PSOE — Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya-Partido Socialista Obrero Español (Socialist Party of Catalonia-Spanish Socialist Workers' Party)
Summary of votes and seats
Votes and seats are compared with those won at the 1999 election. Voters: 5,307,837 Voting: 3,319,276 62.5% Invalid votes: 8,793 00.3% Valid votes: 3,310,483 99.7% ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Party Votes % Seats ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Convergència i Unió 1,024,425 30.9 (-06.8) 46 (-10) Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya 544,324 16.4 (+07.7) 23 (+11) Iniciativa Verds-Esquerra Alternativa 241,163 07.3 (+04.8) 9 (+06) Partit Popular 393,499 11.9 (+02.4) 15 (+03) Partit Socialista de Catalunya 1,031,454 31.2 (-06.6) 42 (-10) Others 75,618 02.3 - ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Total 3,310,483 135 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Geography
:See also :Category:Geography of Catalonia The Spanish autonomous community of Catalonia borders on Comunidad Valenciana to the south, Aragon to the west, France and Andorra to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the east and southeast. Mountains:
- Catalan Pyrenees: Val d'Aran in the north face, Pica d'Estats 3141 m., Puigmal 2911 m., Cerdagne depression, Perthus pass (near the ancient Roman road).
- Catalan Litoral mountains: Montseny, Montserrat, Montsant.
- Iberic system: Maestrat. Montserrat Major rivers:
- Fluvià
- Ter
- Llobregat
- Foix
- Francolí
- Gaià
- Ebre and its tributaries: Noguera, Segre, Valira.
Environmental Policy
Awareness of environmental problems tends to be much lower in Catalonia (and in Spain as a whole) than in northern Europe. CO₂ emissions in Catalonia have increased by 40% since 1992 and 60% of the region's electricity comes from aging nuclear power stations (a figure exceeded in Europe only by France and Lithuania). Despite Catalonia's change of government in 2004 from a conservative CiU/PP alliance to a "red/green" tripartite coalition of PSC, ERC, and ICV parties, there is little evidence of greater concern for the environment. The ICV was put in charge of the Ministry of the Environment but has largely continued the outgoing administration's environmentally-unfriendly policies. The Ministry's decision to build the controversial Bracons tunnel through an area of outstanding natural beauty, and a scheme to site an incinerator burning 90,000 metric tonnes of industrial waste [http://www.valldelges.net/en] in a heavily-populated valley are just two cases in point. Although Catalonia participates in many international environmental forums, the political will to pursue "green" polices is generally lacking. This may be explained by the greater acceptance of political corruption found in southern Europe, the fragility of public institutions, and a lack of genuine commitment to grass-roots democracy.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia
There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia:
- Sagrada Familia, Barcelona
- "La Patum" of Berga (2005)
- Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco, Tarragona
- Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí
- Parc Güell, Barcelona
- Palau Güell, Barcelona
- Casa Milà, Barcelona
- Poblet Monastery, Poblet, Tarragona province
- Palau de la Música Catalana, Barcelona
- Hospital de Sant Pau, Barcelona
See also

- .cat
- Barcelona
- Catalan Countries
- Cuisine of Catalonia
- Education in Catalonia
- Famous Catalan People
- Flags of non-sovereign nations
- History of Catalonia
- Principality of Catalonia
External links

- [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/catalunya/laclau/english/index.jsp The key to Catalonia]: Site of the Generalitat de Catalunya
- [http://www.idescat.es/idescat_ang.htm Statistical information from Idescat (Catalan Institute of Statistics)]
- [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/ Photographs of Catalonia including Barcelona, Girona, Besalu] and surrounding countryside
- [http://flickr.com/groups/catalunya/ Catalunya images at flickr.com]
- [http://www.catalanencyclopaedia.com/ Catalan Hyperencyclopaedia]: Encyclopaedia with information about Catalonia in English
- News media in English
- [http://www.barcelonareporter.com/ Barcelona Reporter]: news and views from the Catalan capital
- [http://www.cataloniatoday.info/ Catalonia Today] - Catalan newspaper in English Category:Catalonia Category:Catalan Countries Category:Autonomous communities of Spain Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe Category:European countries zh-min-nan:Catalunya ko:카탈루냐 지방 ja:カタルーニャ州 simple:Catalonia

Catalyst

A catalyst (Greek: καταλύτης, catalytēs) is a substance that accelerates the rate (speed) of a chemical reaction without itself being transformed or consumed by the reaction (see also catalysis). Chemical catalysts, the focus of this article, participate in reactions but are neither chemical reactants nor chemical products. More generally, one may sometimes call anything which accelerates a reaction without itself being consumed or transformed a catalyst (for example, a "catalyst for political change").

Catalysts and reaction energetics

Catalysts enable reactions to occur much faster or at lower temperatures because of changes that they induce in the reactants. Catalysts provide an alternative pathway, with a lower activation energy, for a reaction to proceed. This means that catalysts reduce the amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction. Molecules that would not have had the energy to react or that have such low energies that they probably would have taken a long time to react are able to react in the presence of a catalyst. Thus, more molecules that need to gain less energy to react will go through the chemical reaction. Catalysts cannot make energetically unfavorable reactions possible — they have no effect on the chemical equilibrium of a reaction because the rate of both the forward and the reverse reaction are equally affected.

Types of catalysts

Catalysts can be either heterogeneous or homogeneous. Heterogeneous catalysts are present in different phases from the reactants (e.g. a solid catalyst in a liquid reaction mixture), whereas homogenous catalysts are in the same phase (e.g. a dissolved catalyst in a liquid reaction mixture). A simple model for heterogeneous catalysis involves the catalyst providing a surface on which the reactants (or substrates) temporarily become adsorbed. Bonds in the substrate become weakened sufficiently for new products to be created. The bonds between the products and the catalyst are weaker, so the products are released. Homogenous catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form a chemical intermediate that subsequently reacts to form the final reaction product, in the process regenerating the catalyst. The following is a typical catalytic reaction scheme, where C represents the catalyst: :A + C → AC (1) :B + AC → AB + C (2) Although the catalyst (C) is consumed by reaction 1, it is subsequently produced by reaction 2, so for the overall reaction: :A + B + C → AB + C the catalyst is neither consumed nor produced. Enzymes are biocatalysts. Use of "catalyst" in a broader cultural sense is in rough analogy to the sense described here. Other biocatalysts are ribozymes and deoxyribozymes.

Poisoning a Catalyst

A catalyst can be poisoned if another compound reacts with it and bonds chemically, but does not release. This effectively destroys the usefulness of the catalyst, as it cannot participate in the reaction with which it was supposed to catalyse.

Commonly used catalysts

Estimates are that 60% of all commerically produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture. Some of the most famous catalysts ever developed are the Ziegler-Natta catalysts used to mass produce polyethylene and polypropylene. Probably the best-known catalytic reaction is the Haber process for ammonia synthesis, where ordinary iron is used as a catalyst. Catalytic converters made from platinum and rhodium break down some of the more harmful byproducts of automobile exhaust. The most effective catalysts are usually transition elements.

References

# "Recognizing the Best in Innovation: Breakthrough Catalyst". R&D Magazine, September 2005, pg 20. ko:촉매 ja:触媒

Catalytic converter

A catalytic converter is a device used to reduce the emissions from an internal combustion engine. Most commonly used in an automobile's exhaust system, catalytic converters are now commonly used on generator sets, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, trains, and other machines that have engines to provide an environment for a chemical reaction where unburned hydrocarbons are more completely combusted. Automobile converters use platinum or palladium and rhodium as catalysts. Hence the combustion (redox) process continues, but outside the engine's combustion chamber, so no useful energy is extracted. The catalytic converter was invented at Trinity College (Connecticut)

Purpose and function of catalytic convertors

A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks: # oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O₂ → 2CO₂ # reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen: NO_x → O₂ + N₂ # oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: C_xH_y + nO₂ → xCO₂ + mH₂O These three reactions are most balanced at the stoichiometric point, which is the mid-point between rich and lean operation. The amount of oxygen to fuel in the engine is in a ratio for the most complete combustion. When there is more oxygen than required, then the system is said to be running lean, and the system is in oxidizing condition. The above two oxidizing reactions (oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons) are favoured. When there is more fuel than oxygen (stoichiometrically), then the engine is running rich. The reduction of NO_x is favoured. Catalytic converters are now standard fit in North America on "Large Spark Ignition" engines. LSI engines are used in forklifts, aerial boom lifts, ice resurfacing machines, and construction equipment. The converters used in these are three-way types designed to reduce combined NO_x+HC emissions from 12 gram/BHPhour to 3 gram/BHPhour or less, as per the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2004 regulations. A further drop to 2 gram/BHPhour of NO_x+HC emissions is mandated in 2007 (note: NO_x is the industry standard short form for nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) both of which are smog precursors. HC is the industry short form for hydrocarbons).

Catalyst Poisoning

Catalytic converters become ineffective in the presence of lead due to catalyst poisoning, and the introduction of catalytic converters triggered the end of leaded gasoline. Catalyst poisoning occurs when a substance in the fuel or lube oil of the engine coats the surface of the catalyst, masking the precious metal deposits. Poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time to raise exhaust gas temperature, which may cause liquefaction or sublimation of the catalyst poison. Common catalyst poisons are lead, sulfur, zinc, and phosphorus; Zn, P, and S originate from lubricant antiwear additives, like eg. ZDDP, sulfur additionally originates from fuel impurities. Removal of sulfur from a catalyst surface by running heated exhaust gasses over the catalyst surface is often successful, however removal of lead deposits is often not possible (the lead becomes vapourized in the combustion chamber of a gasoline 4 stroke engine under the ambient temperature and pressure after charge air ignition, and condenses on the cooler catalytic converter core surface. In particularly bad cases of catalyst poisoning by lead the converter can actually become completely plugged with lead residue). Theoretically catalyst poisoning could also occur if the charge air was contaminated by a catalyst poison, however catalyst poisons are all substances that are solid at the internal temperature of the catalytic converter, and thus precipitate out of the air.

Technical details

The catalytic converter consists of several components: # The core, catalyst support, or substrate. In modern catalytic converters this is most often a ceramic honeycomb, however stainless steel foil honeycombs are also used. The purpose of the core is to "support the catalyst", and therefore it is often called a "Catalyst Support". # The washcoat. In an effort to make converters more efficient a washcoat is utilized, most often a mixture of silicon and aluminum. The washcoat when added to the core forms a rough, irregular surface which has a far greater surface area than the flat core surfaces. The irregular surface is desirable to give the converter core a larger surface area, and therefore more places for active precious metal sites. The catalyst is added to the washcoat (in suspension) before application to the core. # The catalyst itself, most often a precious metal. Platinum is widely used, however platinum is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and/or cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals that are used. Cerium, iron, and nickel are also used, though each has its limitations, and nickel is not legal for use in the European Union (nickel hydrate formation). While copper can be used, its use is illegal in North America due to the formation of dioxin. Catalytic converters are used on spark ignition (gasoline; liquified petroleum gas (LPG); flexible fuel vehicles burning varying blends of E85 and gasoline; compressed natural gas (CNG)) rich burn engines; and compression ignition (diesel, lean CNG) lean burn engines. The reasons for use on each type of engine are different. For spark ignition engines the most commonly used catalytic converter is the three-way converter, which should only be used on engines that feature electronic fuel injection (if gasoline fueled), or some form of feedback fuel system (LPG fueled engines). This is because the three-way converter works best when the air-fuel ratio of the engine is kept within a certain very narrow band (when the engine is running stoichiometric). Within that band conversions are very high, sometimes approaching the theoretical point of perfection (i.e. 100%), however outside of that band conversions tend to fall off very rapidly. A three-way catalyst reduces emissions of CO (carbon monoxide), HC (hydrocarbons), and NO_x (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) simultaneously. Note that unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst such as the formation of H₂S (hydrogen sulfide) and NH₃ (ammonia). Formation of each can be limited by modifications to the washcoat/precious metals used, however it is difficult to eliminate completely. For compression ignition engines the most commonly used catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst. The catalyst uses excess O₂ (oxygen) in the exhaust gas stream to oxidize CO (carbon monoxide) to CO₂ (carbon dioxide) and HC (hydrocarbons) to H₂O (water) and CO₂. These converters often reach 90% effectiveness, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping to reduce visible particulate (soot), however they are incapable of reducing NO_x as chemical reactions always occur in the simplest possible way, and the existing O₂ in the exhaust gas stream. To reduce NO_x (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) on a compression ignition engine it is necessary to change the exhaust gas - two main technologies are used for this - SCR (selective catalytic reduction) and [NOx] (NO_x) traps. Another issue for diesel engines is particulate (soot). This can be controlled by a soot trap or diesel particulate filter (DPF).

Regulations

Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, as do what engines are regulated. In North America any spark ignition engine of over 19 KW (25 hp) power output built later than January 1, 2004 probably has a three-way catalytic converter installed. In Japan a similar set of regulations will come into effect January 1, 2007, while the European Union has not acted as yet. Automobiles in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since the early 1970s, and the technology being used in non-automotive applications is generally based on it. Diesel engine regulations are simularly varied, with some jurisdictions focusing on NO_x (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) emissions and others focusing on particulate (soot) emissions. This can cause problems for the engine manufacturers as it may not be economical to design an engine to meet two sets of regulations. Another issue is that fuel quality varies widely from place to place, as do the regulations covering fuel quality. In North America both gasoline and diesel fuel are highly regulated, and there are campaigns under way to regulate CNG and LPG as well. In most of Asia this is not true - in some places sulfur content of the fuel can reach 20,000 parts per million (2 percent). Any sulfur in the fuel may be oxidized to SO₂ (sulfur dioxide), SO₃ (sulfur trioxide) or even SO₄ in the combustion chamber. If sulfur passes over a catalyst it may be further oxidized in the catalyst (SO₂ may be further oxized to SO₄). Sulfur oxides are precursors to sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain. While it is possible to add substances like vanadium to the catalyst wash coat to combat sulfur oxide formation, this will typically reduce the effectiveness of the catalyst—the best solution is further refinement of the fuel at the refinery to remove the sulfur, however the expense is such that this is not practical in many developing countries, and cities in these countries with high levels of vehicular traffic suffer high levels of damage to buildings due to acid rain eating away the stonework.

Patents

- Keith, C. D., et al., -- -- "Apparatus for purifying exhaust gases of an internal combustion engine" -- April 29, 1969 Category:Automotive technologies Category:Automotive accessories Category:Pollution control technologies

Catapult

Catapults are siege engines using an arm to hurl a projectile a great distance. Any machine that hurls an object can be considered a catapult, but the term is generally understood to mean medieval siege weapons. The name is derived from the Greek κατα (against) and παλλειγ(to hurl (a missile)). Originally, "catapult" referred to a dart-thrower, while "ballista" referred to a stone-thrower, but over the years, the two terms have swapped meaning. Catapults were usually assembled at the site of a siege, and an army carried few or no pieces of it with them because wood was easily available on site.

Types

Catapults can be classified according to the physical concept used to store and release the energy required to propel the projectile. The first catapult distinct from hand-held launchers (bows, crossbows, slings etc.) was the greek gastrophetes, a crossbow so large it was braced against the abdomen rather than being held in the hand, hence the nickname belly-bow. The next step from this was a larger form a crossbow mounted on a stand, including early versions of the oxybeles (Greek for bolt shooter) and the ballista (the Roman version of the oxybeles). The arbalette à tour is a medieval version of the stand-mounted crossbow. These catapults are tensional, in that the energy is stored as tension and compression of the bow. Although similar to a crossbow, a sling on the end of the rope meant these weapons could be used for firing all sorts of projectiles, from rocks to pots of Greek Fire. Subsequently, torsional catapults were developed: those with two torsion powered arms, the later versions of the ballista and oxybeles, and those with one torsion powered arm, the onager, known in medieval times as the mangonel. The bottom end of the throwing arm of the onager and the inner ends of both ballista arms are inserted into rope or fibers that are twisted, providing a torsional store of energy. Torsional ballistas were operationally equivalent to their tensional cousins, except the torsional energy store gave greater power. Onagers have an arm with a bucket, cup, or most often a sling to hold the projectile at one end. Finally, the last type of catapult is a trebuchet, which uses gravity or traction rather than tension or torsion to propel the throwing arm. A falling counterweight or the effort of the operator(s) pulls down the bottom end of the arm and the projectile is thrown from a sling attached to a rope hanging from the top end of the arm, essentially like a sling attached to a giant see-saw. The counterweight is much heavier than the projectile.

History

In Europe, the first catapults appeared in later Greek times (400 BC-300 BC), early adopters being Dionysius of Syracuse and Onomarchus of Phocis. Alexander the Great introduced the idea of using them to provide cover on the battlefield in addition to using them during sieges. Catapults were more fully developed in Roman and Medieval times, with the trebuchet being introduced a relatively short time before the advent of gunpowder, which made the catapult obsolete. Cannons replaced catapults as the standard siege weapon in Europe in the 14th century. During medieval times, catapults and related siege machines were the first weapons used for biological warfare. The carcasses of diseased animals and those who had perished from the Black Death or other diseases were loaded up and then thrown over the castle's walls to infect those barricaded inside. There have even been recorded instances of beehives catapulted over castle walls. During the trench warfare of the First World War, smaller catapults were used to throw hand grenades across no man's land into enemy trenches.

External links

- [http://www.redstoneprojects.com/trebuchetstore/build_a_catapult.html Catapult Plans and Design]
- [http://www.medieval-castle-siege-weapons.com/medieval-catapults.html Medieval Catapult Articles]
- [http://www.medieval-castles.org/uses/medieval_catapults.htm Information about a Medieval Catapult]

References

Catapult. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (1971) Category:Siege engines Category:Ancient Roman military technology

Catastrophe

Catastrophe may mean:
- A disaster, sometimes used to mean an unusually severe disaster. (Most common meaning.)
- In ancient Greek tragedies, the solution of the plot.
- In the field of sociology it is defined as social change of an outstanding radical and rapid character, with highly magical explanations by victims and others. Related phrases:
- As a technical and a computer-related term, "catastrophic failure" usually refers to a failure within a system which leads to failure of the system as a whole.
- In insurance, catastrophe modeling is the process of projecting the losses which could be sustained due to an extreme natural or man-made catastrophic event.
- In mathematics, catastrophe theory studies how the behaviour of dynamical systems can change drastically with variations in certain parameters.
- In finance, catastrophe bonds are risk-linked securities used to transfer risks due to extreme natural or man-made disasters.

Catechism

A catechism is a summary or exposition of doctrine, traditionally used in Christian religious teaching. Catechisms are doctrinal manuals often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorized, a format that has sometimes been used in non-religious or secular contexts as well. [http://www.ourroots.ca/e/viewpage.asp?ID=282489&size=2] Catechesis is an elementary form of religious instruction, typically oral, and traditionally under the guidance of a parent, pastor or priest, religious teacher, or other individuals in church roles (including a deacon, religious brother or sister, or nun) who poses set questions and prompts students (or disciples) toward understanding the answers given. Catechetics is the practice of this kind of instruction, or the study of it, including training in such instruction. [http://www.dict.org/bin/Dict?Form=Dict2&Database=
- &Query=catechetics] A catechist is one who engages in such religious instruction.

Traditional Format

Catechisms have, historically, typically followed a dialogue or question-and-answer format. This format calls upon two parties to participate, a master and a student (traditionally termed a "scholar"), a parent and a child. The famous 19th century Roman Catholic Baltimore Catechism is an example:

1. Q. Who made the world?
   A. God made the world. 

2. Q. Who is God?
   A. God is the Creator of 
      heaven and earth, and of all things. 

3. Q. What is man?
   A. Man is a creature composed of 
      body and soul, and made to the 
      image and likeness of God.

Early Christian history

Borrowed from the , the term catechesis originally meant simply the oral transmission from teacher to student, instruction by dialogue. The word comes from a Greek word associated with the theater or agora; it means "to make resound, as with an echo." As with many things in Christian custom, the practice of catechizing was adapted from a similar style of instruction in the Jewish synagogues and rabbinical schools. The rabbis had the dialogue method, and the Greeks had the Socratic method, both of which informed Christian catechesis. Unlike both of these precursor influences, the Christian emphasis from the beginning was to pass on articles of faith, or definitions of belief. It is beginning with faith that Christians expected obedience to follow. Christian tradition holds that Catechetical schools were established almost immediately by the apostles themselves. One of the most important of these schools is held by tradition to have been established by Mark the Evangelist, in Alexandria, Egypt. In his Ecclesiastic History, Eusebius recounts the legend that Mark came to Egypt during the first or third year of the Roman Emperor Claudius, and he returned to preach and evangelize in Alexandria, between 61 and 68 A.D. This is the school of theology where Clement of Alexandria and Origen were teachers. Some modern scholarship favors the theory that the four written Gospels of the New Testament were products of Catechetical schools founded by the apostles or disciples of the apostles. Through schools such as this, summaries of doctrine were produced with a view to carefully and methodically hand down the teaching of the Church. As a summary of what must be believed, the Nicene creed was taught in the Greek churches, and the Apostles' Creed was dominant in the Latin churches; the Lord's Prayer was taught as the model of how to pray; and, the Ten Commandments were the summary of how to live. At various times and places, special chapters were added to the manuals, for instruction on the sacraments, the Athanasian Creed, the Te Deum, and other elements of the Liturgy. Lists of sins and virtues also became a common part of catechesis, in the monastaries and the churches. In the case of adult converts, this instruction preceded baptism; in the case of baptized infants, it followed baptism, and in the West culminated in their confirmation and the first communion. Baptized infants in the East were also chrismated (confirmed) almost immediately after baptism, and shortly after began receiving communion; catechism came later, often during the teenage years. Cyril of Jerusalem left sixteen books of instructional sermons, explaining the Creed to families seeking baptism, which became standard in the Greek speaking churches. The same Cyril also has five books of instruction attributed to him, concerning the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation in the Christian Faith, and Eucharist, for the benefit of those who have recently received one of these sacraments. In the Latin churches, St Augustine's treatise on catechizing (De catechizandis rudibus), written for teachers, came to dominate, together with his work on the basics of doctrine and prayer (Enchiridion). A good idea of what the tradition of instruction had been, can be derived from comparing these relatively early works. After the Edict of Milan, catechesis became an increasingly greater challenge which sometimes fell into neglect, especially in the frontiers of the Empire. In 829, a council in Paris records the bishops' alarm over the neglect of catechetical instruction. Very simple instructional manuals survive, from the St Gall monks Kero (720) and Notker (912), and Otfrid of Weissenburg (870). Gerson's tract, De Parvulis ad Christum trahendis, gives another picture of what late medieval instruction was like. In 1281, the English Council of Lambeth made it a canonical rule of Church practice, for parish priests to instruct their people four times a year in the principal parts of Christian doctrine. The best known modern catechisms of the Orthodox and Catholic traditions are not meant to be memorized. Rather, they are massive compendia of detailed explanations of doctrine. The Jerusalem Catechism of Orthodoxy is a work primarily designed for refutation of error—in the tradition of Irenaeus's Against Heresies. There are many Orthodox catechisms without obvious official authority, some of which appear to be designed for the instruction of converts especially from Protestantism. The Orthodox Faith is a four volume series that sets forth the basics of Orthodoxy. It is written by Father Thomas Hopko, dean of St. Vladimir's Seminary (Orthodox Church in America); the full text is also available [http://www.oca.org/pages/orth_chri/Orthodox-Faith/index.htm online].

Catholic catechisms

The Catechism of the Catholic Church (see below) is the catechism is most widespread use among Catholics today. The term catechist is most frequently used in Catholicism, often to describe a lay catechist or layperson with catechetical training who engages in such teaching and evangelization. This can be in both parish church and mission contexts.

Roman Catechism

The Roman Catechism was first published in 1566 under the authority of the Council of Trent. It is unusual in that it was written as a guide for priests rather than for instruction of children or neophytes. See the separate article: Roman Catechism.

Baltimore Catechism

Various editions of the Baltimore Catechism were the de facto standard Catholic school text in America from 1885 to the 1960s. See the separate article: Baltimore Catechism.

Catechism of the Catholic Church

The Catechism of the Catholic Church is a work of remarkable organization and breadth, containing articles of elegant reasoning and historical insight, arranged on the classical topics, but it is not a work adapted to the capacity of the untaught, and it is not in a question and answer format.

Protestant catechisms

The catechism's question-and-answer format, with a view toward the instruction of children, was a form adopted by Protestant Christians almost from the beginning of the Reformation. Among the first projects of the Protestant Reformation, was the production of catechisms self-consciously modelled after the older traditions of Cyril and Augustine. These catechisms showed special admiration for Chrysostom's view of the family as a "little church", and placed strong responsibility on every father to teach his children, in order to prevent them from coming to Baptism or the Lord's Table ignorant of the doctrine under which they are expected to live as Christians.

Luther

Luther's Large Catechism (1530) typifies the emphasis which the Protestants placed on the importance of knowledge and understanding of definitions, or articles of faith. Primarily intended as instruction to teachers, especially to parents, the Catechism consists of a series of exhortations on the importance of each topic of the Catechism. It is meant for those who have the capacity to understand, and is not meant to be memorized but to be repeatedly reviewed so that the Small Catechism could be taught with understanding. For example, the author stipulates in the preface: : Therefore it is the duty of every father of a family to question and examine his children and servants at least once a week and to ascertain what they know of it, or are learning and, if they do not know it, to keep them faithfully at it. A catechism, Luther wrote, should consist of instruction in the rule of conduct (Ten Commandments), the rule of faith (Apostles' Creed), the rule of prayer (Lord's Prayer), and the sacraments (Baptism and Communion). Luther adds: : However, it is not enough for them to comprehend and recite these parts according to the words only, but the young people should also be made to attend the preaching, especially during the time which is devoted to the Catechism, that they may hear it explained and may learn to understand what every part contains, so as to be able to recite it as they have heard it, and, when asked, may give a correct answer, so that the preaching may not be without profit and fruit. Luther's Small Catechism, in contrast, is written to accommodate the understanding of a small child or an uneducated person. It begins:

A. The First Commandment

   You must not have other gods.

   Q. What does this mean?

   A. We must fear, love, and trust God more than anything.

Reformed

Calvin's 1545 preface to the Genevan catechism begins with an acknowledgement that the several traditions and cultures which were joined in the Reformed movement, would produce their own form of instruction in each place. While no effort should be expended on preventing this, Calvin argues, he adds: : We are all directed to one Christ, in whose truth being united together, we may grow up into one body and one spirit, and with the same mouth also proclaim whatever belongs to the sum of faith. Catechists not intent on this end, besides fatally injuring the Church, by sowing the materials of dissension in religion, also introduce an impious profanation of baptism. For where can any longer be the utility of baptism unless this remain as its foundation — that we all agree in one faith? : Wherefore, those who publish Catechisms ought to be the more carefully on their guard, by producing anything rashly, they may not for the present only, but in regard to posterity also, do grievous harm to piety, and inflict a deadly wound on the Church. The scandal of diverse instruction, is that it produces diverse baptisms and diverse communions, and diverse faith. However, forms may vary without introducing substantial differences, according to the Reformed view of doctrine.

Genevan Catechism

John Calvin produced a catechism while at Geneva (1541), which underwent two major revisions (1545 and 1560). Calvin's aim in writing the Catechism of 1545, was to set a basic pattern of doctrine, meant to be imitated by other catechists, which would not affirm local distinctions or dwell on controversial issues, but would serve as a pattern for what was expected to be taught by Christian fathers and other teachers of children in the Church. The catechism is organized on the topics of Faith, Law, Prayer and Sacraments.

1. Master.  What is the chief end of human life?

   Scholar.  To know God by whom men were created.

2. M. What reason have you for saying so?

   S. Because he created us
   and placed us in this world
   to be glorified in us. And
   it is indeed right that our life,
   of which himself is the beginning,
   should be devoted to his glory.

3. M. What is the highest good of man?

   S. The very same thing.

Heidelberg Catechism

After Protestantism entered into the Palatinate, in 1546 the controversy between Lutherans and Calvinists broke out, and especially while the region was under the elector Otto Heinrich (1556-59), this conflict in Saxony, particularly in Heidelberg, became increasingly bitter and turned violent. When Frederick III, came into power in 1559, he put his authority behind the Calvinistic view on the Lord's Supper, which denied the local presence of the body of Jesus Christ in the elements of the sacrament. He turned Sapienz College into a school of divinity, and in 1562 he placed over it a pupil and friend of Luther's colleague, Philipp Melanchthon, named Zacharias Ursinus. In an attempt to resolve the religious disputes in his domain, Frederick called upon Ursinus and his colleague Caspar Olevianus (preacher to Frederick's court) to produce a Catechism. The two collaborators referred to existing catechetical literature, and especially relied on the catechisms of Calvin and of John Lasco. To prepare the Catechism, they adopted the method of sketching drafts independently, and then bringing together the work to combine their efforts. "The final preparation was the work of both theologians, with the constant co-operation of Frederick III. Ursinus has always been regarded as the principal author, as he was afterwards the chief defender and interpreter of the Catechism; still, it would appear that the nervous German style, the division into three parts (as distinguished from the five parts in the Catechism of Calvin and the previous draft of Ursinus), and the genial warmth and unction of the whole work, are chiefly due to Olevianus." (Schaff, in. Am. Presb. Rev. July 1863, p. 379). The structure of the Heidelberg Catechism is spelled out in the second question, and the three-part structure seen there is based on the belief that the single work of salvation brings forward the three persons of the Trinity in turn, to make God fully and intimately known by his work of salvation, referring back to the Apostles' Creed as an epitome of Christian faith. Assurance of salvation is the unifying theme throughout this catechism: assurance obtained by the work of Christ, applied through the sacraments, and resulting in grateful obedience to the commandments and persistence in prayer.

Lord's Day 1.

1.	Q. What is thy only comfort in life and death?

	A. That I with body and soul,
	both in life and death,
	am not my own, but
	belong unto my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ;
	who, with his precious blood,
	has fully satisfied for all my sins,
	and delivered me
	from all the power of the devil;
	and so preserves me that
	without the will of my heavenly Father,
	not a hair can fall from my head;
	yea, that all things must be subservient to my salvation,
	and therefore, by his Holy Spirit,
	He also assures me of eternal life,
	and makes me sincerely willing and ready,
	henceforth, to live unto him.

2.  Q. How many things are necessary for thee to know,
	that thou, enjoying this comfort,
	mayest live and die happily?

	A. Three;
	the first, how great my sins and miseries are;
	the second, how I may be delivered from
		all my sins and miseries;
	the third, how I shall express
		my gratitude to God for such deliverance.

The Heidelberg Catechism is the most widely used of the Catechisms of the Reformed churches.

Westminster Catechisms

Together with the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), the Westminster Assembly also produced two catechisms, a Larger and a Shorter, which were intended for use in Christian families and in churches. These documents have served as the doctrinal standards, subordinate to the Bible, for Presbyterians and other Reformed churches around the world. The Shorter Catechism shows the Assembly's reliance upon the previous work of Calvin, Lasco, and the theologians of Heidelberg. It is organized in two main sections summarizing what the Scriptures principally teach: the doctrine of God, and the duty required of men. Questions and answers cover the usual elements: Faith, the Ten Commandments, the Sacraments, and Prayer.

Q. 1. What is the chief end of man?

	A. Man’s chief end is to glorify God,
	and to enjoy him forever.

Q. 2. What rule hath God given
	to direct us how we may glorify
	and enjoy him?

	A. The Word of God,
	which is contained in the Scriptures
	of the Old and New Testaments,
	is the only rule to direct us
	how we may glorify and enjoy him.

Q. 3. What do the scriptures principally teach?

       A. The scriptures principally teach, what
       man is to believe concerning God, and
       what duty God requires of man.

Other Reformed catechisms

Oecolampadius composed the Basel Catechism in 1526, Leo Juda (1534) followed by Bullinger (1555) published catechisms in Zurich. The French Reformed used Calvin's Genevan Catechism, as well