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Cannabis (drug)

Cannabis (drug)

:For the physiology and science of the plant, see Cannabis. Cannabis The 'Cannabis' plant can be dried or otherwise processed to yield products containing large concentrations of compounds that have medicinal and psychoactive effects when consumed, usually by smoking or eating. Cannabis (also known as marijuana or marihuana) has been used for medical and psychoactive effects for thousands of years. Throughout the 20th century there was a massive upswing in the use of cannabis as a psychoactive substance, mostly for recreational purposes but to some extent for religious purposes. The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in many parts of the world during the early 20th century, and remains that way today.

History

Cannabis has been known as a medicinal and psychoactive compound from very early in history, and has been used continuously throughout the world, typically without stigma until the mid-20th century, when, mainly under the leadership of the United States, prohibition became increasingly global.

Ancient history

Cannabis was well known to the Scythians, as well as by the Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") used to burn cannabis flowers in order to induce trances. The cult of Dionysus, which is believed to have been originated in Thrace, has also been linked to the effects of cannabis smoke. The most famous users of cannabis though were the ancient Hindus. It was called 'ganjika' in Sanskrit ('ganja' in modern Indian languages). According to legend, Shiva, the destructive aspect of the Hindu trinity, told his disciples to use the hemp plant in all ways possible. Cannabis is also thought by some to be the ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, although a number of advocates for different psychoactive substances such as Amanita muscaria make this claim as well.

Recent history

Under the name cannabis 19th century medical practitioners helped to introduce the herb's drug potential (usually as a tincture) to modern English-speaking consciousness. It was famously used to treat Queen Victoria's menstrual pains, and was available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs such as aspirin took over. The name marijuana (Mexican Spanish marihuana, mariguana) is associated almost exclusively with the herb’s drug potential. The term marijuana is now well known in English as a name for drug material due largely to the efforts of US drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 1930s, who deliberately used a Mexican name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal. Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. Louis Armstrong became one of its most prominent and life-long devotees. Cannabis use was also a prominent part of 1960s counterculture. Today in America, there are 10 states that provide some legal protection for patients who use marijuana with the consent or recommendation of a doctor. Most recently, Vermont became the 10th state to pass medical marijuana legislation. Tolerance for the drug appears to be growing in non-medical respects as well. For example, currently in Oregon and Ann Arbor, Michigan, possession of less than one ounce of marijuana for personal use by an adult is considered a violation, not a crime, and is punishable by a simple fine. On November 1, 2005, the city of Denver, Colorado passed in a 53%-46% vote to legalize the possession of up to an ounce of marijuana for adults over 21 . On December 2, 2005, a broad coalition of political parties in Amsterdam, Netherlands, unveiled a pilot program to allow farmers to legally grow marijuana. As it stands currently, designated coffee shops can sell cannabis, but must be supplied by underground grow operations.

New breeding and cultivation techniques

grow operationWith advances in breeding and cultivation techniques, the diversity, quality and potency of cannabis strains has been slowly increasing over the last 20 years, and these strains are now widely smoked all over the world. These advances- the sinsemilla technique, breeding, seed banks, hydroponics, cloning, lighting techniques, sea of green, etc— have been in part a response to prohibition enforcement efforts which have made outdoor cultivation more risky, and so efficient indoor cultivation more critical. Legalization advocates claim that the increases in potency - and ramifications thereof - have been exaggerated by prohibitionist factions both in and out of government. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experience with cannabis when speaking to their children, on the premise that marijuana today is significantly stronger - and so more dangerous - than that which they themselves might have smoked in the past. In a general pattern of proposing reverses in cannabis rescheduling, the UK government is considering scheduling stronger cannabis (skunk, in local parlance) as a separate, more restricted substance.

Immediate effects of human consumption

The nature and intensity of the immediate effects of cannabis consumption vary according to the dose, the species or hybridization of the source plant, the method of consumption, the user's mental and physical characteristics (such as possible tolerance), and the environment of consumption. Effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Cannabis sativa species tends to produce more of the cognitive or perceptual effects, while Cannabis indica tends to produce more of the physical effects.

Cognitive, behavioral, or perceptual

Cannabis has a broad spectrum of possible cognitive, behavioral, or perceptual effects, the occurrence of which vary from user to user. Some of these are the intended effect desired by users, some may be considered desirable depending on the situation, and others are generally considered undesirable. Users of cannabis report that these kinds of effects are more often produced by the sativa species of Cannabis.

Physical or sensory

Cannabis also has effects that are predominantly physical or sensory. It is widely believed that the indica species of Cannabis is more likely to produce effects like these.

List of effects

- Anti-emetic properties
- Modulation of working and short-term memory
- Impairment of short-term memory
- Dizziness, headaches (can be caused by overconsumption or impurities)
- Enhancement of many other drugs (including alcohol, ecstasy, tobacco and many others)
- Auditory or visual hallucinations at high doses in some users
- Exaggerated ambidexterity
- Paramnesia, repetitiveness and ambiguation
- Mental clarity
- Increased appetite(sometimes refered to as "munchies")
- Increased sexual pleasure
- Increased awareness of sensation
- Increased awareness of patterns and colors
- Increased mental activity, like metacognition
- Induced sense of novelty
- Initial wakefulness followed by drowsiness and lassitude
- Introspective or meditative states of mind
- Irritability in certain individuals
- Loss of coordination and locomotion at some doses
- Disorientation
- Loss or gain of inhibitions
- Mild euphoria, feelings of general well-being
- Nausea in certain individuals
- Paranoia, agitation, and anxiety
- Relaxation or stress reduction
- Tachycardia (Increased heart rate)
- Dry mouth (sometimes referred to as cottonmouth pasties desert throat)
- Immune system modulation

List of therapeutic effects

- Pain relief (especially headaches and cramps).
- Increased appetite, food subjectively tastes better.
- Reduced nausea, (especially from chemotherapy), though may cause or exacerbate nausea for some.
- Dilation of alveoli (air sacs) in lungs, resulting in deeper respiration.
- Increase in productive coughs
- Dilation of blood vessels (vasodilation), resulting in:
- Increased blood flow and heart rate
- Reddening of the conjunctivae (red eye)
- Lower intra-ocular pressure (beneficial to glaucoma patients).
- Lower blood pressure while standing. Higher blood pressure while sitting (note that this can lead to instances of orthostatic hypotension).
- Increased metabolism of glucose, reducing blood sugar levels.
- Induces drowsiness (beneficial to sufferers of insomnia and sleep deprivation).

Active ingredients, metabolism, and method of activity

Of the approximately 400 different chemicals found in Cannabis, the main active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC). THC can degrade to CBL & CBN (other cannabinoids), which can make one feel sleepy and disoriented. Different marijuana products have different ratios of these and other cannabinoids. Depending on the ratio, the quality of the "high" will vary. THC has an effect on the modulation of the immune system which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit cancer. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human reproductive system, but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. Mild allergies to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population. A study has shown that holding cannabis smoke in one's lungs for longer periods did not conclusively increase THC's effects.

Lethal dose

It is generally considered to be impossible to achieve a lethal overdose by smoking cannabis. According to the Merck Index, 12th edition, the LD₅₀, the lethal dose for 50% of tested rats, is 42 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. That is equivalent of a 75 kg (≈165 lb) man ingesting all of the THC in 21 one-gram cigarettes of maximum-potency (15% THC) cannabis buds, assuming no THC was lost through burning or exhalation. For oral consumption, the LD₅₀ for rats is 1270 mg/kg and 730 mg/kg for males and females, respectively, equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC cannabis. Only with intravenous administration — an unheard of method of use by humans — may such a level be even theoretically possible. There has only ever been one recorded verdict of fatal overdose due to cannabis, however this finding was found on multiple professional reviews to be "not legitimate". In January 2004, Lee Maisey of the United Kingdom was found dead. The coroner's report stated "Death due to probable cannabis toxicity". It had been reported that Maisey smoked about six joints a day. Mr. Maisey's blood contained 130 nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml) of the THC metabolite THC-COOH. The validity of the finding did not stand up well under review. As reported on 2004-01-28 in the Neue Züricher Zeitung, the Federal Health Ministry of Switzerland asked Dr. Rudolf Brenneisen, a professor at the department for clinical research at the University of Bern, to review the data of this case. Dr. Brenneisen said that the data of the toxicological analysis and collected by autopsy were "scanty and not conclusive" and that the conclusion "death by cannabis intoxication" was "not legitimate". Additionally, Dr. Franjo Grotenhermen of the nova-Institute in Cologne, Germany said: "A concentration of 130 ng/ml THC-COOH in blood is a moderate concentration, which may be observed some hours after the use of one or two joints. Heavy regular use of cannabis easily results in THC-COOH concentrations of above 500 ng/ml. Many people use much more cannabis than Mr. Maisey did, without any negative consequences."

Long-term effects of human consumption

Main article: Health issues and the effects of cannabis There is little conclusive scientific evidence about the long-term effects of human cannabis consumption. The findings of earlier studies purporting to demonstrate the effects of the drug are unreliable and generally regarded as junk science, as the studies were flawed, with strong bias and poor methodology. The most significant confounding factor is the use of other drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, by test subjects in conjunction with cannabis. When subjects using only cannabis were combined in the same sample with subjects using other drugs as well, researchers could not reach a conclusion as to whether their findings were caused by cannabis, other drugs or the interaction between them.

Tolerance, withdrawal and dreams

Although use may become habitual, the extent of physical dependence to cannabis is unknown (DEA, 2004). Many animal and human studies conducted since the 1970s have revealed cannabis withdrawal symptoms in some people after abstinence from heavy use which is usually characterized by a period of anxiousness, sleeplessness, more vivid and memorable dreams, (REM rebound), irritability, and diminished appetite after cessation of use. Because cannabis is a psychedelic drug, unlike typical depressant or stimulant drugs, these persistent effects are typically not as severe as those normally associated with physical dependence. THC molecules break down quickly after ingestion, although some components can be detected for a period of up to a month after use. Although these components are not proven to have any ongoing physical or mental effects in themselves THC undergoes exponential decay, working its way out of the body slowly over many days, thus reducing the potential to cause withdrawal symptoms.

Long-term effects on the mind and brain

There is a growing body of medical evidence showing correlations between cannabis use and psychosis, schizophrenia, and clinical depression. Some believe that cannabis may trigger latent conditions or be part of a complex coordination of causes, referred to as the diathesis-stress model in psychology. On the other hand, many people with pronounced psychological disorders, especially schizophrenia and depression, often self-medicate their illness with cannabis in place of potent main-stream drugs like antipsychotics, due to cannabis's relatively low side effects and calming physiological effects that alleviate symptoms. One concern with research alleging a link between cannabis use and psychotic illness has been that, while a correlation may be drawn, it is not possible to establish causality. Recent research has attempted to address this concern by studying large groups free of mental illness, to examine the proportion of individuals that already use cannabis who go on to develop mental illnesses. Further evidence for causality was provided by a 2005 study showing the existence of a genetic predisposition to cannabis related symptoms of psychosis, by showing correlation between presence of the COMT gene, adolescent cannabis use and symptoms of psychotic illness. The study demonstrates that early adolescent cannabis use is a greater predictor for symptoms of adult psychosis among carriers of the gene. The study attempts to control for prior mental illness and other alternative explanations, thereby establishing causality, though small numbers, symptom screening prior to likely age of symptom onset, and the cohort nature of the study call the result into question. This theory is still hotly disputed , and further research is ongoing. Some claim that extended use of cannabis may help a human reach a higher level of mental consciousness and clarity, expanding the mind and helping individuals become more aware, insightful and intelligent. These claims may seem to be contradictory while indicating differing views of a common effect.

Long-term physical effects of smoking

The combustion of any organic material creates irritants and carcinogens, and cannabis is no different. The long-term effects of smoking any substance depends on frequency of use, duration of inhalation, and composition of the smoke. This leads many to assume that the effects of cannabis can be directly compared to other well-known smoking materials such as tobacco. However, direct, volume-for-volume comparisons of the two are probably invalid because the chemical composition and methods of usage are not the same. Studies on the subject are inconclusive and have not isolated all the possible factors exacerbating or ameliorating the effects of cannabis user. Here are some of these factors:

Possibly exacerbating factors:

- Studies have pointed out that cannabis produces more tar and burns at a higher temperature than tobacco.
- Many cannabis smokers inhale the smoke more deeply and hold it in their lungs for a longer period of time.

Possibly ameliorating factors

- Generally, even a chronic cannabis user does not inhale a daily volume of smoke equal to even a significant fraction of that of a tobacco smoker.
- Cannabis smoke does not tend to penetrate to the smaller, peripheral passageways of the lungs, concentrating rather on the larger, central passageways.
- Industrialized cultivation and preparation of tobacco introduces a variety of toxic and carcinogenic additives and congeners such as nitrosamines, arsenic, radium-226, and polonium-210. This problem does not pertain to cannabis, the vast majority of which is grown in wild, organic, or hydroponic conditions.
- There is evidence to suggest that cannabinoids present in cannabis may actually serve to protect against cancer. While some studies have claimed a positive correlation between cannabis use and lung cancer, this might primarily indicate only that cannabis use may correlate with tobacco use, and more objective scientific attention is needed to separate these and other factors in order to better understand the potential long-term physiological effects of cannabis use itself. Updated reports seem to suggest that when the data is properly analyzed, the correlation may in fact be negative.

Medicinal use

Medically, cannabis is most often used as an appetite stimulant and pain reliever for certain terminal illnesses such as cancer and AIDS. It is also used to relieve glaucoma and certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, migraine and bipolar disorder. The medical use of cannabis is politically controversial, but it is sometimes recommended informally by physicians. A synthetic version of the major active chemical in cannabis, THC, is readily available in the form of a pill as the prescription drug Marinol. THC has also been found to reduce arterial blockages. A sublingual spray derived from an extract of cannabis has also been approved for treatment of multiple sclerosis in Canada as the prescription drug Sativex - this drug may now be legally imported into the UK on prescription. Ten states in the US allow marijuana consumption for medical purposes; however, Gonzales v. Raich ruled marijuana illegal for any purpose. See section History for information on historic and other medical use.

Spiritual use

Cannabis has a long history of spiritual use, especially in India, where it has been used by wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries. The most famous religious group to use cannabis in a spiritual context is the Rastafari movement, though it is by no means the only group. Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used by ancient Jews, early Christians and Muslims of the Sufi order. Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion, though it is banned in many parts of the world.

Preparations for human consumption

Rastafari movement Rastafari movement (B), a small amount of crushed cannabis (C), and a book of cigarette rolling papers (D).]] rolling papers.]] Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:
- Marijuana or buds, the resin gland-rich flowering tops of female plants.
- Sinsemilla or sensemillia, flowering tops which are free of seeds as a result of being grown in a pollen-free environment. Since no plant energy can go into seed formation, this version is higher in psychoactive components.
- kief or kif, a powder containing the resin glands (glandular trichomes, often incorrectly called "crystals" or "pollen"). It is produced by sifting marijuana and leaves.
- Hashish, a concentrated resin made from pressing kif into blocks.
- Charas, produced by hand-rubbing the resin from the resin gland-rich parts of the plant. Often thin dark rectangular pieces.
- Bhang, prepared by the wet grinding of the leaves of the plant and used as a drink.
- Austins Bales, a strain of sinsemilla grown hydroponically and known for its distinct multi-colored buds
- Hash oil, resulting from extraction or distillation of THC-rich parts of the plant.
- Minimally potent leaves and detritus, called shake, bush or leaf. There are also three different species of Cannabis. These include Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis, the latter containing somewhat less THC. They differ in their appearance and the highs they produce.
Smoking
The most common method of cannabis consumption is by smoking a hit through one of several classes of devices: # By rolling it up, either manually or with a rolling machine, into a cigarette, often called a spliff or joint, with thin rolling papers, or into a cigar, often called a blunt, with wrapper obtained by removing the tobacco from the inside of a standard cigar. In such preparation, tobacco or other smokable material are sometimes combined (mulled) into a single roll. # By using a smoking pipe, often called a bowl, usually made of blown glass, wood, or sometimes metal. Blown-glass pipes are usually intricately and colorfully designed, with colors becoming more vivid after repeated use. Such pipes usually have a rush, choke, or carb, short for carburetor or shotgun hole which is covered by a finger for suction when beginning smoking, which is released to finish inhalation, thus clearing the pipe of smoke without advancing the burning any further. Tobacco pipes, pipes home-made by the user, and others, are also sometimes used. Some users prefer a vertically held ceramic or glass pipe, known as a chillum, coming from India. # In a water-pipe, or bong, by which the smoke is filtered through water into a large chamber. The design originated in Vietnam, bong likely being a corruption of the Thai word "baung", and was brought back to the states by American soldiers returning from the war. It should be noted that smoking from a bong loaded with cold water, ice, or snow will greatly cool the smoke and reduce adverse effects of the heat. Bong use is common and enables smoking techniques that are not possible with a simple smoking pipe. Other designs include the waterfall bong and bucket bong. The term gravity bong has different meaning in different cultures but usually refers to either of these two latter devices. # In a shottie (U.S. Bulldozer), which is generally a 500ml/50cl carbonated drinks bottle, although any bottle, even glass, can be used. A bong pipe is inserted into a small hole, usually burnt or somehow put near the bottom of the bottle, but leaving enough room to allow for approx. 75ml of water. No rush is required so there is only ONE hole on a shottie, other than the mouth piece.
Oral consumption
Cannabis may be orally consumed by blending it with alcohol or fats. With this method, some claim that more cannabis must be used. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be more physical rather than mental. A strong dose of oral cannabis is considered to give a stronger experience than smoked cannabis. It is thought that the active component of cannabis, delta- 9 THC, is converted to the more psychoactive delta-11 THC in the liver. It takes some experience for one to regulate the dose. Common preparations involve blending with butter (to create cannabutter) that is used in preparing brownies, fudge, cookies or ganja goo balls. Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India. As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before taking the drug to increase the effect (possibly because an empty stomach will absorb the drug faster so it 'hits' you more strongly). Still, it usually takes more than an hour for the effects to set in, as opposed to smoking, where it takes a few minutes. Cannabis could also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and little water soluble (few grams/litre), but enough to make a tea effective. The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, are appreciated by many species of birds. Contrary to popular belief, marijuana seeds are illegal under U.S. law, which declares "all parts of the plant Cannabis sativa" illegal. This also includes sticks, stems and leaves. See Cooking with cannabis external links below.
Vaporization
Usually with a vaporizer, cannabis can be heated to a temperature of about 365°F, at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many toxic chemicals that are byproducts of combustion. Combustion also breaks down more of the cannabinoids present in cannabis, although the concentrations of the various cannabinoids may be different from those in smoked cannabis. Some users claim to experience subtly different effects when using cannabis in this way. In addition, users note an improved ability to distinguish subtle characteristics of flavor and aroma, in absence of lighter gas fumes or burnt matter.
Legality
Since the twentieth century, most countries have laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis (and, naturally, these laws impact adversely on the herb's cultivation for non-drug purposes) but there are many regions where certain circumstances of cannabis handling are legal or licensed and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also decriminalized possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation and/or a fine, rather than imprisonment. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who traffic and sell the drug on the black market. However this does not solve the problem of how a user will obtain the 'legal amount' of marijuana, since buying or growing marijuana is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. However, simple possession can carry long jail terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, and the sale of cannabis can lead to life in prison or even the sentence of death by execution.
Prohibition and criminalization in the US
Until 1937, consumption and sale of cannabis was legal in most American states. In some areas it could be openly purchased in bulk from grocers or in cigarette form at newsstands, though an increasing number of states had begun to outlaw it. In that year, federal law made possession or transfer of cannabis (without the purchase of a by-then-incriminating tax stamp) illegal throughout the United States. This was contrary to the advice of the American Medical Association at the time. Legal opinions of the time held that the federal government could not outlaw it entirely. The tax was $100 per pound of hemp, even for clothes or rope. The expense, extremely high for that time, was such that people stopped openly buying and making it. The decision of the U.S. Congress was based in part on testimony derived from articles in the newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst, who was heavily interested in DuPont Inc. Some analysts theorize DuPont wanted to boost declining post-war textile sales, and wished to eliminate hemp fiber as competition. Many argue that this seems unlikely given DuPont's lack of concern with the legal status of cotton, wool, and linen; although it should be noted that hemp's textile potential had not yet been largely exploited, while textile factories already had made large investments in equipment to handle cotton, wool, and linen. Others argue that DuPont wanted to eliminate cannabis because its high natural cellulose content made it a viable alternative to the company's developing innovation: modern plastic. Still, others could argue that hemp could never truly compete with the high strength and elasticity of synthetics, such as nylon. Furthermore, hemp would have been an easy target due to its intoxicating effect, while no rational justification could have been made for outlawing cotton, wool, or linen. nylon.]] During this period, Henry (Harry) Anslinger, then-Commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, alleged that the drug could provoke criminal behavior in previously solid citizens. Angslinger was a prohibitionist and believed anti-marijuana laws would help encourage a revival of alcohol's prohibition. Anslinger also popularized the word marihuana for the plant, using a Mexican derived word (believed to be derived from an archaic Brazilian Portuguese term for inebriation, "Maria Joana") in order to associate the plant with increasing numbers of Mexican immigrants, creating a negative stereotype which persists to this day. The 1937 federal marijuana tax act was struck down by the Supreme Court in 1969. In a case brought by Timothy Leary, the Court held that the law's requirement that a would-be possessor of marijuana register with the local bureau of the IRS, thereby placing his name and address on a file available to local law enforcment, violated the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, given the fact that at the time all 50 states had state laws on the books outlawing marijuana outright. In 1970, the Controlled Substances Act made possession of marijuana illegal again on a federal level, without the Fifth Amendment issues that scuttled the 1937 act, and without apparent concern for the issues which required the Eighteenth Amendment to effect the prohibition of alcohol. Several petitions for cannabis rescheduling in the United States have been filed, since the Act permits legalization of marijuana through the executive branch.
References
# # # # WK14 # # # # Bruce Mirken and Mitch Earleywine: # PMID 11097557 # # #
Related articles

- 420 (drug culture)
- Bhang
- Cannabis cultivation
- coffee shop
- Drug policy of the Netherlands
- Emerald Triangle
- Fitz Hugh Ludlow ("The Hasheesh Eater")
- Gateway drug
- Grow-op
- Hash oil
- Head shop
- Jack Herer
- List of cannabis strains
- List of street names for Cannabis
- Marijuana Parties
- Seed bank
- Shake
- Soap bar
- Stoner
- Victor Robinson
- War on Drugs
- Wiktionary appendix of cannabis slang
- Psychoactive drug
External links

- [http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis.shtml Erowid.org Cannabis Information Bank]
- [http://www.nap.edu/html/marimed/ Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base]
- [http://haszysz.ovh.org Marihuana Information]
- [http://www.undcp.org/report_1998-10-01_1_page003.html UN Drug Control and Prevention factsheet]
- [http://www.thehia.org/history/history.htm Hemp History]
- [http://www.norml.org National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws] (NORML)
- [http://www.acde.org/common/Marijana.htm Basic facts about marijuana] from the American Council for Drug Education
- [http://www.friendsofcannabis.com An extensive list of historical and contemporary users of cannabis ]
- [http://www.christiansforcannabis.com ChristiansForCannabis.Com]
- [http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/marijuana.html National Institute on Drug Abuse]
- [http://www.forbes.com/lifestyle/health/feeds/hscout/2005/10/13/hscout528519.html Marijuana Spurs Brain Cell Growth] | [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Study_finds_marijuana_use_leads_to_brain_development_in_rats related Wikinews story]
- [http://www.geopium.org/Photos/Maroc_Rif2005/Maroc_Rif2005.htm Four full pages of photos of cannabis cultivation in Morocco (Rif) on www.geopium.org]
- [http://www.geopium.org/Chouvy-JIR-NOV2005-Morocco_said_to_produce_nearly_half_of_the_worlds_hashish_supply.html A recent publication on hashish production and trafficking in the Rif area of Morocco] Category:Herbal & fungal drugs/medicines Marijuana Category:Cannabis ja:大麻 ms:Marijuana

Cannabis

Cannabis indica
Cannabis ruderalis
Cannabis sativa Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant that includes one or more species. The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions just north of the Himalayas in India. It is also known as hemp, although this term usually refers to cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flowers (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively referred to as hash oil. Its use in this regard is documented more extensively in the article cannabis (drug).
Species
The genus Cannabis was formerly placed with nettles in the family Urticaceae or with mulberries in the family Moraceae, but is now considered along with hops (Humulus sp.) to belong to the family Cannabaceae. Whether the different strains of Cannabis constitute a single species (Cannabis sativa L.) or multiple species has been a contentious issue for well over two centuries. Ernest Small conducted a taxonomic investigation of Cannabis and concluded that there is only a single species with two subspecies, sativa and indica, each divisible into a cultivated and a wild variety. According to this concept, C. sativa subsp. sativa was selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production and has low levels of the psychoactive delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production and has relatively high levels of THC. Botanists Richard E. Schultes and Loran Anderson also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis, and concluded that sufficient evidence exists to support recognition of three species, Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica Lam., and Cannabis ruderalis. According to their species descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, Cannabis indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and Cannabis ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This concept was embraced by cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains. A recent study of genetic variation in Cannabis supports recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, although the existence of a third species, "C. ruderalis", is less certain. This study assigned hemp (fiber/seed) landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Cannabis indica includes both narrow-leafed drug (NLD) and wide-leafed drug (WLD) strains, as well as southern and eastern Asian hemp strains and feral Himalayan populations. Cannabis is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Ghost Moth and The Nutmeg.
Etymology
The name cannabis is thought to be of Scythian origin. Possibly it has an earlier origin in Semitic languages like Hebrew, in Exodus 30:23 God commands Moses to make a holy anointing oil of myrrh, sweet cinnamon, kaneh bosm, and kassia. In kaneh bosm (Hebrew kannabos or kannabus) kan means "reed" or "cane", while bosm means "aromatic". Greek translations of the Old Testament rendered kan as "reed", leading to possibly erroneous English translations as sweet calamus (Exodus 30:23), sweet cane (Isaiah 43:24; Jeremiah 6:20) and calamus (Ezekiel 27:19; Song of Songs 4:14). Sara Benetowa of the Institute of Anthropological Sciences in Warsaw is quoted in the Book of Grass as saying:
The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic kanbos and the Scythian cannabis lead me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history. The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations through Asia Minor.
Comparing the English word hemp and the Greek word kannabis shows that the word came down from the Common Indo-European language. Words like kanapish for "hemp" occur in some Finno-Ugrian languages. It is likely that, soon after agriculture started, hemp as a cultivated plant spread widely, carrying its name with it.
Aspects of cannabis use

- Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a psychoactive drug. :
- Cannabis cultivation :
- Health issues and the effects of cannabis :
- Legal issues of cannabis :
- List of cannabis strains :
- Wiktionary Appendix of Cannabis Slang
- Pot tea discusses its use as an herbal beverage.
- Cannabis (spiritual use) discusses traditional and entheogenic use of cannabis, by Rastafari, Hindus, Sufis and others.
- Medical cannabis discusses its use as a medicinal drug.
- Hemp discusses its uses as a source of housing, oil, food, fibers, and industrial materials.
Pharmacology
fibers]] The pharmacology of cannabis is complex, due to a wide variety of terpenoid and terpenophenolic compounds (cannabinoids) in the essential oil. The most important pharmacologically active cannabinoids are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), cannabidiol, and cannabinol (a degradation product of Δ⁹-THC).
Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
cannabinol.]] The best known component of cannabis is THC. This psychoactive compound may produce relaxation, euphoria, concentration or diffusion of attention, altered space-time perception, alteration of visual, auditory, and olfactory senses, and appetite stimulation. Cannabis strains cultivated for medicinal, spiritual, and recreational use have a high content of THC, whereas certified industrial hemp strains have a low THC content. Most hemp farmers try to maximize the amount of fiber, seed, or oil that the plants produce. However, most marijuana growers try to maximize the number of glandular trichomes produced on the floral clusters of unfertilized female plants. The glandular trichomes secrete an essential oil having high concentrations of cannabinoids.
Cannabinoids
recreational In addition to Δ⁹-THC, the essential oil of cannabis includes the non- psychoactive cannabinoids cannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinolic acid. These latter compounds are thought to produce certain beneficial effects such as cell protection, immunosuppression and anti-inflammatory properties. Cannabinoids usually contain a 1,1'-di-methyl-pyrane ring, a variedly derivatized aromatic ring and a variedly unsaturated cyclohexyl ring and their immediate chemical precursors, constituting a family of about 60 bi-cyclic and tri-cyclic compounds.
Cannflavins
Cannabis also contains a related class of compounds, the cannflavins. These compounds have been suggested to contribute certain beneficial effects of cannabis, such as analgesia and anti-inflammatory properties, and are considerably more effective than aspirin. Cannaflavins usually contain a 1,4-pyrone ring fused to a variedly derivatized aromatic ring and linked to a 2nd variedly derivatized aromatic ring and include for example the non-psychoactive cannflavins A and B.
Terpenoids
The essential oil of cannabis also contains many fragrant terpenoids, which may synergize with the cannabinoids to produce its unique effects.
The cannabinoid receptor system
Humans and other animals have two types of cannabinoid receptors: CB1 and CB2. The activation of these receptors is responsible for several of the medicinal and psychotropic effects of consuming cannabis. The discovery of these receptors in the 1980s revolutionized the understanding of cannabis pharmacology, reinforcing many long-standing assertions about its medical efficacy, and suggesting possibilities for cannabis-derived pharmaceutical compounds developed for specific medical purposes.
See also

External links

- [http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis.shtml Erowid's Cannabis Vault] - In-depth collection of cannabis-related resources.
- [http://www.overgrow.com/ Overgrow.com] - Compliments erowid, is superior in the supply of first generation knowledge, and caters to the recreational, medicinal, spiritual, horticultural, and scientific cannabis communities.
- [http://www.cannabis.com/ Cannabis.com]
- [http://www.norml.org/ NORML] - U.S. organization for reforming Marijuana laws.
- [http://www.acmed.org/ Int'l Association for Cannabis as Medicine] - International association promoting medicinal marijuana.
- [http://www.drugpolicy.org/marijuana/factsmyths/ Drug Policy Alliance] - Cannabis myths and facts
- [http://science.howstuffworks.com/marijuana.htm How Marijuana Works] - the "how stuff works" article on marijuana.
- [http://friendsofcannabis.com People using Cannabis] - A list with historical and contemporary users of cannabis
- [http://www.geopium.org/Photos/Maroc_Rif2005/Maroc_Rif2005.htm Four full pages of photos of cannabis cultivation in Morocco (Rif) on www.geopium.org]
- [http://theivorytree.com/blog/?p=65 The Ivory Tree] - What evolutionary purpose does the 'high' from cannabis serve?
- [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10266097/ "Regular marijuana use damages teen brains:] Scans show heavy smokers have abnormalities in key development regions" Reuters, Nov. 30, 2005. (Study by researchers at Albert Einstein College of Medicine.)
References
#[http://www.xanga.com/michaelstoddard2004 Emboden], W. A. 1981. The genus Cannabis and the correct use of taxonomic categories. J. Psychoactive Drugs 13: 15–21. #Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1980. Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens. C. C. Thomas, Springfield, IL., pp. 82–116. #Small, E., and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis. Taxon 25: 405–435. #Schultes, R. E., et. al. 1974. Cannabis: an example of taxonomic neglect. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 23: 337–367. #Anderson, L. C. 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in Cannabis. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 24: 29–36. #Anderson, L. C. 1980. Leaf variation among Cannabis species from a controlled garden. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 28: 61–69. #Hillig, K.W. 2005. Genetic evidence for speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 52: 161-180. Category:Rosales
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Compound

- A compound is an area of land that is surrounded by fences, walls, or barbed wire and is used for a particular purpose, especially an area containing buildings and where the entry and exit of people is controlled. (For example, the sprawling estate located in southern Maine which houses the Bush Family residence is known as the Bush Compound.)
- In chemistry, a compound (chemical compound) is a chemical combination of two or more elements. See list of compounds.
- In linguistic morphology, a compound is a word that consists of more than one radical element, for example summertime. See also English compound. This is not to be confused with a complex phrase.
- In botany, compound is a quality of leaves. Leaves that are compound are in an array of small, symmetrically-arranged leaflets on each stem. In contrast, a plant with simple leaves has one leaf per stem.
- In economics, Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) is the average annual growth rate of a value over a given number of years.
- In finance, compound Interest is interest that is paid on both the principal and interest earned.
- In music, a compound is an attribute of an interval or time signature. An interval that is compound is an interval which exceeds or is wider than one octave, whereas a simple interval lies within one octave. A time signature that is compound is one based on groups of three notes (most often quavers or eighth notes) whereas a simple time signature is one based on groups of two notes (most often crotchets or quarter notes).
- In steam locomotive engineering, a compound locomotive has steam that is passed that has already passed through one cylinder is then passed through another; i.e. the cylinders are in series as opposed to the normal arrangement of a simple locomotive in which the cylinders are in parallel.
- In the art world, Compound is an international exhibition space which was part of the Portland millennial art renaissance see Compound gallery for more information.
- In geometry, a polyhedral compound is a polyhedron which is itself composed of several other polyhedra sharing a common centre, the three-dimensional analogs of polygonal compounds. simple:Compound

Herbalism

Herbalism, also known as phytotherapy, is folk and traditional medicinal practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among non-industrialized societies. A number of traditions have come to dominate the practise of herbal medicine in the west at the end of the twentieth century:-
- The Western, based on Greek and Roman sources,
- The Ayurvedic from India, and
- Chinese herbal medicine. Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to Western physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine.

Biological background

All plants produce chemical compounds as part of their normal metabolic activities. These can be split into two categories - primary metabolites, such as sugars and fats, found in all plants; and secondary metabolites found in a smaller range of plants, some only in a particular genus or species. The autologous functions of secondary metabolites are varied; for example as toxins to deter predation, or to attract insects for pollination. It is these secondary metabolites which can have therapeutic actions in humans, and which can be refined to produce drugs. Some examples are inulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the cinchona, morphine and codeine from the poppy, and digoxin from the foxglove. As of 2004, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine started to fund clinical trials into the effectiveness of herbal medicine [http://health.nih.gov/result.asp/324]. Some surveys of scientific herbal medicine can be found in: Evidence-based herbal medicine edited by Michael Rotblatt, Irwin Ziment; Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, 2002; and Herbal and traditional medicine: molecular aspects of health, edited by Lester Packer, Choon Nam Ong, Barry Halliwell; New York: Marcel Dekker, 2004

Popularity

A [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/2004/052704.htm survey released in May 2004] by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM), what was used, and why it was used. The survey was limited to adults age 18 years and over during 2002 living in the United States. According to this recent survey, herbal therapy, or use of natural products other than vitamins and minerals, was the most commonly used CAM therapy (18.9%) ([http://nccam.nih.gov/news/report.pdf] table 1 on page 8) when all use of prayer was excluded.

Examples

Examples of some commonly used herbal medicines:
- Artichoke and several other plants have been associated with reduced total serum cholesterol levels in preliminary studies [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12791229].
- Black cohosh and other plants that contain phytoestrogens (plant molecules with estrogen activity) have been found to have some benefits for treatment of symptoms resulting from menopause [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12435217].
- Echinacea extracts have been shown to limit the length of colds in some clinical trials, although some studies have found it to have no effect. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15035888].
- Garlic has been found to lower total cholesterol levels, mildly reduce blood pressure, reduces platelet aggregation, and has antibacterial properties [http://www.mcphs.edu/herbal/garlic/garlic.cis.pdf].
- St John's wort has been found to be more effective than placebo for the treatment of mild to moderate depression in some clinical trials [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12904978].

In pop culture

'Herblore' is a skill in the MMORPG RuneScape, which mainly involves the player combining various type of herbs found in the game into various potions. 'Herbalism', in the MMORPG World of Warcraft allows the player to collect plants for use as reagents for the skill 'Alchemy'. 'Herbalism' is a skill in the Roguelike game ADOM which allows the character to correctly identify varying herbs collected from bushes found in the dungeons.

Dangers

A common misconception about herbalism and the use of 'natural' products in general, is that 'natural' equals safe. Nature however is not benign and many plants have chemical defence mechanisms against predators that can have adverse effects on humans. Examples are hemlock and nightshade, which can be deadly to humans. Herbs can also have undesirable side-effects just as pharmaceutical products can; these problems are exacerbated by lack of control over dosage and purity.

Name confusion

The common names of herbs may be shared with others with different effects. For example, in one case in Belgium in a TCM-remedy for losing weight, one herb was swapped for another that caused kidney damage. One variety of the herb causes elevated blood pressure and increased heart rate, versus another variety for the weight-loss remedy, the varieties are differentiated by the suffix in the Latin names.

International standards

The legal status of a herbal ingredient may vary from one country to another. For example, Ayurvedic herbal products often contain levels of heavy metals that would be considered unsafe in the US. However, heavy metals are considered to have therapeutic benefits in Ayurvedic medicine.

Medical interaction

It is often advised that those wishing to use herbal remedies first consult with a physician, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse drug interactions when used in combination with various prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceuticals. For example, dangerously low blood pressure may result from the combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood pressure together with prescription medicine that does the same thing. However, please be aware that most physicians have no knowledge of herbal medicine, so they may not be the best sources of information. Also, there is little known about interactions of herbal remedies with pharmaceuticals since, contrary to pharmaceutical medicine, there is no system in place to report and publish any (adverse) interactions, so even herbalists may not be aware of adverse interactions. To put the safety issue in perspective, an editorial in the British Medical Journal pointed out, "Even though herbal medicines are not devoid of risk, they could still be safer than synthetic drugs. Between 1968 and 1997, the World Health Organization's monitoring centre collected 8985 reports of adverse events associated with herbal medicines from 55 countries. Although this number may seem impressively high, it amounts to only a tiny fraction of adverse events associated with conventional drugs held in the same database." (BMJ, October 18, 2003; 327:881-882). A meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) reported the following: "The overall incidence of serious adverse drug reactions (ADRs) was 6.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 5.2%-8.2%) and of fatal ADRs was 0.32% (95% CI, 0.23%-0.41%) of hospitalized patients. We estimated that in 1994 overall 2,216,000 (1,721,000-2,711,000) hospitalized patients had serious ADRs and 106,000 (76,000-137,000) had fatal ADRs, making these reactions between the fourth and sixth leading cause of death." (JAMA. 1998;279:1200-1205) Finally, research posted by Ron Law shows a United States death rate of 0.0001% from dietary supplements versus 2.4% from "preventable medical misadventures" and 5.18% from properly prescribed and used drugs (http://www.laleva.cc/petizione/english/ronlaw_eng.html).

20th century

The 20th century lasted from 1901 to 2000 in the Gregorian calendar. Common usage sometimes regards it as lasting from 1900 to 1999, but this is incorrect since counting of calendar years begins with the year 1. The 20th century is also sometimes known as the nineteen hundreds (1900s). Decades are almost always considered as starting with the "0" year and named accordingly ("1960s", etc.). However, a number of arguments have been used to justify the common usage. One was advanced, erroneously, by Stephen Jay Gould. He claimed that the first decade had only nine years, thus contradicting the definition of decade equaled 10 years. Another argument is that the astronomical year numbering system for years does have a year zero, the year normally known as 1 BC. In 2000 the International Organization for Standardization clarified ISO 8601 to use the astronomical year numbering system, which could be interpreted as retrospectively endorsing all the people who had celebrated the new century a few months earlier. The term is also used to describe various periods that overlap with the calendar definition, most notably the Short twentieth century, which claims that the 20th Century spanned from 1914 to 1989, rendering the pre-WWI 1900s into the 19th Century and putting the 1990s at the beginning of the 21st Century. Indeed, the part of the 20th Century before World War I is quite identical to the late 1800s culturally and technologically and the 1990s decade pointed in many ways (such as the rise of the Internet) to the 21st Century and is seen by some as not being truly a part of the 20th Century.

Overview

The twentieth century saw a remarkable shift in the way that vast numbers of people lived, as a result of technological, medical, social, ideological, and political innovations. Terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage and became an influence on the lives of everyday people. War reached an unprecedented scale and level of sophistication; in the Second World War (1939-1945) alone, approximately 57 million people died, mainly due to massive improvements in weaponry. The trends of mechanization of goods and services and networks of global communication, which were begun in the 19th century, continued at an ever-increasing pace in the 20th. In spite of the terror and chaos, the 20th century saw many attempts at world peace. As the 35th President of the United States John F. Kennedy said: :What kind of peace do we seek? I am talking about a genuine peace, the kind of peace that makes life on earth worth living. Not merely peace in our time, but peace in all time. Our problems are man-made, therefore they can be solved by man. For in the final analysis, our most basic common link is that we all inhabit this small planet, we all breathe the same air, we all cherish our children's future, and we are all mortal. Virtually every aspect of life in virtually every human society changed in some fundamental way or another during the twentieth century and for the first time, any individual could influence the course of history no matter their background. Arguably, the 20th century re-shaped the face of the planet in more ways than any previous century.
- Death rates
- Infant mortality
- Infectious disease
- Life expectancy
- Maternal death rates
- Battles Scientific discoveries such as relativity and quantum physics radically changed the worldview of scientists, causing them to realize that the universe was much more complex than they had previously believed, and dashing the hopes at the end of the preceding century that the last few details of knowledge were about to be filled in. For a more coherent overview of the historical events of the century, see The 20th century in review. The 20th century has sometimes been called, both within and outside the United States, the American Century, though this is a controversial term.

Important developments, events and achievements

Science and technology

- The assembly line and mass production of motor vehicles and other goods allowed manufacturers to produce more and cheaper products. This allowed the automobile to become the most important means of transportation.
- The invention of heavier-than-air flying machines and the jet engine allowed for the world to become "smaller". Space flight increased knowledge of the rest of the universe and allowed for global real-time communications via geosynchronous satellites.
- Mass media technologies such as film, radio, and television allow the communication of political messages and entertainment with unprecedented impact
- Mass availability of the telephone and later, the computer, especially through the Internet, provides people with new opportunities for near-instantaneous communication
- Applied electronics, notably in its miniaturized form as integrated circuits, made possible the above mentioned rise of mass media, telecommunications, ubiquitous computing, and all kinds of "intelligent" appliances; as well as many advances in natural sciences such as physics, by the use of exponentially growing calculation power (see supercomputer).
- The development of Nitrogen fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides resulted in significantly higher agricultural yield.
- Advances in fundamental physics through the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics led to the development of nuclear weapons (known informally as "the Bomb" and dropped on the industrial town of Hiroshima and the historic one of Nagasaki), the nuclear reactor, and the laser. Fusion power was studied extensively but remained an experimental technology at the end of the century.
- Inventions such as the washing machine and air conditioning led to an increase in both the quantity and quality of leisure time for the middle class in Western societies.
- Most influential inventions in the 20th century: antibiotics, oral contraceptives, new plastics, transistors, Internet
- More...

Wars and politics

- Democratic nations began to extend voting privileges to all adults.
- Rising nationalism and increasing national awareness were among the causes of World War I, the first of two wars to involve all the major world powers including Germany, France, Italy, Japan, the United States and the British Commonwealth. World War I led to the creation of many new countries, especially in Eastern Europe. Ironically, it was said by many to be the 'War to end all Wars'.
- The economic and political aftermath of World War I led to the rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe, and shortly to World War II. This war also involved Asia and the Pacific, in the form of Japanese aggression against China and the United States. While the First World War mainly cost lives among soldiers, civilians suffered greatly in the Second -- from the bombing of cities on both sides, and in the unprecedented German genocide of the Jews and others, known as the Holocaust.
- During World War I, in Russia the Bolshevik putsch led to the Russian Revolution of 1917. After the Soviet Union's involvement in World War II, Communism became a major force in global politics, spreading all over the world: notably, to Eastern Europe, China, Indochina and Cuba. This led to the Cold War and proxy wars with the western world, including wars in Korea (1950-53) and Vietnam (1957 - 75).
- The "fall of Communism" in the late 1980s freed Eastern and Central Europe from Soviet supremacy. It also led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia into successor states, many rife with ethnic nationalism, and left the United States as the world's superpower.
- Through the League of Nations and, after World War II, the United Nations, international cooperation increased. Other efforts included the formation of the European Union, leading to a common currency in much of Western Europe, the euro around the turn of the millennium.
- The end of colonialism led to the independence of many African and Asian countries. During the Cold War, many of these aligned with the USA, the USSR, or China for defense.
- The creation of Israel, a Jewish state in a mostly Arab region of the world, fueled many conflicts in the region, which were also influenced by the vast oil fields in many of the Arab countries.
- The term Southeast Asia coined.

Culture and entertainment

- Movies, music and the media had a major influence on fashion and trends in all aspects of life. As many movies and music originate from the United States, American culture spread rapidly over the world.
- After gaining political rights in the United States and much of Europe in the first part of the century, and with the advent of new birth control techniques women became more independent throughout the century.
- Rock and Roll and Jazz styles of music are developed in the United States, and quickly become the dominant forms of popular music in America, and later, the world. The Beatles, a 1960s British Rock and Roll band, becomes one of the most successful acts of all time, and is credited, in their experimental later albums, with permanently changing what was thought possible in popular music.
- Modern art developed new styles such as expressionism, cubism, and surrealism.
- The automobile provided vastly increased transportation capabilities for the average member of Western societies in the early to mid-century, spreading even further later on. City design throughout most of the West became focused on transport via car. The car became a leading symbol of modern society, with styles of car suited to and symbolic of particular lifestyles.
- Sports became an important part of society, becoming an activity not only for the privileged. Watching sports, later also on television, became a popular activity.

Disease and medicine

- Although the availability and quality of medicine continued to improve, epidemic diseases continued to spread, aided by modern transportation. An influenza pandemic, the Spanish Flu, killed 25 million between 1918 and 1919, while AIDS is yet uncured and treatments remain too expensive for wide use in developing countries.
- Advances in medicine, such as the invention of antibiotics, decreased the number of people dying from diseases. Contraceptive drugs and organ transplantation were developed. The discovery of DNA molecules and the advent of molecular biology allowed for cloning and genetic engineering.

Natural resources and the environment

- The widespread use of petroleum in industry -- both as a chemical precursor to plastics and as a fuel for the automobile and airplane -- led to the vital geopolitical importance of petroleum resources. The Middle East, home to many of the world's oil deposits, became a center of geopolitical and military tension throughout the latter half of the century. (For example, oil was a factor in Japan's decision to go to war against the United States in 1941, and the oil cartel, OPEC, used an oil embargo of sorts in the wake of the Yom Kippur War in the 1970s).
- A vast increase in fossil fuel consumption leads to depletion of natural resources, while air pollution has led to the develoment of an ozone hole and, many believe, global warming and both local and global climate change. The problem is increased by world-wide deforestation, also causing a loss of biodiversity. The problem of a depletion of natural resources is decreased by advances in drilling technology which led to a net increase in the amount of fossil fuel that is readily obtainable at the end of the century, as compared with the amount considered obtainable at the beginning of the century.

Significant people

World leaders

- Africa
- Gnassingbe Eyadema, Togo
- Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Côte d'Ivoire
- Kenneth Kaunda, Zambia
- Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya
- Idi Amin, Uganda
- Nelson Mandela, South Africa
- Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe
- Gamal Abdal Nasser, Egypt
- Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana
- Julius Nyerere, Tanzania
- Habib Bourguiba, Tunisia
- Muammar al-Qaddafi, Libya
- Haile Selassie, Ethiopia
- Léopold Sédar Senghor, Senegal
- Ahmed Sékou Touré, Guinea
- Americas
- Juan Perón, Argentina
- Eva Perón, Argentina
- Getúlio Vargas, Brazil
- Luis Carlos Prestes, Brazil
- Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazil
- Wilfrid Laurier, Canada
- William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canada
- Pierre Trudeau, Canada
- Salvador Allende, Chile
- Augusto Pinochet, Chile
- Fidel Castro, Cuba
- Ernesto 'Che' Guevara, Argentina/Cuba
- Emiliano Zápata, Mexico
- Pancho Villa, Mexico
- Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, Mexico
- Augusto César Sandino, Nicaragua
- Fernando Belaúnde Terry, Peru
- Alberto Kenya Fujimori, Peru
- Theodore Roosevelt, USA
- Woodrow Wilson,USA
- Franklin D. Roosevelt, USA
- Harry S Truman, USA
- Dwight Eisenhower, USA
- John F. Kennedy, USA
- Lyndon B. Johnson, USA
- Richard Nixon, USA
- Ronald Reagan, USA
- Bill Clinton, USA
- George H. W. Bush, USA
- José Batlle y Ordóñez, Uruguay
- Romulo Betancourt, Venezuela
- Asia
- Mahatma Gandhi, India
- Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore
- Ferdinand Marcos, the Philippines
- Corazon Aquino, the Philippines
- Mao Zedong, People's Republic of China
- Deng Xiaoping, People's Republic of China
- Pol Pot, Cambodia
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan
- Indira Gandhi, India
- Mahathir Mohamad, Malaysia
- Jawaharlal Nehru, India
- Emperor Hirohito, Japan
- Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
- Sun Yat-sen, Republic of China
- Chiang Kai-shek, Republic of China
- Achmad Sukarno, Indonesia
- Suharto, Indonesia
- Australia and Oceania
- Edmund Barton, Australia
- Sir Robert Menzies, Australia
- Peter Fraser, New Zealand
- Michael Joseph Savage, New Zealand
- David Lange, New Zealand
- Europe
- Franz Joseph of Austria, Austria-Hungary
- Václav Havel, Czech Republic
- Franjo Tuđman, Croatia
- Archbishop Makarios III, Cyprus
- Urho Kekkonen, Finland
- Philippe Pétain, France
- Charles de Gaulle, France
- Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, France
- François Mitterrand, France
- Kaiser Wilhelm II, Germany
- Friedrich Ebert, Germany
- Adolf Hitler, Germany
- Konrad Adenauer, West Germany
- Walter Ulbricht, East Germany
- Erich Honecker, East Germany
- Willy Brandt, West Germany
- Helmut Kohl, Germany
- Gerhard Schröder, Germany
- Eleftherios Venizelos, Greece
- Ioannis Metaxas, Greece
- Konstantinos Karamanlis, Greece
- Andreas Papandreou, Greece
- Miklós Horthy, Hungary
- Imre Nagy, Hungary
- Benito Mussolini, Italy
- Aldo Moro, Italy
- Eamon de Valera, Ireland
- Einar Gerhardsen, Norway
- Józef Piłsudski, Poland
- Lech Wałęsa, Poland
- António de Oliveira Salazar, Portugal
- Mário Soares, Portugal
- Nicolae Ceauşescu, Romania
- Milan Kučan, Slovenia
- Francisco Franco, Spain
- Felipe González, Spain
- Adolfo Suárez, Spain
- Olof Palme, Sweden
- Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkey
- Neville Chamberlain, United Kingdom
- Winston Churchill, United Kingdom
- Margaret Thatcher, United Kingdom
- Tony Blair, United Kingdom
- Josip Broz Tito,Yugoslavia
- Slobodan Milošević, Yugoslavia
- Russia and Soviet Union
- Czar Nicholas II
- Vladimir Lenin
- Joseph Stalin
- Leon Trotsky
- Nikita Khrushchev
- Leonid Brezhnev
- Mikhail Gorbachev
- Boris Yeltsin
- Middle East
- Reza Shah Pahlavi, Iran
- Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Iran
- Mohammad Mosaddeq, Iran
- Ayatollah Khomeini, Iran
- Ayatollah Khamenei, Iran
- Mohammad Khatami, Iran
- Abdul Nasser, Egypt or United Arab Republic
- Anwar Sadat, Egypt or United Arab Republic
- David Ben-Gurion, Israel
- Golda Meir, Israel
- Menachem Begin, Israel
- Yitzhak Rabin, Israel
- Hafez el Assad, Syria
- Saddam Hussein, Iraq
- King Hussein, Jordan
- Yassar Arafat, Palestine

Scientists

; Biology and Anthropology
- Norman Borlaug
- Francis Crick
- Theodosius Dobzhansky
- Paul Ehrlich
- Jane Goodall
- Stephen Jay Gould
- Hans Adolf Krebs
- Ernst Mayr
- John Maynard Smith
- Albert Szent-Györgyi
- James Watson ; Chemistry
- Elias Corey
- Maria Skłodowska-Curie
- Pierre Curie
- Fritz Haber
- Stanley Miller
- Linus Pauling
- Ernest Rutherford
- J.J. Thomson
- Harold Urey ; Computer Science
- John Backus
- Edsger Dijkstra
- Richard Matthew Stallman
- Linus Torvalds
- Grace Murray Hopper
- John von Neumann
- Claude Shannon
- Alan Turing
- William Gates III ; Mathematics
- Paul Erdős
- Kurt Gödel
- David Hilbert
- Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov
- Benoit Mandelbrot
- John Nash
- John von Neumann ; Medicine and Pharmacy
- Carl Djerassi
- Alexander Fleming
- Howard Walter Florey
- Ma Haide (George Hatem)
- Jonas Salk ; Physics and Astronomy
- Abdus Salam
- Niels Bohr
- Paul Dirac
- Freeman Dyson
- Albert Einstein
- Enrico Fermi
- Richard Feynman
- Stephen Hawking
- Werner Karl Heisenberg
- Edwin Hubble
- Wolfgang Pauli
- Max Planck
- Carl Sagan
-