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Cargo

Cargo

Cargo is a term used to denotes goods or produce being transported generally for commercial gain, usually on a ship, plane, train or lorry. Nowadays containers are used in all intermodal long-haul cargo transport.

External link

- [http://cargolaw.com/gallery.html The Gallery of Transport Loss -- Photos & Lessons of Disaster] Category:Commercial item transport and distribution Category:Transportation ja:貨物

Ship

vessel Amerigo Vespucci in New York Harbor, 1976]] A ship is a large, sea-going watercraft, sometimes with multiple decks. A ship usually has sufficient size to carry its own boats, such as lifeboats, dinghies, or runabouts. A rule of thumb saying (though it doesn't always apply) goes: "a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship can't fit on a boat". Often local law and regulation will define the exact size (or the number of masts) which a boat requires to become a ship. (Note that one refers to submarines as "boats"). Compare vessel. During the age of sail, ship signified a ship-rigged vessel, that is, one with three or more masts, usually three, all square-rigged. Such a vessel would normally have one fore and aft sail on her aftermost mast which was usually the mizzen. Almost invariably she would also have a bowsprit but this was not part of the definition. The same economic pressures which increased sizes to the point of carrying four or five masts, also introduced the fore and aft rig to larger vessels, so few ship-rigged vessels were built with more than three masts. The five-masted Preussen was the outstanding example but the big German ships and barques were built partly for prestige reasons. Nautical means related to sailors, particularly customs and practices at sea. Naval is the adjective pertaining to ships though in common usage, it has come to be more particularly associated with the noun 'navy'.

Measuring ships

One can measure ships in terms of overall length, length of the waterline, beam (breadth), depth (distance between the crown of the weather deck and the top of the keelson), draft (distance between the highest waterline and the bottom of the ship) and tonnage. A number of different tonnage definitions exist; most measure volume rather than weight and are used when describing merchant ships.
- Gross tonnage is a measure of the total internal volume of the ship.
- Net tonnage is expresses a merchant vessel's earning capacity and gives the internal capacity of that part of the ship available for cargo or passengers.
- Thames measurement tonnage was used for smaller vessels and worked to a formula: (length - beam) x beam x ½beam / 94
- Displacement tonnage is normally applied to warships and equals the actual weight of a ship complete with crew, fuel, stores and water.
- Light ship tonnage measures the actual weight of the ship with no fuel, no persons, no cargo, no water on board is not usually quoted.
- Deadweight tonnage is the weight of cargo, stores, passengers etc. which when added to the weight of the ship's structure and equipment, will bring the vessel down to her designed waterline. The word "displacement" arises from the basic physical law, discovered by Archimedes, that the weight of a floating object equates exactly to that of the water which would otherwise occupy the "hole in the water" displaced by the ship. In Britain until the Merchant Shipping Act of 1876, ship-owners could load their vessels until their decks were almost awash, resulting in a dangerously unstable condition. Additionally, anyone who signed onto such a ship for a voyage and, upon realizing the danger, chose to leave the ship, could end up in jail. Samuel Plimsoll, a member of Parliament, realised the problem and engaged some engineers to derive a fairly simple formula to determine the position of a line on the side of any specific ship's hull which, when it reached the surface of the water during loading of cargo, meant the ship had reached its maximum safe loading level. To this day, that mark, called the "Plimsoll Mark", exists on ships' sides, and consists of a circle with a horizontal line through the center. Because different types of water, (summer, fresh, tropical fresh, winter north Atlantic) have different densities, subsequent regulations required painting a group of lines forward of the Plimsoll mark to indicate the safe depth (or freeboard above the surface) to which a specific ship could load in water of various densities. Hence the "ladder" of lines seen forward of the Plimsoll mark to this day.

Propulsion

Until the application of the steam engine to ships in the early 19th century, oars propelled galleys or the wind propelled sailing ships. Before mechanisation, merchant ships always used sail, but as long as naval warfare depended on ships closing to ram or to fight hand-to-hand, galleys dominated in marine conflicts because of their maneuverability and speed. The Greek navies that fought in the Peloponnesian War used triremes, as did the Romans contesting the Battle of Actium. The use of large numbers of cannon from the 16th century meant that maneuverability took second place to broadside weight; this led to the dominance of the sail-powered warship. The development of the steamship became a complex process, the first commercial success accruing to Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat (often called Clermont) in the USA in 1807, followed in Europe by the 45-foot PS Comet of 1812. Steam propulsion progressed considerably over the rest of the 19th century. Notable developments included the condenser, which reduced the requirement for fresh water, and the multiple expansion engine, which improved efficiency. As the means of transmitting the engine's power, the paddle wheel gave way to the more efficient screw propeller. The marine steam turbine developed by Sir Charles Algernon Parsons, brought the power to weight ratio down. He had achieved publicity by demonstrating it unofficially in the 100-foot Turbinia at the Spithead Naval Review in 1897. This facilitated a generation of high-speed liners in the first half of the 20th century and rendered the reciprocating steam engine out of date, in warships. The marine diesel engine first came into use around 1912: either the Vulcanus or the Selandia (depending upon who you talk to) first deployed it. It soon offered even greater efficiency than the steam turbine but for many years had an inferior power-to-space ratio. About this period too, heavy fuel oil came into more general use and began to replace coal as the fuel of choice in steamships. Its great advantages were the convenience and the reduction in manning owing to the removal of the need for trimmers and of stokers in the old-fashioned numbers. Most ships built since around 1960 have used diesel power or motors; one exception, Queen Elizabeth 2 of 1968, started with steam turbines but subsequently converted to diesel as a cost-saving measure. A few ships have used nuclear reactors, but this is not a separate form of propulsion. It merely makes steam to drive the turbines. Nonetheless, it has caused concerns about safety and waste disposal. It has become usual only in large aircraft carriers and in submarines, where the ability to run submerged for long periods holds obvious advantage. In such long-endurance vessels, the saving in bunkerage too, is an important consideration.

General terminology

Ships may occur collectively as fleets, flotillas or squadrons. Convoys of ships commonly occur. A collection of ships for military purposes may compose a navy or a task force. In the past, people counting or grouping disparate types of ship may refer to the individual vessels as bottoms. Groups of sailing ships could constitute, say, a fleet of 40 sail. Groups of submarines (particularly German U-boats in the 1940s) may hunt in packs (often erroneously called wolf packs).

Shipboard terminology

See also: Glossary of nautical terms. The complexity of ships, particularly of sailing ships, led to the development of a rich and various vocabulary. Many of the following terms link to more detailed discussions of nautical terminology.
- Amidships - toward the middle of the vessel.
- Bow - strictly, one of the two curved structures where the hull broadens out from the stem (the pointed end). The bows is a term for the head of the vessel or front of the ship. Compare prow, a more poetical term for the ship's head.
- Stern - the after end of the ship.
- Aft - towards the stern when the relationship is within the ship.
- Astern beyond the stern where the relationship is outside the vessel.
- Starboard - the side of the ship which lies to the right when an observer within the ship faces forward.
- Port - the side of the ship which lies to the left when an observer within the ship faces forward. (A mnemonic to distinguish port and starboard notes that left and port both have four letters. Another incorporates the navigation light: Is there any red port left?)
- (Navigation) Bridge - A structure above the weather deck, extending the full width of the vessel, which houses a command centre, itself called by association, the bridge. A bridge usually extends a little beyond the ship's side to enable observation of boats alongside, or the proximity of a dock or lock gate; these projections are called bridge wings. In big vessels, a docking bridge used to be found aft. (See Lord, Walter. A Night to Remember (1976) p.96). It enabled an officer to observe docking manoeuvres before giving orders. RMS Titanic had one but they have been superseded by closed circuit television cameras.
- Bulkheads - internal "walls" in a ship. Bulkheads are the vertical equivalent of decks. They have a structural function as well as dividing spaces. They serve to prevent collapse of the hull under stress, to maintain stability, in the event of flooding, and to contain fire. Many bulkheads feature watertight doors which, in the case of certain types of ships, the crew may close remotely. An internal "wall" that is not load-bearing is usually referred to as a "partition". It is to a bulkhead as a flat is to a deck.
- Cabin - an enclosed room on a deck or flat.
- Capstan - a winch with a vertical axis.
- Coaming - Raised edges of hatches in decks for keeping water and articles free on the deck from falling into the hold.
- Decks - the structures forming the approximately horizontal surfaces in the ship's general structure. Unlike flats, they are a structural part of the ship.
- Deck Head - The under-side of the deck above. Sometimes panelled over to hide the pipe work. This panelling, like that lining the bottom and sides of the holds, is the ceiling.
- Draft - The vertical distance from the current waterline to the lowest point of the ship or in the part of the ship under consideration.
- Figurehead - symbolic image at the head of a traditional sailing ship or early steamer.
- Forecastle - a partial deck, above the upper deck and at the head of the vessel; traditionally the sailors' living quarters.
- Freeboard - The vertical distance from the current waterline to the highest continuous watertight deck. This usually varies from one part to another.
- Galley - the kitchen of the ship
- Gunwale - Formerly a fabricated band placed for strengthening around the ship at the main or upper deck level to accommodate the stresses imposed by the use of artillery. In later use it is the angle between the ship’s side and upper deck. It remained as a structural member, in wooden boats where it was mounted inboard of the sheer strake regardless of the need for gunnery.
- Bulwark - the extension of the ship's side above the level of the weather deck.
- Hold - In earlier use, below the orlop deck, the lower part of the interior of a ship's hull, especially when considered as storage space, as for cargo. In later merchant vessels it extended up through the decks to the underside of the weather deck.
- Hull - the shell and framework of the basic flotation-oriented part of a ship
- Keel - the central structural basis of the hull
- Kelson - the timber immediately above the keel of a wooden ship.
- Mast - a spar (in a ship, a very heavy one stepped in the keelson) formerly designed for the support of one or more sails. In modern ships, it is a steel or aluminium fabrication which carries navigation lights, radar antennae etc.
- Prow - a poetical alternative term for bows.
- Scupper - a drainage waterway at the edge of a deck, is drained by a pipe or, on the weather deck, a small opening in the bulwarks, leading overboard. It is called a scupper which is distinct from larger openings with hinged covers on the bulwarks, designed for relieving the ship of large quantities of water in a seaway. These are called freeing ports or wash ports..
- Windlass - A winch mechanism, usually with a horizontal axis. used where mechanical advantage greater than that obtainable by block and tackle was needed.
- Weather deck - whichever deck is that exposed to the weather – usually either the main deck or, in larger vessels, the upper deck.

Some types of ships and boats

- Aircraft carrier
- Auto carrier
- Bulk carrier
- Cable Layer
- Capital ship
- Cargo ship
- Catamaran
- Coaster
- Commerce raider
- Container ship
- Corvette
- Cruise ship
- Cruiser
- Cutter
- Destroyer
- Diving support vessel
- Ferry
- Frigate
- Guided missile cruiser
- Icebreaker
- Junk
- Laker
- Lugger
- Minesweeper
- Minehunter
- Ocean liner
- Panamax
- Reefer (refrigerated ship)
- Research vessel
- RO-RO ship (roll on, roll off)
- Sailing ship
- Sloop
- Submarine
- Supertanker
- Tanker
- Tender
- Train ferry
- Tugboat
- Shipyard
- Yacht

Some historical types of ships and boats

Yacht
- Barque A sailing vessel with three or more masts, fore-and-aft rigged on only the aftermost.
- Barquentine A sailing vessel with three or more masts, square-rigged only on the foremast.
- Battle cruiser A light battleship.
- Battleship a large, heavily-armoured and heavily-gunned warship. A term which generally post-dates sailing warships.
- Bilander
- Bireme An ancient vessel, propelled by two banks of oars.
- Birlinn
- Blockade runner A ship whose current business is to slip past a blockade.
- Brig A two-masted, square-rigged vessel.
- Brigantine A two-masted vessel, square-rigged on the foremast and fore-and-aft rigged on the main.
- Caravel
- Carrack
- Clipper
- Cog
- Collier A vessel designed for the coal trade.
- Dreadnought An early twentieth century class of battleship.
- Dromons are the precursors to galleys.
- East Indiaman An armed merchantman belonging to one of the East India companies (Dutch, British etc.)
- Fire ship A vessel of any sort, set on fire and sent into an anchorage with the aim of causing consternation and destruction. The idea is generally that of forcing an enemy fleet to put to sea in a confused, therefore vulnerable state.
- Galleass A sailing and rowing warship, equally well suited to sailing and rowing.
- Galleon A sixteenth century sailing warship.
- Galley A warship propelled by oars with a sail for use in a favourable wind.
- Galliot
- Ironclad A wooden warship with external iron plating.
- Knarr A type of Viking trade ship
- Liberty ship An American merchant ship of the late Second World War period, designed for rapid building in large numbers. (The earliest class of welded ships.)
- Longship A Viking raiding ship
- Man of war A sailing warship.
- Monitor A small, very heavily gunned warship with shallow draft. Designed for land bombardment.
- Paddle steamer A steam-propelled, paddle-driven vessel, a name commonly applied to nineteenth century excursion steamers.
- Pantserschip A Dutch ironclad. By the end of the nineteenth century, the name was applied to a heavy gunboat designed for colonial service.
- Penteconter An ancient warship propelled by 50 oars, 25 on each side.
- Pram A small dinghy, originally of a clinker construction and called in English, as in Danish, a praam. The Danish orthography has changed so that it would now be a pråm in its original language. It has a transom at both ends, the forward one usually small and steeply raked in the traditional design.
- Q-ship A commerce raider camouflaged as a merchant vessel.
- Quinquereme An ancient warship propelled by three banks of oars. On the upper row three rowers hold one oar, on the middle row - two rowers, and on the lower row - one man to an oar.
- Schooner A fore and aft-rigged vessel with two or more masts of which the foremast is shorter than the main.
- Shallop A large, heavily built, sixteenth century boat. Fore and aft rigged. More recently it has been a poetically frail open boat.
- Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull (SWATH) A modern ship design used for Research Vessels and other purposes needing a steady ship in rough seas.
- Steamship A ship propelled by a steam engine.
- Ship of the line A sailing warship of first, second or third rate. That is, with 64 or more guns. Before the late eighteenth century, fourth rates (50-60 guns) also served in the line of battle.
- Torpedo boat A small, fast surface vessel designed for launching torpedoes.
- Tramp steamer A steamer which takes on cargo when and where it can find it.
- Trireme An ancient warship propelled by three banks of oars.
- Xebec
- Victory ship

Quotations

:I must go down to the sea again, to the lonely sea and the sky, :And all I ask is a tall ship, and a star to steer her by... :-John Masefield

External links

- [http://www.shipsystems.net.tf - Reference page]
- [http://www.shipspotting.com/ ShipSpotting.com - shipping image archive]
- Category:Water transport Category:Transportation ja:船舶 ms:Kapal

Train

:For other types of train see train (disambiguation) In rail transport, a train consists of a single or several connected rail vehicles that are capable of being moved together along a guideway to transport freight or passengers from one place to another along a planned route. The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of conventional rail tracks, but might also be monorail or maglev. Propulsion for the train is typically provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Power is usually derived from diesel engines or from electricity supplied by trackside systems. Historically the steam engine was the dominant form of locomotive power, and other sources of power (such as horses, pneumatics, or gas turbines) are possible as well. In American railway terminology, a consist is used to describe the group of rail vehicles which make up a train.

Types of trains

railway terminology, Perth ]] There are various types of trains designed for particular purposes, see rail transport operations. A train can consist of a combination of a locomotive and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit (or occasionally a single powered coach, called a railcar). Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, or run downhill by gravity. Special kinds of trains running on corresponding special 'railways' are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, Dinky Trains, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways. cog railway A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives, and one or more coaches. Alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a "multiple unit". In many parts of the world, particularly Japan and Europe, high-speed rail is utilized extensively for passenger travel. Freight trains comprise wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains (especially Travelling Post Offices) are outwardly more like passenger trains. In the United Kingdom, a train hauled by two locomotives is said to be "double-headed", and in Canada and the United States it is quite common for a long freight train to be headed by three, four, or even five locomotives. Trains can also be mixed, hauling both passengers and freight, see e.g. Transportation in Mauritania. Such mixed trains became rare in many countries, but were commonplace on the first 19th-century railroads. Special trains are also used for track maintenance; in some places, this is called maintenance of way. A single uncoupled rail vehicle is not technically a train, but is usually referred to as such for signaling reasons.

Motive power

maintenance of way] The first trains were rope-hauled or pulled by horses, but from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1920s onwards they began to be replaced by less labor intensive and cleaner (but more expensive) diesel locomotives and electric locomotives, while at about the same time self-propelled multiple unit vehicles of either power system became much more common in passenger service. Most countries had replaced steam locomotives for day-to-day use by the 1970s. A few countries, most notably the People's Republic of China where coal is in cheap and plentiful supply, still use steam locomotives, but this is being gradually phased out. Historic steam trains still run in many other countries, for the leisure and enthusiast market. coal Electric traction offers a lower cost per mile of train operation but at a very high initial cost, which can only be justified on high traffic lines. Since the cost per mile of construction is much higher, electric traction is less favored on long-distance lines. Electric trains receive their current via overhead lines or through a third rail electric system.

Passenger trains

Passenger trains have Passenger cars. Passenger trains travel between stations; the distance between stations may vary from under 1 km to much more. Long-distance trains, sometimes crossing several countries, may have a dining or restaurant car; they may also have sleeping cars, but not in the case of high-speed rail, these arrive at their destination before the night falls and are in competition with airplanes in speed. Very long distance trains such as those on the Trans-Siberian railway are usually not high-speed. Very fast trains sometimes tilt, like the Pendolino or Talgo. Tilting is a system where the passenger cars automatically lean into curves, reducing the centrifugal forces acting on passengers and permitting higher speeds on curves in the track with greater passenger comfort. For trains connecting cities, we can distinguish inter-city trains, which do not halt at small stations, and trains that serve all stations, usually known as local trains or "stoppers" (and sometimes an intermediate kind, see also limited-stop). limited-stop For shorter distances many cities have networks of commuter trains, serving the city and its suburbs. Some carriages may be laid out to have more standing room than seats, or to facilitate the carrying of prams, cycles or wheelchairs. Some countries have some double-decked passenger trains for use in conurbations. Double deck high speed and sleeper trains are becoming more common in Europe. Passenger trains usually have emergency brake handles (or a "communication cord") that the public can operate. Abuse is punished by a fine. fine Large cities often have a metro system, also called underground, subway or tube. The trains are electrically powered, usually by third rail, and their railroads are separate from other traffic, without level crossings. Usually they run in tunnels in the city center and sometimes on elevated structures in the outer parts of the city. They can accelerate and decelerate faster than heavier, long-distance trains. A light one- or two-car rail vehicle running through the streets is not called a train but a tram, trolley, light rail vehicle or streetcar, but the distinction is not strict. The term light rail is sometimes used for a modern tram, but it may also mean an intermediate form between a tram and a train, similar to metro except that it may have level crossings. These are often protected with crossing gates. They may also be called a trolley. Maglev trains and monorails represent minor technologies in the train field. The term rapid transit is used for public transport such as commuter trains, metro and light rail. However, in New York City, lines on the New York City Subway have been referred to as "trains".

Freight trains

Passenger train human waste disposal Freight trains have freight cars. Much of the world's freight is transported by train. In the USA the rail system is used mostly for transporting freight (or cargo). Under the right circumstances, transporting freight by train is highly economic, and also more energy efficient than transporting freight by road. Rail freight is most economic when freight is being carried in bulk and over long distances, but is less suited to short distances and small loads. The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the freight business to road competition. Many governments are now trying to encourage more freight onto trains, because of the environmental benefits that it would bring. road competition]] There are many different types of freight train, which are used to carry many different kinds of freight, with many different types of wagon. One of the most common types on modern railways are container trains, whereby the containers can be lifted on and off the train by cranes and loaded off or onto trucks or ships. ship in 1992.]] This type of freight train has largely superseded the traditional "box wagon" type of freight train, whereby the cargo had to be loaded or unloaded manually. In some countries "piggy back" trains are used whereby trucks can drive straight onto the train and drive off again when the end destination is reached. A system like this is used on the Channel Tunnel between England and France. Piggy back trains are the fastest growing type of freight trains in the United States, where they are also known as 'trailer on flat car' or TOFC trains. There are also some "inter-modal" vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as the trailer of a road vehicle. There are also many other types of wagon, such as "low loader" wagons for transporting road vehicles. There are refrigerator wagons for transporting food. There are simple types of open-topped wagons for transporting minerals and bulk material such as coal and tankers for tranporting liquids and gases. Freight trains are sometimes illegally boarded by passengers who do not wish, or do not have the money, to travel by ordinary means. This is referred to as "Hopping" and is considered by some communities to be a viable form of transport. Most hoppers sneak into train yards and stow away in boxcars. More bold hoppers will catch a train "on the fly", that is, as it is moving, leading to occasional fatalities, some of which go unrecorded.

Famous train routes

Main article: Famous trains Famous historical train services include the:
- Orient Express in Europe.
- Trans-Siberian in Russia.
- Blue Train in South Africa.
- Train-de-Luxe from Johannesburg to Victoria Falls.
- Chihuahua al Pacifico in Mexico.
- Palace on Wheels in Rajasthan, India.
- Frontier Mail and Grand Trunk Express, India.
- The Canadian in Canada.
- 20th Century Limited in the USA.
- City of New Orleans in the USA.
- California Zephyr in the USA.
- The Indian-Pacific and The Ghan in Australia (long-distance rail).
- Puffing Billy and The Gulflander in Australia (heritage and touring).
- Rheingold Express in The Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland, following the course of the Rhine.

Fictional trains

See also: Rail transport in fiction
- Hogwarts Express — Takes Harry Potter to Hogwarts Academy.
- Taggart Comet (Atlas Shrugged)
- The Great Train Robbery — feature film based on a true story, also title of a modern film.
- Starlight Express (Andrew Lloyd Webber) — Musical about an old steam engine being replaced by an electrical engine.
- Galaxy Express 999 — From the manga and anime of the same name by Leiji Matsumoto, this train travels the galaxy from planet to planet.
- The Polar Express — From the book of the same name, this train takes children to the North Pole.
- Runaway Train — Film about escaped inmates on a runaway train.
- Atomic Train — TV movie (1999) A runaway train carrying an atomic bomb into a town.
- Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends TV Series originated from The Railway Series by the Rev.W.Awdry For a list of railway movies, see [http://www.spikesys.com/Trains/rly_movs.html] (website last updated December 5, 1995).

External links

- [http://www.raileurope.co.uk Book European rail travel online]
- [http://www.railfaneurope.net High Speed Train]
- Official [http://ojp.nationalrail.co.uk/planmyjourney/time_table/journey_requirements.asp train times] in the UK (from [http://www.nationalrail.co.uk/ National Rail]).
- [http://www.railserve.com/ RailServe.com: The Internet Railroad Directory] - directory of 10,000 train sites
- [http://www.trainfoamers.com Trainfoamers.com] - It's Free To Talk Trains Again!
- [http://www.trainorders.com Trainorders.com] - Focus on trains of North America Category:Vehicles Category:Rail transport ms:Keretapi ja:列車

Containers

Containerization is a system of intermodal cargo transport using standard ISO containers (also known as isotainers) that can be loaded on container ships, railroad cars, and trucks. There are five common standard lengths, 20 ft (6.1 m), 40 ft (12.2 m), 45 ft (13.7 m), 48 ft (14.6 m) and 53 ft (16.2 m). US domestic standard containers are generally 48 ft and 53 ft. Container capacity (of ships, ports, etc) is measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). A twenty-foot equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo equal to one standard 20 ft (length) × 8 ft (width) × 8.5 ft (height) container. In metric units this is 6.10 m (length) × 2.44 m (width) × 2.59 m (height), or approximately 39 m³. Most containers today are of the 40-ft variety and thus are 2 TEU. 45 ft containers are also designated 2 TEU. Two TEU are referred to as one forty-foot equivalent unit (FEU). These two terms of measurement are used interchangeably. "High cube" containers have a height of 9.5 ft (2.9 m), while half-height containers, used for heavy loads, have a height of 4.25 ft (1.3 m). __TOC__

History

Containerization is an important element of the logistics revolution that changed freight handling in the 20th century. Malcolm McLean claimed to have invented the shipping container in the 1930s in New Jersey. Then a truck owner-operator, McLean explained that while sitting at a dock waiting for cotton bales to be unloaded from his truck then reloaded onto a ship, he realized that the truck itself (with some minor modifications) could be transferred much more efficiently. Years later, McLean founded Sea-Land Corporation, and his first container ship left Port Newark for Texas on April 26, 1956, carrying 58 trailers. Containerization revolutionized cargo shipping. Today, approximately 90% of cargo moves by containers stacked on transport ships. As of 2005 some 18 million containers make over 200 million trips per year, there are ships that can carry over 6,000 TEU, and designers are working on freighters capable of 13,000 TEU. The widespread use of ISO standard containers influenced modifications in other freight moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies or swap bodies into the same sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and changing completely the worldwide use of freight pallets which fit into ISO containers or into commercial vehicles.

Container types

- Dry Van (standard height)
- Dry Van ("high cube")
- Dry Van (half-height)
- Open-Top
- Open-Side pallet
- Side-Door
- Refrigerated
- Auto Rack
- Flat Rack
- Flatbed (platform)
- Bulktainers (for dry goods)
- Tanks (for liquid goods)
- Gas Bottle
- Generator

Biggest container companies

^{(SOURCE: BRS-Alphaliner)}
- Maersk acquired P & O Nedlloyd (13 August 2005), the new combined entity will be called "Maersk Line" starting February 2006.

Other container systems

- Haus-zu-Haus (Germany)
- RACE containers (Australia)

In fiction

The containerization system, containers, tracking of containers, and moving of containers is extensively made use of in the HBO television series The Wire.

References

- Alexander Jung for Der Spiegel (2005). [http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/0,1518,386799,00.html The Box That Makes the World Go Round]. Retrieved November 26, 2005.

External links

- [http://www.export911.com/e911/ship/dimen.htm Dimensions for shipping containers]
- [http://www.ponl.com/topic/home_page/language_en/about_us/useful_information/cargo_care/container_talk Container diagram and other information]
- [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/7.10/ports.html "The 20-Ton Packet"] - Wired Magazine October 1999
- [http://www.aapa-ports.org/pdf/WORLD_PORT_RANKINGS_2002.xls World Port Rankings 2002, by metric tons and by TEUs, American Association of Port Authorities] (xls format, 26.5kb)
- [http://www.shipping-container-housing.com/ Shipping Container Housing Guide] Category:Commercial item transport and distribution Category:Freight equipment Category:Containers Category:Packaging ja:コンテナ

Intermodal freight transport

.]] Intermodal is a term that refers to more than one mode of transport. For example, passenger stations which provides transfers between buses and trains are described as intermodal (see: intermodal passenger transport). This article describes intermodal as applied to the transportation of freight in a container or vehicle, using multiple modes of transportation (rail, ocean carrier, and truck), without any handling of the freight itself when changing modes. The advantage of utilizing this method is that it reduces cargo handling, and so improves security, reduces damages and loss, and allows freight to be transported faster.

History

Pallets made their first major appearance during World War II, when the United States military assembled freight on pallets, allowing fast transfer between warehouses, trucks, trains, ships, and airplanes. Because no freight handling was required, fewer personnel were required and loading times were decreased. Truck trailers were first carried by railway after World War II, an arrangement often called "piggyback". The Canadian Pacific Railway was a pioneer in piggyback transport, becoming the first North American railway to introduce the service in 1952. 1952) on the Baltic Sea in 2004.]] While rudimentary freight containers, then known as lift vans, were used in the United States as early as 1911, it was not until the 1950s that containers started to revolutionize freight transportation. One pioneering railway was the White Pass and Yukon Route, who acquired the world's first container ship, the Clifford J. Rogers, built in 1955, and introduced containers to its railway in 1956. Starting in the 1960s the use of containers increased steadily. Standards for containers were issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) between 1968 and 1970, ensuring interchangeability between different modes of transportation worldwide. The containers became known as ISO containers for this reason. In the United States of America, rail intermodal traffic tripled between 1980 and 2002 according to the Association of American Railroads (AAR), from 3.1 million trailers and containers to 9.3 million.

Equipment

Containers, also known as intermodal containers or as ISO containers because the dimensions have been defined by the ISO, are the main type of equipment used in intermodal transport, particularly when one of the modes of transportation is by ship. Containers are eight feet wide by eight feet six inches high. Their length is usually either 20 feet, 40 feet, or 45 feet, although other lengths exist. They are made out of steel and can be stacked on top of each other. They can be carried by truck, rail, container ship, or aeroplane. steel, 2005.]] Some variations on the standard container exist. Open-topped versions covered by a fabric curtain are used to transport larger loads. A container called a "tanktainer," consisting of a tank fitted inside a standard container, allows liquids to be carried. Refrigerated containers are used for perishables. There is also the swap body, which is typically used for road and rail transport, as they are built too lightly to be stacked. They have folding legs under their frame so that they can be moved between trucks without using a crane. Truck trailers are often used for freight that is transported primarily by road and rail. Typically, regular trailers can be used, and do not need to be specially designed. When travelling by rail, trailers are transported on railway flatcars, an arrangement called "piggyback." A newer method of transporting trailers has been developed by Road-Railer Corporation, which is owned by Norfolk Southern Railway. When the trailers are transported on rail, railway wheel assemblies are placed between the trailers, in effect turning the trailers into one large articulated railway car. This method is faster than carrying trailers on flatcars and requires no extra railway cars, but the trailers need to be specially designed.

Vehicles

Norfolk Southern Container ships are used to transport containers by sea. These vessels are custom-built to hold containers. Some vessels can hold thousands of containers. Their capacity is often measured in TEU or FEU. These initials stand for "twenty feet equivalent unit," and "forty feet equivalent unit," respectively. For example, a vessel that can hold 1,000 40-foot containers or 2,000 20-foot containers can be said to have a capacity of 1,000 FEU or 2,000 TEU. In the year 2005, the largest container ships in regular operation are registered to carry in excess of 8,000 TEUs. In North America, containers are often shipped by rail in well cars. These cars resemble flatcars but have a container-sized depression, or well, in the middle of the car. This depression allows for sufficient clearance to allow two containers to be loaded in the car, one on top of the other. In Europe, stricter railway height restrictions prohibit containers from being stacked two high, and containers are hauled one high either on standard flatcars or other railcars.

References

- DeBoer, David J. (1992). Piggyback and Containers: A History of Rail Intermodal on America's Steel Highway. Golden West Books, San Marino, CA. ISBN 0-87095-108-4.

Containerization

History

Container types

Biggest container companies

^{(SOURCE: BRS-Alphaliner)}
- Maersk acquired P & O Nedlloyd (13 August 2005), the new combined entity will be called "Maersk Line" starting February 2006.

Other container systems

- Haus-zu-Haus (Germany)
- RACE containers (Australia)

In fiction

The containerization system, containers, tracking of containers, and moving of containers is extensively made use of in the HBO television series The Wire.

References

- Alexander Jung for Der Spiegel (2005). [http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/0,1518,386799,00.html The Box That Makes the World Go Round]. Retrieved November 26, 2005.

External links

Cargo airline

]] Cargo airlines are airlines dedicated to the transport of cargo. Some cargo airlines are divisions or subsidiaries of larger passenger airlines.

Aircraft used

Larger cargo airlines tend to use new or recently built aircraft to carry their freight, but many use older aircraft, like the Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, Ilyushin 76. Examples of the 60-year-old Douglas DC-3 are still flying around the world carrying cargo (as well as passengers). Short range turboprop airliners such as the Fokker Friendship and British Aerospace ATP are now being modified to accept standard air freight pallets to extend their working lives. This normally involves the replacement of glazed windows with opaque panels, the strengthening of the cabin floor and insertion of a broad top-hinged door in one side of the fuselage. A number of cargo airlines carry a few passengers from time to time on their flights, and UPS once unsuccessfully tried a passenger charter airline division.

Noteable cargo airlines, in the history of air cargo

- ABX_Air
- Airborne Express
- Air Hong Kong
- American International Airways/Kalitta
- Atlas Air
- Burlington Air Express
- Cargolux
- Challenger Air Cargo
- DAS Air Cargo
- DHL Aviation
- Emerald Air
- Emery Worldwide
- FedEx
- Fine Air
- Flying Tiger Line
- Gemini Air Cargo
- Heavylift Cargo Airlines
- Kalitta Air
- KLM Cargo
- Lufthansa Cargo
- Martinair
- National Air Cargo
- Nippon Cargo Airlines (NCA, an associate of ANA)
- Polar Air Cargo
- Purolator
- Seaboard World Airlines
- Singapore Airlines Cargo
- TNT
- Tol Air
- UPS
- United States Postal Service
- Volga-Dnepr

World's largest freight carriers by scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown

2004 total scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown

#Federal Express 14.579 million #Korean Air 8.264 million #Lufthansa 8.040 million #United Parcel Service 7.353 million #Singapore Airlines 7.143 million #Cathay Pacific 5.876 million #China Airlines 5.642 million #Eva Airways 5.477 million #Air France 5.388 million #Japan Airlines 4.924 million

2004 international scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown

#Korean Air 8.164 million #Lufthansa 8.028 million #Singapore Airlines 7.143 million #Cathay Pacific 5.876 million #China Airlines 5.642 million #Federal Express 5.595 million #Eva Airways 5.477 million #Air France 5.384 million #British Airways 4.771 million #Cargolux 4.670 million

2004 domestic scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown

#Federal Express 8.984 million #United Parcel Service 4.260 million #Northwest Airlines 0.949 million #China Southern Airlines 0.860 million #American Airlines 0.576 million #Delta Air Lines 0.557 million #Air China 0.531 million #United Airlines 0.525 million #Cargojet Airways 0.517 million #China Eastern Airlines 0.458 million Source for 2004 data: International Air Transport Association. Note that it only includes data for member airlines. Category:Commercial item transport and distribution Category:Airlines

Cargo cult

:This article is about cargo cults as a religious phenomenon. For the musician see Cargo Cult (music). A cargo cult is any of a group of religious movements that occurred in Melanesia, in the Southwestern Pacific. The Cargo Cults believed that manufactured western goods ('cargo') were created by ancestral spirits and intended for Melanesian people. White people, however, had unfairly gained control of these objects. Cargo cults thus focused on purifying their communities of what they perceived as 'white' influences by conducting rituals similar to the white behavior they had observed, presuming that this activity would make cargo come. A characteristic feature of Cargo Cults is the belief that spiritual agents will at some future time give much valuable cargo, and desirable manufactured products to the cult members. Cargo cults have been recorded since the 19th century, but have been continuously growing since World War II. The cult participants don't fully understand the significance of manufacturing or commerce. They have limited purchasing authority. Their understanding of western society, religion, and economics may be rudimentary. These cults are a response to the resulting confusion and insecurity. They rationalize their situation by the reference to religious and magical symbols they associate with Christianity and modern western society. Across cultural differences and large geographic areas, there have been instances of the movements independently organizing. The most famous examples of Cargo Cult behavior are the airstrips, airports, and radios made out of coconuts and straw. The cult members built them in the belief that the structures would attract transport planes full of cargo. Believers stage "drills" and "marches" with twigs for rifles and military-style insignia and "USA" painted on their bodies to make them look like soldiers. Today, most historians and anthropologists argue that the term 'Cargo Cult' is a misnomer that describes a variety of phenomena. However, the idea has captured the imagination of many people in the First World, and the term continues to be used today. For this reason, and possibly many others, the cults have been labelled millennialist, in the sense of a utopian future brought about by a messiah.

History

Discussions of cargo cults usually begin with a series of movements that occurred in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. The earliest cargo cult was the 'Tuka Movement' that began in Fiji in 1885. Other early movements occured mostly in Papua New Guinea, including the Taro Cult in Northern Papua, and the Vailala Madness documented by F.E. Williams, one of the first anthropologists to conduct fieldwork in Papua New Guinea. The classic period of cargo cult activity, however, was in the years during and after World War II. The vast amounts of war matériel that were air-dropped into these islands during the Pacific campaign against the Empire of Japan necessarily meant drastic changes to the lifestyle of the islanders. Manufactured clothing, canned food, tents, weapons and other useful goods arrived in vast quantities to equip soldiers—and also the islanders who were their guides and hosts. By the end of the war the airbases were abandoned, and "cargo" was no longer being dropped. In attempts to get cargo to fall by parachute or land in planes or ships again, islanders imitated the same practices they had seen the soldiers, sailors and airmen use. They carved headphones from wood, and wore them while sitting in fabricated control towers. They waved the landing signals while standing on the runways. They lit signal fires and torches to light up runways and lighthouses. The cultists thought that the foreigners had some special connection to their own ancestors, who were the only beings powerful enough to produce such riches. In a form of sympathetic magic, many built life-size mockups of airplanes out of straw, and created new military style landing strips, hoping to attract more airplanes. Ultimately, though these practices did not bring about the return of the god-like airplanes that brought such marvelous cargo during the war, they did serve to eradicate the religious practices that had existed prior to the war. Eventually the cargo cults petered out. But, from time to time, the term "cargo cult" is invoked as an English language idiom, to mean any group of people who imitate the superficial exterior of a process or system without having any understanding of the underlying substance. The term is perhaps best known because of a speech by physicist Richard Feynman at a Caltech commencement, which became a chapter in the book "What Do You Care What Other People Think?". In the speech, Feynman pointed out that cargo cultists create all the appearance of an airport—right down to headsets with bamboo "antennas"—yet the airplanes don't come. Feynman argued that some scientists often produce studies with all the trappings of real science, but which are nonetheless pseudoscience and unworthy of either respect or support.

Other instances of cargo cults

A similar cult, the dance of the spirits, arose from contact between Native Americans and the Anglo-American civilization in late 19th century. The Paiute prophet Wovoka preached that by dancing in a certain fashion, the ancestors would come back on railways and a new earth would cover the white people. A religion described as a "cargo cult" developed during the Vietnam War among some of the Hmong people of Southeast Asia. The core of their beliefs was that the second coming of Jesus Christ was imminent, only this time he would arrive wearing camouflage fatigues driving a military jeep to come and take them away to the promised land. The origins are unknown, but one can surmise that it was assembled out of the images of new power apparent to them in that time period, in the form of the American Military and of western Christian missionaries. A more recent example of a mythological worldview misinterpreting scientific practices occurred in Africa, where an aid organization, focusing on slowing and stabilizing population growth, distributed abacuses with red and white beads corresponding to a women's menstrual cycle. Women were instructed to move one bead a day, only having intercourse on days represented by a white bead. Unfortunately, the experiment failed, and the population grew in the households using the abacus. The women believed the abacuses were magical, and that they would be protected from pregnancy by moving a white bead into the place of the red bead before intercourse. Some Amazonian Indians have carved wood mockups of cassette players (gabarora from Portuguese gravadora or Spanish grabadora) that they use to communicate with spirits.

Analogues in modern culture

The cargo cult has been used as an analogy to describe certain phenomena in the First World, particularly in the area of business. After any substantial commercial success—whether it is a new model of car, a vacuum cleaner, a toy or a motion picture—there typically arise imitators who produce superficial copies of the original, but with none of the original's substance. In the world of military aviation, the Soviet Tupolev Tu-4 bomber is the subject of a cargo cult urban legend. The bomber was a direct copy of an American Boeing B-29 Superfortress which had, in 1944, been damaged while bombing Japan. The captain of the B-29 had set his plane down in Vladivostok, Russia. It was held by the Soviets while the design was copied. Supposedly, the Russian engineers (who were ordered by Stalin to make "exact" copies and feared for their lives) even copied the damage from Japanese air defense guns, incorporating the bullet holes into the design, assuming that they were design features. [http://aeroweb.lucia.it/~agretch/RAFAQ/Tu-4.html] The term is also used in the world of software engineering, as "cargo cult programming," which describes the ritual inclusion of code which may serve no purpose in the program, but is believed to be a workaround for some computer bug. In addition to these metaphorical uses of the term, believers in NESARA, an alleged secret law passed by Bill Clinton before leaving office, have also been described as modern cargo cultists [http://media-master.orkut.com/articles/0231.html].

Sources and further reading

- Jebens, Holger (ed.). Cargo, Cult, and Culture Critique. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2004.
- Kaplan, Martha. Neither cargo nor cult : ritual politics and the colonial imagination in Fiji. Durham : Duke University Press, 1995.
- Lawrence, Peter. Road belong cargo : a study of the Cargo Movement in the Southern Madang District, New Guinea. Manchester University Press, 1964
- Lindstrom, Lamont. Cargo cult : strange stories of desire from Melanesia and beyond. Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press, 1993.
- Worsley, Peter. The trumpet shall sound : a study of "cargo" cults in Melanesia. London : MacGibbon & Kee, 1957.
- Harris, Marvin. "Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches: The Riddles of Culture". New York : Random House, 1974.
- Inglis, Judy. Cargo Cults: The Problem of Explanation. Oceania vol. xxviii no. 4, 1957.
- K, E. Read. A Cargo Situation in the Markham Valley, New Guinea. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. vol. 14 no. 3, 1958.

External links

- [http://anth.ucalgary.ca/DHatt/Anth473/Cargo.htm A presentation on Cargo Cults]
- [http://enzo.gen.nz/jonfrum/index.htm Information on the Jon Frum Cargo Cult (still active)]
- [http://www.coolth.com/cargo.htm Contemporary Cargo Cults by John FitzGerald] Category:magic Category:Cults

Category:Commercial item transport and distribution

This category comprises the transport and distribution of cargo, goods, and other items of commerce. Although many of the articles within this category also deal with transporting people, passenger transportation is outside the scope of this category. (See :Category:Tourism) Category:Transportation Category:Industries Category:Consumer goods

Shit

Das (auch: der) Haschisch (arabisch das Gras/Kif) besteht aus dem Harz der weiblichen Hanfpflanze und ist eine Droge. Die allgemeinen Eigenschaften der Droge sind unter Cannabis beschrieben, die Eigenschaften der Pflanze unter Hanf. Haschisch wird meist geraucht (in Pfeifen oder Joints), aber auch in Speisen oder Getränken konsumiert. Joint thumb Reines Haschisch ist bei gleichem Ausgangsmaterial potenter als Marihuana. Das in Deutschland hauptsächlich verfügbare so genannte "Standard"-Haschisch ("Europlatte"), das meist recht trocken und mittelbraun bis grün ist, enthält jedoch oftmals Streckmittel wie Sand, Staub, Fett, unpotente Pflanzenteile, Damiana oder (selten) Henna oder auch Zahnpasta. Es ist daher in der Wirkung nicht wesentlich stärker als Marihuana. Es gibt jedoch sehr viele Variationen von Haschisch, unter anderem das sogenannte "Pollen-Hasch", bei dessen Herstellung unter die zähe Harz-Masse noch der abgeschüttelte Blütenstaub der Cannabis-Pflanze(oft auch pur als "Skuff" verkauft) gemischt wird. Das in Deutschland erhältliche Haschisch kommt, anders als das Marihuana, zumindest größtenteils aus dem ferneren Ausland (z. B. Marokko). Die niederländischen Pflanzen (fälschlich "Genhanf" genannt) sind durch züchterische Arbeit heute reicher an THC als die Pflanzen aus den traditionellen Anbaugebieten; sie gelangen meist aber nur als Marihuana, oder umgangssprachlich "Gras" oder "Weed", auf den Markt. Andererseits übertrifft Haschisch aus Nepal oder Afghanistan, dessen spezielle Zubereitung und Rezeptur von Generation zu Generation weitergegeben wird, in puncto Rauchgenuss und Wirkung das pure Marihuana. In Zentralasien haben die Karawanenführer früherer Zeiten angeblich bei aufkommenden Sandstürmen Haschischkügelchen an ihre Kamele verfüttert, um diese ruhigzustellen, damit sie nicht durchdrehten und mit ihrer Ladung auf Nimmerwiedersehen in der Wüste verschwanden.

Sorten

Haschisch gibt es in verschiedensten Sorten und Farben. Oft zeigt die Farbe auch seine Herkunft. So kommt schwarzes Haschisch meistens aus Afghanistan, weshalb er auch schwarzer Afghane genannt wird. Rotes Hasch wird oft in Libyen hergestellt, grünes in der Türkei (in Deutschland kaum zu bekommen) und Marokko. Die Farbe bekommt er durch verschiedene Marihuanasorten und verschiedene Zubereitungsarten:
- Schwarzer wird durch Abreiben des Harzes von der wachsenden Pflanze gewonnen. Nach dem Abreiben ist seine Farbe noch grün und wird erst durch langes Kneten schwarz.
- Die Pflanzen, aus denen Roter gewonnen wird, werden so lange auf dem Feld stehen gelassen, bis die Harzdrüsen voll ausgereift sind und eine goldrote Farbe angenommen haben. Dann werden die ganzen Pflanzen über dem Boden abgeschnitten und in Kisten abgeklopft. Die reifen Harzdrüsen brechen sehr leicht ab, fallen zu Boden und werden dann (meistens) zu sog. "Pucks" (wie Eishockey-Pucks) gepresst.
- Grüner wird ähnlich wie Roter hergestellt, nur dass die Pflanzen unreifer geerntet werden und das Schütteln oder Klopfen in mehreren Durchgängen erfolgt, wodurch viele Qualitätsstufen von Zero-Zero bis Standard zustande kommen.

Piece

Ein Piece (englisch Stück, Teil) ist ein Jargonausdruck für eine handelsübliche Menge des gepressten Pflanzenharzes. Das Stück wird dabei von den ursprünglichen Platten oder "Riegeln" abgetrennt, verkauft, später unter Wärmezufuhr zerkleinert, mit Tabak vermischt und in der Regel geraucht. In letzter Zeit sieht man auch immer wieder die eigentlich falsche Schreibweise "Peace" (englisch Frieden), die sich wahrscheinlich in erster Linie wegen der gleichen Aussprache als Missverständnis oder wegen der schwach betäubenden Wirkung, die ein Gefühl von innerem Frieden hervorruft, eingebürgert hat. Kategorie:Halluzinogen Kategorie:Hanf

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subplayer clipper pod xp k lite code pack rapidshare PicasSo2 program SAS download archiwum aukcji scuttle filtr paliwa do fiata chorwacja Kredyt konsolidacyjny w banku opakowania SPRATLY: ANG PAG-ANGKIN Opisy na GG

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Cargo

See also

External link

Ship

Measuring ships

Propulsion

General terminology

Shipboard terminology

Some types of ships and boats

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Train

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Containers

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See also

In fiction

References

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Intermodal freight transport

History

Equipment

Vehicles

References

See also

Containerization

History

Container types

Biggest container companies

Other container systems

See also

In fiction

References

External links

Cargo airline

Aircraft used

Noteable cargo airlines, in the history of air cargo

World's largest freight carriers by scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown

2004 total scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown

2004 international scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown

2004 domestic scheduled freight tonne-kilometres flown

Cargo cult

History

Other instances of cargo cults

Analogues in modern culture

Sources and further reading

See also

External links

Category:Commercial item transport and distribution

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Sorten

Piece

Història

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