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Carpenter

Carpenter

A carpenter is a skilled craftsman who performs carpentry -- a wide range of woodworking that includes constructing buildings, furniture, and other objects out of wood. The work generally involves significant manual labor and work outdoors, particularly in rough carpentry. Since most of carpentry's required knowledge is gained through experience, the profession can be relatively easy to enter (this varies with the legal requirements from country to country), but the job may not pay well. Many people have become carpenters in order to make a living while pursuing other interests (for example Harrison Ford turned to carpentry while going through a lull in his acting career in the 1970s). Some people have become famous as carpenters, such as Norm Abram. Carpentry is an old profession that is often respected for its importance in society throughout much of history. Joseph (husband of Mary, the mother of Jesus) and Jesus himself are often considered carpenters. In British slang a carpenter is sometimes referred to as a "chippie". American carpenters sometimes refer to themselves informally as wood butchers, and carpentry as the wood butcher's art. slang

Types of carpentry and carpenters

A rough carpenter is one who does rough carpentry; that is, framing, roofing, and other structural or other large-scale work that need not be finely joined or polished in appearance. A finish carpenter (North America) or joiner (traditional name now obsolete in North America) is one who does finish carpentry; that is, cabinetry, furniture making, fine woodworking, model building, instrument making, parquetry, joinery, or other carpentry where exact joints and minimal margins of error are important. Some large-scale construction may be of an exactitude and artistry that it is classed as finish carpentry. A ship's carpenter specializes in shipbuilding techniques (see also shipwright) and carpentry specific to nautical needs; usually the term refers to a carpenter who has a post on a specific ship. A framer builds the skeletal structure or framework of buildings. Techniques include platform framing, balloon framing, or timber framing (which may be post-and-beam or mortise-and-tenon framing). A roofer specializes in roof construction, concentrating on rafters, beams, and trusses. Naturally, a roofer must be good with heights and have good balance as well as carpentry skills.

Training

Tradesmen in countries such as Germany are required to fulfill a formal apprenticeship (usually three years) to work as a professional carpenter. Upon graduation from the apprenticeship, he or she is known as a journeyman carpenter. Up through the 19th and even the early 20th century, the journeyman traveled to another region of the country to learn the building styles and techniques of that area before (usually) returning home. In modern times, journeymen are not required to travel, and the term refers more to a level of proficiency and skill. Union carpenters in the United States are required to pass a skills test to be granted official journeyman status, but uncertified professional carpenters may be known as journeymen based on their skill level, years of experience, or simply because they support themselves in the trade, and not due to any certification or formal woodworking education. After working as a journeyman for a specified period, often ten years or more, a carpenter may go on to study or test as a master carpenter. In some countries, such as Germany or Japan, this is an arduous process requiring extensive knowledge and skill to achieve master certification. In others, it can be a loosely used term to describe a skilled carpenter.

External links

- [http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes472031.htm Carpenters] - estimates of U.S. employment and earnings of employed (not self-employed) carpenters, from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)
- [http://www.servicemagic.com/category.Carpentry.10543.html Carpenter Online Resources] Discusses the current state of carpenters and web presence relating to their occupation
- [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos202.htm Carpenters] - from the BLS [http://www.bls.gov/oco/home.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook] ja:大工 simple:Carpenter

Artisan

For the vocal harmony group, see Artisan (group).

An artisan, also called a craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who uses tools and machinery in a particular craft. Artisans were the dominant producers of goods before the Industrial Revolution. Industrial Revolution

Artisan origins

According to standard economic theory, the division of labour occurs with internal market development (Adam Smith). However, according to economist John Hicks, merchants and artisans originated as servants to the rulers, which occurred much earlier.

Artisan guilds

In Europe during the Middle Ages artisans usually organised into guilds. Guilds were associations of master artisans that were granted charters by the local sovereign authority. The guilds controlled all aspects of production and distribution to ensure quality and to prevent competition from outside markets. Along with merchants, artisans occupied the middle tier of the European and Indian social hierarchy, below the landowning aristocrats and above the agricultural workers. In contrast, Japan's Edo period artisan class was ranked below the samurai and the agricultural workers, and above the merchants. To become an artisan in the guilds, a person worked under a master artisan as an unpaid apprentice at a young age. If the apprentice completed the training, the appentice became a paid journeyman. For a journeyman to become a master artisan, he would have to produce a masterpiece that met the standards of the guild.

Artisan Jewelry

Artisan jewelry dates back as far as 7000 BC when gold and copper began to be sculpted to adorn the human form and the practice continues today. Although rarely price competitive with machine-made items, handmade artisan jewelry is prized for its uniqueness, variety and often unsurpassed beauty. Reflecting the talents of the artisan onto the wearer, the broad spectrum of artisan jewelry is available to provide satisfaction to queens, rock stars and “everyday folk.” Numerous jewelry artisans exist around the globe. Some fine examples of artisan jewelry can be seen at: The Metropolitan Museum [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ajew/hd_ajew.htm], An Original Design [http://anoriginaldesign.com/] and Native Web.[http://www.nativeweb.org/resources/art_artisans_galleries/jewelry/]

Woodworking

Woodworking is the process of building, making or carving something using wood. Category:Skills

History

Along with stone, mud, and animal parts, wood was certainly one of the first materials worked by primitive human beings. Indeed, the development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials. Among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen (Germany) provide some of the first examples of wooden hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving. Since neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include trees worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, and wooden folding-chairs. The site of Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden animal statues from the Iron Age. Wooden idols from the La Tène period are known from a sanctuary at the source of the Seine in France. Two ancient civilizations that used woodworking were the Egyptians and the Chinese. Woodworking is depicted in many ancient Egyptian drawings, and some ancient Egyptian furniture (such as chairs) has been preserved in tombs. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was probably bronze or even copper, as ironworking was unknown until much later. The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban (魯班) and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn Period. Lu Ban is said to have brought the plane, chalkline, and other tools to China. His teachings are supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing (魯班經, "Manuscript of Lu Ban"), although it was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items—such as flower pots, tables, altars, etc.—and also contains extensive instructions concerning Feng Shui, the ancient Chinese practice of geomancy. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glueless and nailless joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous.

Terminology

Woodworking, due to its long history, has developed extensive jargon and has preserved many archaic terms that are otherwise out of use.
- applied carving: background which is worked separately and then applied, rather than being worked in place
- bead: a semicircular piece of moulding
- bolster: shoulder
- burl: wood with a convoluted, complex grain, usually taken from cancerous growths on trees
- cannel, channel: the concavity of a gouge blade
- chip carving: incised surface decoration, usually geometric
- chops: a type of vise
- conversion: reduction of a whole log into pieces suitable for working
- crook: longitudinal bending to one side, caused by uneven seasoning or grain
- crotch: the section of a tree where a branch divides from the trunk, or the trunk divides in two; typically an area of convoluted grain
- crossgrain: working perpendicular to the grain
- cup: longitudinal bending forward or backward, caused by uneven seasoning or grain
- devil stone: a coarse, hard dressing stone used in sharpening tools, grinders, and other stones
- dressing stone: a rough sharpening stone usually used on other stones
- dutchman: a diamond-shaped patch of wood used to repair surface blemishes and knotholes
- end grain: the grain at the end of a piece of wood which is perpendicular to the surface
- fence: a piece of lath or scrap fixed to the bench surface to prevent movement of the work
- figure: naturally occurring decorative patterns in wood, usually due to medullary rays
- firmer: a chisel bevelled on both sides instead of only one
- fishtail chisel or gouge: a chisel or gouge with a splayed end
- flat gouge: a gouge with minimal curvature, used for finishing and smoothing
- flitch: a board in which the round of the trunk is still visible, a rough-cut board
- flute: a deep channel cut in wood; occasionally denotes the cannel of a gouge
- foxing: a yellow-brown discoloration of wood due to fungal infection
- fretsaw: a saw with a very fine toothed blade used for delicate cuts in thin material
- frosting: regular indented patterns created with a special-purpose punch called a froster
- grain: the longitudinal fibers in wood
- green: unseasoned wood
- hardwood: wood from an angiosperm tree, i.e. a tree in the division Magnoliophyta; Despite the name, not necessarily very hard or dense wood (e.g. balsa is a hardwood)
- heart shake: a shake radiating out from the heartwood
- heel: the corner of a chisel, knife, or gouge bevel which meets the back of the blade and polishes the cut
- hollow grinding: a concave bevel on a chisel, gouge, or knife
- incannel: the concave surface of a gouge; a gouge sharpened on the concave surface
- interlocked grain: grain which has multiple longitudinal directions in alternating layers, typical of many tropical hardwoods, and very difficult to work and to produce smooth surfaces
- outcannel: the convex surface of a gouge; a gouge sharpened on the convex surface
- reed: a series of beads in a row
- riffler: a paddle-shaped rasp
- ring shake: a shake occurring between annual rings
- saw rasp: a rasp with saw teeth
- scorp: a drawknife with a curved, sometimes completely circular blade
- scraper: a flat blade with a burred edge used for smoothing
- scrollsaw: a motorized fretsaw
- seasoning: reducing the moisture content of wood before working to prevent cracking, splitting, and other damage due to drying
- shake: a crack or split in wood, caused by damage or drying
- slip: a shaped stone used for sharpening non-flat blades such as on gouges
- snib: a wooden toggle used to hold the work on a table
- softwood: wood from a gymnosperm tree, i.e. trees in the divisions Pinophyta and Ginkgophyta; Despite the name, not necessarily very soft or light wood (e.g. douglas-fir is a softwood)
- spalting: a fungal discoloration in wood where brown spots are outlined with fine black lines &ldash; often considered a desirable feature
- split: to longitudinally separate wood along grain layers
- sweep: the curvature of a gouge, ranging from flat (little curvature, but not actually flat else it would be a chisel) to deep or quick
- tear out: small flakes and rough patches on interlocked grain in wood, usually left by machine tools
- twist: longitudinal twisting of wood due to uneven seasoning or grain
- undercutting: cutting away from an edge to increase the sense of relief or thinness
- veiner: a small deep gouge
- veneer (wood): very thin slices of wood used for inlay or to cover surfaces
- wane: an edge of a sawn board where the bark or surface of the trunk remains
- wasting: quickly removing wood during carving, usually with an adze, knife, or rasp
- waste: wood that will be removed in the finished work, often retained during working as a handle

Topics in Woodworking

Woodworking is now a general term covering a wide range of skills and techniques.
- carpentry – Originally a carpenter was a wagon maker but carpentry has come to mean the general working of wood. Sometimes used to cover all aspects of woodworking, at other times carpentry refers to the least-skilled level of woodworking and larger projects, such as house building.
- joinery – Either refers to (mainly in the UK) architectural woodwork or (mainly in the USA) to the joining of two or more pieces of wood together, necessary in most woodworking projects. Also used particularly to refer to the joining of wood without the use of nails, screws, or other metal fasteners.
- cabinetry, cabinet making, cabinetmaker – The practice of utilizing many woodworking skills to create cabinets, shelving and furniture; a craftsman who specializes in the making of fine furniture. Implies a very high level of skill in woodworking.
- marquetry and parquetry – The practice of creating patterns by inlaying different wood veneers; with different colours and different grains complex patterns are formed. Originally used to decorate furniture, both are now often used to produce pictures. Often regarded as a fine art form, equal to sculpture and painting. Marquetry is distinguished from parquetry by the shapes used and formed - marquetry entails the creation of organic or scenic pictures, while parquetry involves geometric shapes.
- turning – The art of turning a piece of wood on a lathe and shaping it by holding various cutting tools against it.
- Wood species – Choosing which type (species) of wood is correct for a given project.
- carving
- boat building – Professionally done by shipwrights.
- luthier – someone who builds or repairs stringed musical instruments such as guitars or violins.
- wheelwright – A maker of wooden wheels and spokes.
- cooper – A maker of casks and barrels.
- bodger – Now archaic, a wood-turner specializing making furniture and treen. Also a corruption of "botcher", a colloquial term for an incompetent workman.
- Patternmaker – a maker of wooden patterns used to create moulds for sand casting. A highly precise type of woodworking, the patternmaker must not only make the pattern to exacting standards, but also allow for metal shrinkage while cooling. Some of these refer to special techniques such as marquetry or turning, while others refer to a specialized product such as the cooper or wheelwright.

Woodworking Tools

A variety of tools are used for woodworking. These may be divided into hand tools and power tools or woodworking machinery, or they may be divided into rough groups based on their function in the woodworking process. woodworking machinery

Measuring and marking tools

- rulers, tape measures, and protractors
- straightedges, combination squares, try squares,
- scratch awls, marking gauges, marking knives
- levels
- plane gauges used to determine the flatness of a surface
- hygrometers used to determine the water content of wood before and during working
- winding sticks used to assist when flattening boards

Cutting tools

- hand saws such as the crosscut saw, rip saw, various backsaws (tenon saw, dovetail saw, gent's saw), coping saw, keyhole saw, bow saw, and various Japanese saws
- power saws such as the circular saw, chainsaw, table saw, radial arm saw, jigsaw, miter saw, hole saw (actually a form of drill bit), and band saw

Shaping tools

- hand planes such as the jointer plane, smoothing plane, block plane, shoulder plane, scrub plane, spear plane, and rabbet plane
- thickness planer and jointer
- router and router bits
- rotary tools, often known by the trade name 'Dremel'
- chisel and gouge
- lathe
- drill press and hollow chisel mortiser
- rasp
- knife
- Other hand shaping tools, such as the axe, adze, froe, spokeshave, and drawknife.

Assembly tools

- screwdriver
- hammer and mallet
- hand or power drills along with drill bits
- clamps including the C-clamp, F-clamp, G-clamp, bar clamp, mitre clamp, sash clamp and band clamp

Finishing tools

- sandpaper, used alone or with sanding blocks or power sanders such as the belt sander, palm sander, disc sander, and random orbit sander
- steel wool or bronze wool, used for polishing or applying stain or liquid finishing compounds
- file
- scraper
- brushes mainly for applying varnish, wood stain
- spray guns for applying lacquer

Accessory tools and furniture

- Workbench or just bench is a high table at which one usually stands or sits on a high stool, and on which wood is worked
- dog hole, a square or round hole made in the top surface of a bench to allow the attachment of various clamping and holding devices.
- bench dog, a peg which, when fitted into a dog hole allows clamping pressure to be applied to a wooden item being worked.
- hold fast, a simple bent rod with a foot which when placed in a dog hole in a bench can be used to position and hold boards.
- vise, or vice, a stable clamping apparatus used to hold wood in different positions while being worked
- bench hook, a bench top stop against which wood can be pushed whilst being worked.
- Sawhorse, a four-legged stand usually used in pairs to support large pieces of wood such as panels, long boards, and sheets.
- Horse, also known as a shave horse, a tool upon which one sits, with a foot activated clamp to hold shingles, spokes, or short boards, upon which one shaves wood with a drawknife or spokeshave.
- shooting board, used in combination with a hand plane to trim end grain or to straighten edges of boards.

Tool Sharpening

The cutting and some of the shaping woodworking tools rely upon sharp cutting edges to produce a satisfactory finish. Keeping these tools sharp is an important aspect of woodworking. There are a large number of machine powered and hand powered sharpening methods in use by woodworkers, the selection of which is in part determined by the tool being sharpened and part personal preference. Some tools, such as chisels and plane blades, are commonly sharpened by the owner, others, such as saw blades and machinery knives, are more often sent to a sharpening specialist.

Sharpening Paraphenalia

- Diamond plate
- File
- Grinder
- Saw set
- Sharpening jig
- Waterstone
- Whetstone or Oil stone

Sharpening Methods

Scary sharp - a method using paper-backed coated abrasives or sandpaper and a flat surface, such as plate glass.

Woodworkers

- Norm Abram
- Chris Becksvoort
- John Boson
- Mike Dunbar
- Tage Frid
- Garret Hack
- R. Bruce Hoadley
- James Krenov
- Sam Maloof
- David J. Marks
- Roy Underhill
- Sir Neville Wilkinson
- H. J. Rigsby

External links

- [http://www.inside-woodworking.com inside-woodworking.com] - Inside Woodworking Magazine
- [http://www.woodworking-online.com woodworking-online.com] - Online E-book about woodworking
- [http://www.woodworking.org/ Woodworkers Website Association] - A worldwide association of professional and hobbyist woodworkers Category:Wood Category:Manufacturing

Furniture

Furniture is the collective term for the movable objects which support the human body (seating furniture and beds), provide storage, and hold objects on horizontal surfaces above the ground. Storage furniture is used to hold or contain smaller objects such as clothes, tools, books, and household goods. Furniture can be a product of artistic design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture's functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. Domestic furniture works, in conjunction with furnishings such as clocks and lighting, to create comfortable and convenient interior spaces. Many types of furniture contain one or more drawers and/or small doors which can be opened. Also, some furniture items can have shelves.

Furniture design

- Art Nouveau
- Arts and Crafts movement
- Art Deco
- Bauhaus
- Shakers
- Frank Lloyd Wright

Furniture types

Storage:
- Bookcase
- Cabinet (furniture)
- Chest
- China cabinet
- Cupboard
- Dresser (Chest of drawers)
- Sideboard
- Wardrobe Seating:
- Bench
- Chair
- Couch
- Footstool
- Love seat
- Ottoman
- Recliner
- Settee
- Sofa
- Stool (type of chair) Surfaces:
- Coffee table
- Desk
- End table
- Folding table
- Table Sets:
- Bedroom set (group)
- Dinette (group)
- Dining set (group)
- Street furniture Other:
- Aquarium furniture
- Bed
- Door furniture
- Headboard
- Hutch
- Park furniture Lamps are covered under furnishings or lighting.

Selected Bibliography

- Gloag, John. A Short Dictionary of Furniture. New York: Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston, 1965.
- Hayward, Charles H., Antique or Fake?: The Making of Old Furniture. London: Evans Brothers, 1971.

Wood

:This article describes the material produced by trees. For other uses, see Wood (disambiguation). Wood (disambiguation)]] Wood derives from woody plants, notably trees but also shrubs. Wood from the latter is only produced in small sizes, reducing the diversity of uses. Wood is a hygroscopic, cellular and anisotropic material. Dry wood is composed of fibers of cellulose (40%–50%) and hemicellulose (20%–30%) held together by lignin (25%–30%). Wood is the xylem tissue of the plant.
Uses
xylems.]] Wood has been used by man for millennia for many purposes, being many things to many people. One of its primary uses is as fuel. It may also be used as a material, for making artworks, boats, buildings, furniture, ships, tools, weapons, etc. Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters, and remains in plentiful use today. Construction wood is commonly known as timber in International English, and lumber in American English. Wood may be broken down and be made into chipboard, engineered wood, hardboard, medium-density fibreboard (MDF), oriented strand board (OSB), paper or used to make other synthetic substances.
Formation
A tree increases in diameter by the formation, between the old wood and the inner bark, of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. Where there are clear seasons, this can happen in a discrete pattern, leading to what is known as growth rings, as can be seen on the end of a log. If these seasons are annual these growth rings are annual rings. Where there is no seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be absent. Within a growth ring it may be possible to see two more or less well-defined parts. The part nearest the centre of the tree is more open textured and almost invariably lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring. The inner portion is formed early in the season, when growth is comparatively rapid; it is known as early wood or spring wood. The outer portion is the late wood or summer wood, being produced in the summer. In white pines there is not much contrast in the different parts of the ring, and as a result the wood is very uniform in texture and is easy to work. In hard pines, on the other hand, the late wood is very dense and is deep-colored, presenting a very decided contrast to the soft, straw-colored early wood. In ring-porous woods each season's growth is always well defined, because the large pores of the spring abut on the denser tissue of the fall before. In the diffuse-porous woods, the demarcation between rings is not always so clear and in some cases is almost (if not entirely) invisible to the unaided eye.
Knots
Knots are portions of branches included in the wood of the stem or larger branch. Branches generally originate at or near the pith (central axis) of a stem, and the living portion will increase in size through the addition of annual woody layers which are a continuation of those of the stem. The included portion is irregularly conical in shape with the tip at the pith. The fibre direction is at right angles or oblique to the grain of the stem, thus producing local cross grain. Note that a small knot may also be the result of a dormant bud. During the development of a tree the lower limbs die, but may persist for a time--often for years. Subsequent layers of growth of the stem are no longer intimately joined with the dead limb, but are laid around it. Hence dead branches produce knots which are nothing more than pegs in a hole, and likely to drop out after the tree has been sawn. In grading lumber and structural timber, knots are classified according to their form, size, soundness, and the firmness with which they are held in place. Knots materially affect checking (cracking) and warping, ease in working, and cleavability of timber. They are defects which weaken timber and depreciate its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration. The weakening effect is much more serious where timber is subjected to bending and tension than where under compression. The extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position, size, number, direction of fibre, and condition. A knot on the upper side is compressed, while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. The knot, especially (as is often the case) if there is a season check in it, offers little resistance to this tensile stress. Small knots, however, may be so located in a beam along the neutral plane as actually to increase the strength by tending to prevent longitudinal shearing. Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface. Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it. Sound knots which occur in the central portion one-fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects. Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber. Only defects of the most serious character affect the elastic limit of beams. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the quality of the wood fibre than upon defects in the beam. The effect of knots is to reduce the difference between the fibre stress at elastic limit and the modulus of rupture of beams. The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects. Sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to the grain. For some purposes, e.g. wall panelling, knots are considered a plus as they add visual texture to the wood, giving it a more interesting appearance.
Heartwood and sapwood
grain (centre dark spot). The dark radial lines are small knots.]] Examination of the end of a log of many species reveals a darker-colored inner portion, called the heartwood or duramen, surrounded by a lighter-colored zone called the sapwood. In some instances this distinction in color is very marked; in others, the contrast is slight, so that it is not always easy to tell where one leaves off and the other begins. The color of fresh sapwood is always light, sometimes nearly white, but more often with a decided tinge of yellow or brown. Sapwood is comparatively new wood, comprising living cells in the growing tree. All wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood. Its principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves and to store up and give back according to the season the food prepared in the leaves. The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the volume of sapwood required. Hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker sapwood for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests. Sometimes trees grown in the open may become of considerable size, 30 cm or more in diameter, before any heartwood begins to form, for example, in second-growth hickory, or open-grown pines. As a tree increases in age and diameter an inner portion of the sapwood becomes inactive and finally ceases to function, as the cells die. This inert or dead portion is called heartwood. Its name derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree. This is shown by the fact that a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed. Some species begin to form heartwood very early in life, so having only a thin layer of live sapwood, while in others the change comes slowly. Thin sapwood is characteristic of such trees as chestnut, black locust, mulberry, osage-orange, and sassafras, while in maple, ash, hickory, hackberry, beech, and pine, thick sapwood is the rule. There is no definite relation between the annual rings of growth and the amount of sapwood. Within the same species the cross-sectional area of the sapwood is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree. If the rings are narrow, more of them are required than where they are wide. As the tree gets larger, the sapwood must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume. Sapwood is thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base, because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less. When a tree is very young it is covered with limbs almost, if not entirely, to the ground, but as it grows older some or all of them will eventually die and be broken off. Subsequent growth of wood may completely conceal the stubs which will however remain as knots. No matter how smooth and clear a log is on the outside, it is more or less knotty near the middle. Consequently the sapwood of an old tree, and particularly of a forest-grown tree, will be freer from knots than the heartwood. Since in most uses of wood, knots are defects that weaken the timber and interfere with its ease of working and other properties, it follows that sapwood, because of its position in the tree, may have certain advantages over heartwood. It is remarkable that the inner heartwood of old trees remains as sound as it usually does, since in many cases it is hundreds of years, and in a few instances thousands of years, old. Every broken limb or root, or deep wound from fire, insects, or falling timber, may afford an entrance for decay, which, once started, may penetrate to all parts of the trunk. The larvae of many insects bore into the trees and their tunnels remain indefinitely as sources of weakness. Whatever advantages, however, that sapwood may have in this connection are due solely to its relative age and position. If a tree grows all its life in the open and the conditions of soil and site remain unchanged, it will make its most rapid growth in youth, and gradually decline. The annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide, but later they become narrower and narrower. Since each succeeding ring is laid down on the outside of the wood previously formed, it follows that unless a tree materially increases its production of wood from year to year, the rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider. As a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual wood production is lessened, thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings. In the case of forest-grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate. Some trees, such as southern oaks, maintain the same width of ring for hundreds of years. Upon the whole, however, as a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases. There may be decided differences in the grain of heartwood and sapwood cut from a large tree, particularly one that is mature. In some trees, the wood laid on late in the life of a tree is softer, lighter, weaker, and more even-textured than that produced earlier, but in other species, the reverse applies. In a large log the sapwood, because of the time in the life of the tree when it was grown, may be inferior in hardness, strength, and toughness to equally sound heartwood from the same log.
Different woods
There is a strong relationship between the properties of wood and the properties of the particular tree that yielded it. For every trees species there is a range of density for the wood it yields. There is a rough correlation between density of a wood and its strength (mechanical properties). For example, while mahogany is a medium-dense hardwood which is excellent for fine furniture crafting, balsa is light, making it useful for model building. The densest wood may be black ironwood. Wood is commonly classified as either softwood or hardwood. The wood from conifers (e.g. pine) is called softwood, and the wood from broad-leaved trees (e.g. oak) is called hardwood. These names are a bit misleading, as hardwoods are not necessarily hard, and softwoods are not necessarily soft. The well-known balsa (a hardwood) is actually softer than any commercial softwood. Conversely, some softwoods (e.g. yew) are harder than most hardwoods.
Color
In species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood, and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous. This is produced by deposits in the heartwood of various materials resulting from the process of growth, increased possibly by oxidation and other chemical changes, which usually have little or no appreciable effect on the mechanical properties of the wood. Some experiments on very resinous Longleaf Pine specimens, however, indicate an increase in strength. This is due to the resin which increases the strength when dry. Such resin-saturated heartwood is called "fat lighter". Structures built of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and termites; however they are very flammable. Stumps of old longleaf pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires. Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut. Spruce impregnated with crude resin and dried is also greatly increased in strength thereby. Spruce Since the late wood of a growth ring is usually darker in color than the early wood, this fact may be used in judging the density, and therefore the hardness and strength of the material. This is particularly the case with coniferous woods. In ring-porous woods the vessels of the early wood not infrequently appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser late wood, though on cross sections of heartwood the reverse is commonly true. Except in the manner just stated the color of wood is no indication of strength. Abnormal discoloration of wood often denotes a diseased condition, indicating unsoundness. The black check in western hemlock is the result of insect attacks. The reddish-brown streaks so common in hickory and certain other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds. The discoloration is merely an indication of an injury, and in all probability does not of itself affect the properties of the wood. Certain rot-producing fungi impart to wood characteristic colors which thus become symptomatic of weakness. Ordinary sap-staining is due to fungous growth, but does not necessarily produce a weakening effect.
Structure
fungi (parquet).]] In coniferous or softwood species the wood cells are mostly of one kind, tracheids, and as a result the material is much more uniform in structure than that of most hardwoods. There are no vessels ("pores") in coniferous wood such as one sees so prominently in oak and ash, for example. The structure of the hardwoods is more complex. They are more or less filled with vessels: in some cases (oak, chestnut, ash) quite large and distinct, in others (buckeye, poplar, willow) too small to be seen plainly without a small hand lens. In discussing such woods it is customary to divide them into two large classes, ring-porous and diffuse-porous. In ring-porous species, such as ash, black locust, catalpa, chestnut, elm, hickory, mulberry, and oak, the larger vessels or pores (as cross sections of vessels are called) are localized in the part of the growth ring formed in spring, thus forming a region of more or less open and porous tissue. The rest of the ring, produced in summer, is made up of smaller vessels and a much greater proportion of wood fibres. These fibres are the elements which give strength and toughness to wood, while the vessels are a source of weakness. In diffuse-porous woods the pores are scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or row. Examples of this kind of wood are basswood, birch, buckeye, maple, poplar, and willow. Some species, such as walnut and cherry, are on the border between the two classes, forming an intermediate group. If a heavy piece of pine is compared with a light specimen it will be seen at once that the heavier one contains a larger proportion of late wood than the other, and is therefore considerably darker. The late wood of all species is denser than that formed early in the season, hence the greater the proportion of late wood the greater the density and strength. When examined under a microscope the cells of the late wood are seen to be very thick-walled and with very small cavities, while those formed first in the season have thin walls and large cavities. The strength is in the walls, not the cavities. In choosing a piece of pine where strength or stiffness is the important consideration, the principal thing to observe is the comparative amounts of early and late wood. The width of ring is not nearly so important as the proportion of the late wood in the ring. It is not only the proportion of late wood, but also its quality, that counts. In specimens that show a very large proportion of late wood it may be noticeably more porous and weigh considerably less than the late wood in pieces that contain but little. One can judge comparative density, and therefore to some extent weight and strength, by visual inspection. cherry No satisfactory explanation can as yet be given for the real causes underlying the formation of early and late wood. Several factors may be involved. In conifers, at least, rate of growth alone does not determine the proportion of the two portions of the ring, for in some cases the wood of slow growth is very hard and heavy, while in others the opposite is true. The quality of the site where the tree grows undoubtedly affects the character of the wood formed, though it is not possible to formulate a rule governing it. In general, however, it may be said that where strength or ease of working is essential, woods of moderate to slow growth should be chosen. But in choosing a particular specimen it is not the width of ring, but the proportion and character of the late wood which should govern. In the case of the ring-porous hardwoods there seems to exist a pretty definite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties. This may be briefly summed up in the general statement that the more rapid the growth or the wider the rings of growth, the heavier, harder, stronger, and stiffer the wood. This, it must be remembered, applies only to ring-porous woods such as oak, ash, hickory, and others of the same group, and is, of course, subject to some exceptions and limitations. In ring-porous woods of good growth it is usually the middle portion of the ring in which the thick-walled, strength-giving fibres are most abundant. As the breadth of ring diminishes, this middle portion is reduced so that very slow growth produces comparatively light, porous wood composed of thin-walled vessels and wood parenchyma. In good oak these large vessels of the early wood occupy from 6 to 10 per cent of the volume of the log, while in inferior material they may make up 25 per cent or more. The late wood of good oak, except for radial grayish patches of small pores, is dark colored and firm, and consists of thick-walled fibres which form one-half or more of the wood. In inferior oak, such fibre areas are much reduced both in quantity and quality. Such variation is very largely the result of rate of growth. Wide-ringed wood is often called "second-growth", because the growth of the young timber in open stands after the old trees have been removed is more rapid than in trees in the forest, and in the manufacture of articles where strength is an important consideration such "second-growth" hardwood material is preferred. This is particularly the case in the choice of hickory for handles and spokes. Here not only strength, but toughness and resilience are important. The results of a series of tests on hickory by the U.S. Forest Service show that: :"The work or shock-resisting ability is greatest in wide-ringed wood that has from 5 to 14 rings per inch (rings 1.8-5 mm thick), is fairly constant from 14 to 38 rings per inch (rings 0.7-1.8 mm thick), and decreases rapidly from 38 to 47 rings per inch (rings 0.5-0.7 mm thick). The strength at maximum load is not so great with the most rapid-growing wood; it is maximum with from 14 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3-1.8 mm thick), and again becomes less as the wood becomes more closely ringed. The natural deduction is that wood of first-class mechanical value shows from 5 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3-5 mm thick) and that slower growth yields poorer stock. Thus the inspector or buyer of hickory should discriminate against timber that has more than 20 rings per inch (rings less than 1.3 mm thick). Exceptions exist, however, in the case of normal growth upon dry situations, in which the slow-growing material may be strong and tough." The effect of rate of growth on the qualities of chestnut wood is summarized by the same authority as follows: :"When the rings are wide, the transition from spring wood to summer wood is gradual, while in the narrow rings the spring wood passes into summer wood abruptly. The width of the spring wood changes but little with the width of the annual ring, so that the narrowing or broadening of the annual ring is always at the expense of the summer wood. The narrow vessels of the summer wood make it richer in wood substance than the spring wood composed of wide vessels. Therefore, rapid-growing specimens with wide rings have more wood substance than slow-growing trees with narrow rings. Since the more the wood substance the greater the weight, and the greater the weight the stronger the wood, chestnuts with wide rings must have stronger wood than chestnuts with narrow rings. This agrees with the accepted view that sprouts (which always have wide rings) yield better and stronger wood than seedling chestnuts, which grow more slowly in diameter." In diffuse-porous woods, as has been stated, the vessels or pores are scattered throughout the ring instead of collected in the early wood. The effect of rate of growth is, therefore, not the same as in the ring-porous woods, approaching more nearly the conditions in the conifers. In general it may be stated that such woods of medium growth afford stronger material than when very rapidly or very slowly grown. In many uses of wood, strength is not the main consideration. If ease of working is prized, wood should be chosen with regard to its uniformity of texture and straightness of grain, which will in most cases occur when there is little contrast between the late wood of one season's growth and the early wood of the next.
Water content
Water occurs in living wood in three conditions, namely: (1) in the cell walls, (2) in the protoplasmic contents of the cells, and (3) as free water in the cell cavities and spaces. In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains from 8-16% of water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry. The general effect of the water content upon the wood substance is to render it softer and more pliable. A similar effect of common observation is in the softening action of water on paper or cloth. Within certain limits the greater the water content the greater its softening effect. Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5 cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as that which a green block of the same size will support. The greatest increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected.
See also

- Tree
- List of woods
- Forestry
- Woodworm
- Wood plastic composite
- Engineered wood
- Wood as a medium
- Plywood
- Wood warping
References

- Hoadley, R. Bruce. (2000) Understanding Wood: A Craftsman’s Guide to Wood Technology. Taunton Press. ISBN 1-56158-358-8
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory. [http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr113/fplgtr113.htm The Wood Handbook: Wood as an engineering material]. General Technical Report 113. Madison, WI.
External links

- [http://www.woodbin.com/ref/wood/ WoodBin info on different kinds of wood]
- [http://wood.rleeden.no-ip.com Wood Identification Website]
- [http://internationalpaper.com/Our%20Company/Learning%20Center/How%20Paper%20Is%20Made.html How Paper Is Made]
- [http://www.trada.co.uk/ TRADA: Timber Research And Development Association]
- [http://www.sankey.ws/wetwood.html Wood moisture]
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- Category:Forestry ja:木 simple:wood

Harrison Ford

:For the silent film actor, see: Harrison Ford (silent film actor). Harrison Ford (silent film actor) Harrison Ford (born July 13, 1944) is an American actor who, between 1977 and 1983, appeared in what were then the top ten highest-grossing movies of all time. He is most well-known for his performances as the tough, wisecracking space pilot Han Solo in the Star Wars films, and the droll but tenacious archaeologist/action hero Indiana Jones of Raiders of the Lost Ark and its sequels. The U.S. box office grosses of all of Ford's films combined totals about $3.18 billion, with worldwide grosses at approximately $5.65 billion. No other actor in history has box-office grosses as large.

Biography

Ford was born in Chicago, Illinois. His mother, Dora Nidelman (born 1917 in New Jersey to Harry Nidelman and Anna Lifschutz) was Jewish; his father, Christopher Ford (born November 20, 1906 in New York to John Fitzgerald Ford and Florence Veronica Niehaus; died on February 10, 1999), was Irish/German and a Catholic, as well as a former actor. When asked what religion he was raised, Harrison jokingly responded, “Democrat," though his parents did take him to occasional services. He graduated from Maine Township High School in Park Ridge, Illinois, 1960 where he claims he was picked on by bullies and ignored by girls. He attended Ripon College in Wisconsin, taking a drama class in his junior year chiefly as a way to meet women. He was expelled after failing a philosophy class his senior year, 3 days from graduation. He asked his favorite professor, Dr. Tyree (who he mentions in The Last Crusade), for a letter of recommendation to avoid the draft, but he refused to write it. Since then he has broken contact with Ripon. Once he became famous, Ripon repeatedly tried to make contact again to use Ford's star power to help their small school, but the actor refused. Ford, a self-described "late bloomer," became fascinated with acting. While in college, toward the end of his freshman year, he was a member of a folk band called The Brothers Gross, in which he played gutbucket. He was a brother of Sigma Nu Fraternity. He married his college sweetheart, Mary Marquardt, in 1964. The newlyweds moved to Los Angeles, California, where Ford signed a contract with Columbia Pictures for $150 a week in the studio's New Talent program, getting bit parts in three films. He then went to Universal Studios and did minor television roles. Not happy with the acting jobs being offered to him, Ford became a self-taught professional carpenter to better support his wife and two small sons before his break-through role in American Graffiti. Coincidentally, it was his work as a carpenter that would land Ford his biggest role. George Lucas hired Ford in 1975 to build some cabinets in his home and used him to read lines for actors being cast for parts in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. It was Steven Spielberg who first noticed that Ford was perfect for the part of Han Solo. Han Solo]] Ford went on to star as Han Solo in the first released three Star Wars films. He starred as Indiana Jones in Raiders of the Lost Ark and two sequels, and as Jack Ryan in Tom Clancy's Patriot Games and Clear and Present Danger. He starred as Rick Deckard in Blade Runner. He also had roles in: Witness, The Fugitive (1993), and the remake of Sabrina, among others. While often playing the leading man or the hero of many action films, Ford took to the dark side as an adulterous husband with a terrible secret in What Lies Beneath. Many of Ford's major film roles came to him by default and other unusual circumstances - Han Solo, due to him reading lines for other actors; Indiana Jones, because Tom Selleck was not available; and Jack Ryan, apparently due to Alec Baldwin's fee demands. While some of his most revered work is in the science-fiction category with the Star Wars filma and the cult classic Blade Runner, he has said the latter was one of his least favorite roles, and has yet to return to the genre. The (2001) edition of the Guinness Book of Records listed Ford as the richest actor alive: his reported salary for the 2002 film K-19: The Widowmaker was more than $25 million. The 27 movies he has starred in have grossed a combined box office of more than $3.3 billion. However, despite being one of the most successful actors of his generation, Ford has received only one Oscar nomination, for Best Actor for Witness. However, in 1999, he received the Life Achievement Award from the American Film Institute. Although Ford's star has waned in recent years following the critical failures of K-19: The Widowmaker and Hollywood Homicide, he intends to film a fourth Indiana Jones movie with George Lucas and Steven Spielberg in 2006. Ford assisted musician Jimmy Buffett by recording whip cracks (a skill learned for Raiders of the Lost Ark) used in the song "Desperation Samba (Halloween in Tijuana)." Ford was credited as "Harrison J. Ford" for a small role in the 1967 Western, A Time for Killing, but the "J" didn't stand for anything; he doesn't have a middle name. The "J" was added to avoid confusion with the other actor named Harrison Ford who died in 1957. The first Ford has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6665 Hollywood Blvd. in front of famed eatery Musso & Frank. The modern-day Harrison Ford received a star in front of the Kodak Theater at 6801 Hollywood Blvd. on June 2, 2003. Ford has been married twice. He married Mary Marquadt in 1964, and divorced in 1979. He had two children with her, Benjamin (born in 1967) and Willard (born in 1969). He married again, to Melissa Mathison, screenwriter of Black Beauty and E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial, on March 14, 1983. They had two children: a son, Malcolm Carswell (born on March 10, 1987), and a daughter, Georgia (born on June 30, 1990). Their divorce in January of 2004 was one of the most expensive in Hollywood history. He has been dating actress Calista Flockhart since 2002 (thus since after Melissa filed for legal separation on August 23, 2001), to whom he is supposedly engaged. Ford is a private pilot of both planes and helicopters, and owns an 800 acre (3.2 km²) ranch in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, approximately half of which he has donated as a nature preserve. On October 23, 1999, Ford crash-landed a helicopter during a training exercise[http://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/brief.asp?ev_id=20001212X19997&key=1], flipping the helicopter onto its side. Neither Ford nor the instructor were injured. On several occasions he personally has provided emergency helicopter services at the behest of local authorities, in one instance rescuing a hiker overcome by dehydration. He is the current Chairman of the Experimental Aircraft Association's Young Eagle program, taking over after Chuck Yeager retired. Ford also gives of his time and money for environmental causes. He sits on the Board of Directors of Conservation International. Though he dislikes public speaking, he once appeared before a U.S. Senate subcommittee on behalf of the people of Tibet. His goal was to prevent China from gaining Most Favored Nation status, because of the Chinese occupation of Tibet. There has been a dispute over his personality, some criticizing him for being "grumpy" while others praise him for simply being a hard working actor who just wants to give the best performance possible. Ford is one of Hollywood's most notoriously private actors and doesn't appear heavily in the press, preferring to keep to himself at his Wyoming home.

Filmography

Salary history

- K-19: The Widowmaker (2002) - $25,000,000 + 20% of the Gross
- What Lies Beneath (2000) - $20,000,000
- Random Hearts (1999) - $20,000,000
- Six Days Seven Nights (1998) - $20,000,000
- Air Force One (1997) - $22,000,000
- The Devil's Own (1997) - $20,000,000
- Patriot Games (1992) - $9,000,000
- Presumed Innocent (1990) - $12,500,000
- Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope (1977) - $650,000
- American Graffiti (1973) - $500/week

External links

-
- [http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/home Conservation International]
- [http://apartment42.com/text.htm Harrison Ford: A Web Guide to the Films]
- [http://www.harrisonfordweb.com/ HarrisonFord Web]
- [http://www.hfm2.com/ Harrison Ford Media] Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrisno Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison Ford, Harrison ja:ハリソン・フォード nb:Harrison Ford

Saint Joseph

Saint Joseph, also referred to as Joseph the Betrothed and as Joseph of Nazareth, was the father (according to the law) of Jesus of Nazareth (Matthew 1:16; Luke 3:23) and the husband of Mary. However, he is generally not considered the biological father of Jesus since, according to Christian tradition, Mary conceived of Jesus through divine means and not through human effort. Not much is known of Joseph except that he was "of the House of David" and lived in the town of Nazareth. His date of death is unknown, though he was still living when Jesus was 12 years old. He is the patron saint of workers and has several feast days – see Saint Joseph's Day. Saint Joseph's Day]

Joseph in the Christian Gospels

The main sources about Joseph come from the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. Joseph was betrothed to Mary at the time that she conceived Jesus; and therefore they were already legally husband and wife then, although they were not yet permitted to live together. He was staying at Nazareth in Galilee (Luke 2:4); and after the journey to Bethlehem and sojourn in Egypt, he returned to Nazareth with his young family (Matthew 2:23), where they lived from thereon (Luke 2:51). In the Gospel according to Matthew he is called a "just man" (Matthew 1:19), which is an Old Testament term denoting someone who is doing God's will (e.g. Genesis 6:9). The Greek term chosen suggests that Joseph was by trade a skilled craftsman, although in art he is portrayed as a mere humble carpenter (Matthew 13:55). He is last mentioned in connection with the journey to Jerusalem, when Jesus was twelve years old. It is probable that Joseph died before Jesus entered on his public ministry, because only Mary was present at the marriage feast in Cana of Galilee; and he is not mentioned at the crucifixion along with Mary (John 19:25). In addition Joseph of Arimathea asked for the body of Jesus, a duty that would have fallen to Saint Joseph, had he been alive. Jesus is described as being the brother of James, Joses, Jude, and Simon, and several sisters (Mark 6:3; Matthew 13:55). A tradition at least as early as the second century, still adopted by Eastern Orthodoxy, explains that these "brothers and sisters" were from Joseph's marriage to an unnamed woman, before Joseph married Mary and so making them step-brothers and step-sisters. This version of events is related in the apocryphal History of Joseph the Carpenter. Roman Catholicism has a tradition that these were cousins of Jesus, and that Joseph was celibate. That Jesus commended Mary to the care of John the Evangelist while he was hanging on the cross has been interpreted to also suggest that Joseph had died by that time, and that Joseph and Mary did not have any other children who might care for Mary. In many icons of the Nativity, Joseph is shown being tempted by the Devil (depicted as an old man with furled wings) to break off his betrothal, and resisting that temptation. Also in the imagery of the Christian church, statues of Joseph depict his staff topped with flowers, recalling the Protevangelion's account of how Mary's spouse was chosen. Among the collected walking sticks of widowers in Israel, Joseph was distinguished when his staff burst into flower.

Patron saint

Joseph is the patron saint of various things and places. Pope Pius IX proclaimed him the patron of the Universal Church on December 8, 1870. Joseph is the patron against doubt and hesitation, as well as the patron saint of fighting communism, and of a happy death. Joseph is the patron saint of the Americas and the New World; of the countries China, Canada, Korea, Mexico, Austria, Belgium, Bohemia, Croatia, Peru, Vietnam; of the regions Carinthia, Styria, Tyrol, Sicily; of the cities and/or dioceses of Florence, Turin, Baton Rouge, Buffalo, Cheyenne, Louisville, Nashville, San Jose, Sioux Falls, etc. Christians also believe he prays especially for families, fathers, expectant mothers (pregnant women), travellers, immigrants, house sellers and buyers, craftsmen, engineers and working people in general.

Traditions

Some Catholics claim that to invoke Saint Joseph's selling effects, you need to bury a small statue of the saint inverted and facing away from the house near the 'For Sale' sign, though this practice is generally considered superstitious and frowned upon by bishops, priests, and knowledgeable laity. During the interment, recite a short heartfelt prayer requesting Joseph's intercession to sell your house. An example prayer would be: :Joseph of Nazareth, I beseech thee :to incercede on my behalf to help me :find a worthy buyer for my home. :I ask this in the holy name of Christ. :Amen The practice is very common in Italy. Once the house is sold, Joseph is rewarded by being exhumed up and set in a place of honor in the family's new home. The principal feast day of Saint Joseph is March 19, Saint Joseph's Day. Among Biblical saints, the veneration of Saint Joseph came very late to the Catholic Church. Pope Pius IX declared him patron of the universal Church, and Pope John XXIII added his name to the Mass canon. Some groups of Traditional Catholics reject this addition, but most use the 1962 missal, which includes this change.

External links

- [http://www.fisheaters.com/stjoestatue.html The Practice of Burying St. Joseph Statues to sell homes]
- [http://www.fisheaters.com/customslent5.html The Feast of St. Joseph]
- [http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintj01.htm Patron Saints Index: Saint Joseph]
- [http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=4 Catholic Online Saints: St. Joseph]
- [http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Homiletic/2001-10/orchard.html Bernard Orchard, The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph, Part 1;] [http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Homiletic/2001-11/orchard.html Part 2]
- [http://uk.geocities.com/ducatumevangelii@btinternet.com/Maryandjoseph1a.htm Bernard Orchard, Summary of The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph and chronological chart] Joseph Category:New Testament people ja:ナザレのヨセフ

Mary, the mother of Jesus

:Saint Mary and Saint Mary the Virgin both redirect here. See Saint Mary's for entities named after St. Mary. See Blessed Virgin Mary for a discussion of the Catholic Veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus. In Christianity according to the New Testament, Mary (Judeo-Aramaic מרים Maryām "Bitter"; Septuagint Greek Μαριαμ, Mariam, Μαρια, Maria; Arabic: Maryam, مريم) was the mother of Jesus of Nazareth and at the time of his conception was the betrothed wife of Joseph (cf. Matt 1:18-20, Luke 1:35). Most Christians and Muslims understand the Gospel accounts in this respect to mean that Mary was a virgin when she conceived Jesus through a miracle of God. Mary is the subject of much veneration in the Christian faith, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Church, and is also highly regarded by Muslims. The area of Christian theology concerning her is Mariology. The feast of the nativity of Mary is celebrated both in the Orthodox and in the Roman Catholic (and also Anglican) churches on 8 September.

Titles given to Mary

Mary's most common titles include the Blessed Virgin Mary or Our Lady (this latter, in French, Spanish, and Italian, is rendered Notre Dame) or "La Virgen de Guadalupe" in Mexico.

Historical records

Christian Scriptures

Blessed Virgin Mary to Mary. Painting by El Greco (1575)]] Little is known of Mary's personal history from the New Testament. She was a relative of Elizabeth, wife of the priest Zechariah of the priestly division of Abijah, who herself was of the lineage of Aaron (Luke 1:5; 1:36). By tradition, she was the daughter of Anne and Joachim. Mary resided at Nazareth in Galilee, presumably with her parents, while betrothed to Joseph of the House of David (Luke 1:26). It has sometimes been argued that she, too, must have been a descendant of King David. During their betrothal – the first stage of a Jewish marriage, during which the couple are not ever permitted to be alone together under one roof, hence may not yet cohabit, despite already being husband and wife in legal terms – the angel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother of the promised Messiah by conceiving him through the Holy Spirit, the power of the Most High (the Annunciation, Luke 1:35). When Joseph was told of her conception by the Holy Spirit, he was afraid; but "an angel of the Lord" commanded him in a dream to be unafraid and take his wife to his home, which Joseph obediently did, thereby formally completing the wedding rites (Matthew 1:18-25). Since the angel had told Mary that Elizabeth, having previously been barren, was now herself pregnant by the power of the word of God, Mary then hurried to visit her relation, who was living with her husband Zechariah in a city of Judah in the hill country (probably at Juttah, Joshua 15:55; 21:16, in the neighbourhood of Maon), at a considerable distance (about 160 km) from Nazareth (Luke 1:39). Immediately on entering the house she was saluted by Elizabeth as the mother of her Lord, and then forthwith gave utterance to her hymn of thanksgiving (Luke 1:46-56; comp. 1 Samuel 2:1-10) commonly known as the Magnificat. After three months Mary returned to her house. Shortly before her own confinement a decree of Augustus (Luke 2:1) required that Mary and Joseph should proceed to Bethlehem (Micah 5:2), some 80 or 90 miles (about 130 kilometers) from Nazareth; and while there they found shelter in the inn (a shelter-place provided for strangers, cf. Luke 2:6,7). But as the inn was crowded, Mary had to retire to a place among the cattle. There Mary gave birth to her son, whom Joseph in accordance with the angel's instruction called Jesus, because he was to save his people from their sins (Matthew 1:21). This was followed by Jesus's circumcision, his presentation to the Lord, the visit of the Magi, the family's flight into Egypt, their return after the death of King Herod the Great about 2/1 BCE and taking up residence in Nazareth (Matthew 2). Mary apparently remained in Nazareth for thirty uneventful years. She is involved in an incident during the only event in Jesus's early adult life that is recorded: his going up to Jerusalem when twelve years of age, where he was found among the teachers in the temple (Luke 2:41-52). Probably some time between this event and the opening of Jesus's public ministry Mary was widowed, for Joseph is not mentioned again. After Jesus's baptism by His cousin, John "the Baptist" (in which the Holy Spirit came down and rested upon Jesus "like a dove"), and His temptations by the Devil in the desert wilderness, Mary was present at the marriage in Cana, where Jesus worked his first public miracle, at her intercession (John 2:1-11). After this event, there are some events with Mary present along with her other sons (James, Joseph, Simon and Judas) and sometimes her daughters (never named)[Matthew 13:54-56; Mark 6:3; Acts 1:14; Roman Catholics do not believe these to be Mary's children, but perhaps some relatives or some others.] We find her at the Cross along with her sister Mary, and Mary Magdalene, Salome and other women (John 19:26). Mary, cradling the dead body of her Son, is a common motif in art, called a "pietà" or "piety". After the Ascension, of about 120 people gathered in the Upper Room on the occasion of the election of Matthias to the vacancy of Judas, Mary is the only person mentioned by name other than the eleven Apostles and the candidates (Acts 1:12-26, especially v. 14 though it is said that Jesus's brothers were there as well in this verse). From this time, she wholly disappears from the historical, Biblical accounts, although it is held by some Christian groups that she is again portrayed as the heavenly Woman of Revelation (Revelation 12:1). Her death is not recorded in Scripture.

Later Christian writings and traditions

According to the Gospel of James, which, though not part of the New Testament, contains biographical material about Mary considered "plausible" by some Orthodox and Catholic Christians, she was the daughter of Joachim and Anna. Before Mary's conception, Anna had been barren, and her parents were quite old when she was conceived. They took her to live in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old, much like Hanna took Samuel to the Tabernacle, as recorded in the Old Testament (Tanakh, Hebrew Bible). Old Testament]] According to Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradition, between three and fifteen years after Christ's Ascension, in either Jerusalem or Ephesus, Mary died; while surrounded by the apostles. Later, when the apostles opened her tomb, they found it empty, and concluded that she had been bodily assumed into Heaven. ("Mary's Tomb" - a tomb in Jerusalem is attributed to Mary, but it was unknown until the 6th century.)

Mary in The Qur'an

And We Made son of Mary and his mother a Sign ... (23.50)

Mary, mother of Jesus, enjoys a singularly distinguished and honored position amongst women in The Qur'an: She is the only woman directly named in The Book; declared (uniquely along with Jesus) to be a Ayat Allah or Sign of The God to mankind (23.50); as one who "guarded her chastity" (66.12); an obedient one (66.12); chosen of her mother and dedicated to Allah whilst still in the womb to the-God (3.36); uniquely (amongst women) Accepted into service by Allah (3.37); cared for by (the High Priest) Zakariya (Zecharias) (3:37); that in her childhood she resided in the Temple and uniquely had access to Al-Mihrab (understood to be the Holy of Holies), and was provided with heavenly 'provisions' by Allah (3:37); a Chosen One (3.42); a Purified One (3.42); a Truthful one (5.75); a fulfillment of Prophecy (66.12); a vessel for the Spirit of The-God breathed into her (66.12); her child conceived through "a Word from The-God" (3.45); and "exalted above all women of The Worlds/Universes" (3.42). The Qur'an relates detailed narrative accounts of Maryam (Mary) in two places: 3:35-47 and 19:16-34. The account given in (Sura 19 of) The Qur'an is nearly identical with that in The Gospel according to Luke, and it should be noted that both of these (Luke, Sura 19) begin with an account of the visitation of an angel upon Zakariya (Zecharias) and Good News of the birth of Yahya (John), followed by the account of the annunciation. It should also be noted that the account in (Sura 3 of) The Qur'an tracks the accounts in Apocrypha, namely the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and infancy gospel of James the Just, regarding the use of 'rods' to determine a guardian/husband after she reached the age of puberty (3.44), and, the account of the scandal caused upon the discovery of her with child (19.27-28), both of which are not recorded in the canonical Gospels. Finally, the Qur'an describes Mary (Maryam) as "sister of Harun" (19.28-29) and "daughter of Imran" (66.12). Harun is the Arabic form of the Hebrew Aaron, while Imran is an Arabic form of the Hebrew Amram. Amran was the father of "Aaron, Moses and Miriam" in the Old Testament (Numbers 26.59). The title "sister of Aaron" is further given to Miriam in the Old Testament. Based on this, some commentators have posited a confusion in the Qur'an between Mary, mother of Jesus and Miriam, sister of Moses. This is denied by other commentators, who argue that the similarity in family names is either coincidental or metaphorical.

Christian and Muslim beliefs about Mary

Immaculate Conception of Mary

: Main article: Immaculate Conception The Immaculate Conception is the doctrine that states that Mary was filled with grace from the very moment of her conception in her mother's womb. While it might be permitted for Orthodox Christians to believe the doctrine, only the Roman Catholic Church has officially adopted this teaching, and the title "Immaculate Conception" is one used only by Catholics. Most Protestants reject the idea that Mary was saved by God from her very first moment, since they consider it unscriptural. While it is technically true to say that Orthodox believe Mary was conceived immaculate, Orthodox do not believe in the same idea of original sin as the West, and they believe all babies are born immaculate. Sin is not considered ontological in Orthodoxy, only the tendency toward it. (This tendency is referenced by the phrase, "ancestral curse," which sometimes leads to confusion on the Orthodox view of the fall.) Mary is considered sinless in the Orthodox Church because it is believed that the grace of God allowed her not to sin, thereby remaining immaculate. So in the Orthodox view, it seems Mary was conceived immaculately but her conception was not out of the ordinary in any way.
Mary's age
Whilst the teaching of the Catholic Church that Mary was a virgin is not accepted by a number of liberal Christian scholars who argue that the Greek term parthenos in Luke 1:27 does not necessarily have to mean "virgin [intacta]" but that there is also evidence for it signifying any "young woman", it is generally agreed that Mary was very young when she conceived Jesus. On the other hand, the "young woman" evidence is based on the Isaiah prophecy hundreds of years prior and is taken from the Hebrew language. Other Christian scholars point out that Joseph "kept her a virgin until she gave birth to a Son" in Matthew 1:25, and it is difficult for the meaning to be "young woman" and not "virgin," as well as the fact that a young woman conceiving would not be much of a sign as a virgin conceiving. Some insight into traditions concerning her later life, e.g., that she died between three and 15 years after the crucifixion of Jesus, can be found in the New Testament Apocrypha. Assuming that Jesus died in his 30s, there is also little reason to doubt that his mother could still be alive at the time of his death, or that she could have witnessed it (cf. Jn 19:25).
Virgin birth of Jesus
Virgin birth, Egypt, 16th century.]] : Main article: Nativity The Apostles' Creed and Nicene Creed both refer to Mary as "the Virgin Mary". This alludes to the belief that Mary conceived Jesus through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and not through intercourse with Joseph or anyone else. That she was a virgin at this time is affirmed by Eastern Christianity, Roman Catholicism and by many (though not all) Protestants. Denial of this is considered heretical by Catholics and Eastern Orthodox (and Evangelicals) alike. Historic Christianity, including modern-day Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, teaches that she was a virgin before, during, and after giving birth to Jesus. Islam also takes this position, which is stated explicitly in the Quran (3:47). Some Protestants also hold this view, while many others believe that she was a virgin when she gave birth to Jesus, but that she later was not and had other children with her husband, Joseph. Catholics and Orthodox explain references to Jesus' brothers as either cousins, or as step-brothers who were Joseph's children by a prior marriage. Pope Boniface VIII denied the virginity of Mary. Persons who are neither Christians nor Muslims generally doubt that Mary was a virgin when she gave birth to Jesus. A common view by non-Christian sources speculates that Mary had relations with a Roman soldier and then married Joseph who protected her from the harsh Jewish laws of the time which would have sentenced her to death by stoning for such an act. This version is recorded by Origen in the third century and attributed to Celsus of the second century, who said he heard it from a Jew, in Origen's Contra Celsum 1.28-32. Also see: Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (Biblical Seminar Series, No 28), Jane Schaberg, ISBN 1850755337. The Gospel of Matthew describes Mary as a virgin who fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah 7:14. The Hebrew word almah that appears in this verse, and the Greek word parthenos that Jews used to translate it in the Greek Septuagint that Matthew quotes here, have been the subjects of dispute for almost two millennia. This disagreement is related to the question of whether Isaiah 7:14 is a prophecy of Jesus' birth. Regardless of the meaning of this verse, it is clear that the authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke asserted that Mary had "no relations with man" before Jesus' birth.

Virgin birth of Jesus in the Qu'ran

The Qur'an quite decisively declares that Jesus was the result of a virgin birth, but that neither she nor her son were divine, but merely "honoured servants" (21.26). The most detailed account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus is provided in Sura 3 and 19 of The Qur'an wherein it is written that Allah/The-God sent an angel to announce that she could shortly expect to bear a son, despite being a virgin:

(Remember) When the angels said O Mary! Allah Gives thee Good News of a son through a Word from Him! His name shall be the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, honoured in this world and in the next, and of those who Are Granted Nearness to Allah! (3.45)

And he shall speak to the people in the cradle, and when of middle age, and he shall be of The Righteous (3.46)

She said My Lord! How shall I have a son when no man has touched me ? He Said, That is as it shall be. Allah Creates what He Pleases. When HE decrees a thing HE says to it "Be" and it is! (3.47)

The Qur'an also declares that one of the reasons (amongsts many listed) for the punishments of The-God upon the People of The Book -- "Allah has sealed their hearts" (4.155) -- is for their "uttering a monsterous lie against Mary" (4.156). This is generally understood to refer to the accusations of wanton unchastity which was directed by some against Mary in her lifetime and which remain recorded in the Talmud. Sura 5 Signs 116-119 of The Qur'an includes the Prophecy of the Judgement Day where "Jesus son of Mary" will be questioned by Allah as regards to those who worship him and Mary, and that Jesus will deny them:

And when ALLAH will say O Jesus, son of Mary, didst thou say to men: Take me and my mother for two gods beside ALLAH ? He will answer Holy art Thou! I could never say that which I had no right. If I had said it, Thou wouldst have surely known it. Thou knowest what is in my mind, and I know not what is in Thy mind. It is Thou alone Who Art the Knower of all hidden things

I said nothing to them except that which Thou didst command me - Worship Allah (The-God), my Lord and your Lord. And I was a witness over them as long as I remained among them, but since Thou didst cause me to die, Thou, hast been the Watcher over them, and Thou art Witness over all things

If Thou punish them, they are Thy servants; and if Thou forgive them, Thou surely art the Mighty, the Wise.

Allah Will Say This is a Day when only The Truthful shall profit by their truthfulness. For them are Gardens beneath which streams flow; therein shall they abide forever. Allah Is well Pleased with them, and they are well pleased with HIM! That indeed is the Supreme Triumph!

Theotokos ("Mother of God")

: Main article: Theotokos At the Third Ecumenical council, the Council of Ephesus (against the Nestorians), A.D. 431, it was decided that it was entirely appropriate to refer to Mary as the Theotokos, to emphasize that Mary's child, Jesus Christ, was in fact God (Denziger §111a). That Council clarified that the Church Fathers "did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God" (ibid.), thus affirming what had always been held as true: e.g. St. Ignatius of Antioch, ca. A.D. 110 (Jurgens §42); Alexander of Alexandria, A.D. 328 (Jurgens §680); among other references from s

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