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Caffeine

Caffeine

Caffeine, also known as trimethylxanthine, coffeine, theine, mateine, guaranine, methyltheobromine and 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is a xanthine alkaloid found naturally in such foods as coffee beans, tea, kola nuts, Yerba mate, guarana berries, and (in small amounts) cacao beans and Yaupon Holly. For the plant, caffeine acts as a natural pesticide since it paralyzes and kills some of the insects that attempt to feed on the plant. Caffeine-containing beverages, such as coffee, enjoy great popularity. Additionally, it is occasionally used medically in the formulation of some analgesics. Caffeine's main pharmacological properties are: a stimulant action on the central nervous system with psychotropic effects and stimulation of respiration, a stimulation of the heart rate, and a mild diuretic effect.

Chemical properties

Caffeine is an alkaloid of the methylxanthine family, which also includes the similar compounds theophylline and theobromine. In its pure state it is an intensely bitter white powder. Its chemical formula is C₈H₁₀N₄O₂, its systematic name is 1,3,7-trimethyl xanthine or 3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-dione, and its structure is shown above. Its International Chemical Identifier is InChI=1/C8H10N4O2/c1-10-4-9-6-5(10)7(13)12(3)8(14)11(6)2/h4H,1-3H3.

Physical properties

Pure caffeine occurs as odorless, white, fleecy masses, glistening needles or powder.
- Melting point: 238 °C
- Boiling point: 178 °C (sublimes)
- Density: 1.2 g/cm³
- Volatility: 0.5%
- Vapor pressure: 101 kPa @ 178 °C
- pH: 6.9 (1% solution)
- Solubility in water: 2.17%
- Vapor density: 6.7 g/m³
- Molecular weight: 194.19 g/mol

Caffeine extraction

It is very difficult to know the exact amount of caffeine in a particular drink that is not automatically prepared. The amount of caffeine in a single serving of coffee varies considerably due to many variables. Concentration can vary from bean to bean within a given bush; preparation of the raw bean will affect concentration, as well as multiple variables involved in brewing. To extract caffeine takes some time (about two hours) and requires chemicals unavailable for everyday use and a nice system of distillation and sublimation. To extract caffeine, one must take the beverage one wants to extract the caffeine from and mix it with a solvent with a finer affiliation to the caffeine and a different density. Chloroform is known to possess both these properties. Caffeine will go in the solvent it is the most soluble in, and it is more soluble in chloroform than water. Using a separating funnel, one should take about 30 ml of chloroform and 200 ml of the beverage one wants to extract the caffeine from and agitate for about two minutes. The bottom phase will be the chloroform and the caffeine, so one will keep this phase. Repeating this step about five times should ensure extraction of most of the caffeine. The next step is a distillation using a standard distillation column where one gets rid of most of the chloroform. Finally, one has to sublimate the caffeine under vacuum. If the result is a fine white powder, one's extraction has succeeded.

Sources

One common source of caffeine is the coffee plant, the beans of which are used to make coffee. Caffeine content varies substantially between Arabica and Robusta species and to a lesser degree between varieties of each species. One 'shot' of coffee contains about 40 mg of caffeine. Thus, a "double shot" espresso contains about 80 mg. A single serving (6 fl oz / 150 ml) of strong drip coffee or one-half caffeine tablet would deliver about 100 mg. However, there is a large variation in the amount of caffeine per serve, ranging from about 40 mg to 120 mg. Such variability was shown to be even higher in a study conducted in 2005 by Ben Desbrow, a dietitian of Griffith University. His survey of 99 short blacks found caffeine content ranging from 25 mg to 214 mg. Generally, dark roast coffee has less caffeine than lighter roasts since the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean. Tea is another common source of caffeine in many cultures. Tea contains somewhat less caffeine per serving than coffee, (usually about half as much, depending on the strength of the brew), though certain types of tea, such as black and oolong, contain more caffeine. Caffeine is also common in soft drinks such as cola. Such drinks typically contain about 15 mg to 40 mg of caffeine per serving. Most energy drinks such as Red Bull contain 80 mg. Mateine and guaranine are other names for caffeine. The names come from yerba maté and guarana respectively, caffeine-containing plants used for tea and other things. Many yerba maté enthusiasts insist that mateine is a stereoisomer of caffeine and thus a different substance altogether. However, this is impossible; caffeine is an achiral molecule with no stereogenic centers (also known as a chiral centers), and therefore has no stereoisomers. Similar claims are sometimes made of guaranine. Caffeine is sometimes called theine when it is found in tea, as the caffeine in tea was once thought to be a separate compound to the caffeine found in coffee. But tea does contain another xanthine, theophylline whose chemical formula is C₇H₈N₄O₂ compared to caffeine's C₈H₁₀N₄O₂.

Coffee

All fluid ounces are U.S. fluid ounces.
- Coffee, brewed (drip) - 4 to 20 mg/floz (130 to 680 mg/litre) (20 to 100 mg/5 floz)
- Coffee, decaffeinated - 0.4 to 0.6 mg/floz (13 to 20 mg/litre)
- Coffee, instant - 4 to 12 mg/floz (130 to 400 mg/litre)
- Espresso Arabica - ~40 mg/floz (1.36 g/litre)
- Espresso Robusta - ~100 mg/floz (3.4 g/litre)

Teas and other infusions

- Black tea, brewed (USA) - 2.5 to 11 mg/floz (85 to 370 mg per litre)
- Black tea, brewed (other) - 3 to 14 mg/floz (100 to 470 mg/litre)
- Black tea, canned iced - 2 to 3 mg/floz (70 to 100 mg/litre)
- Black tea, instant - 3.5 mg/floz (120 mg/litre)
- Oolong, 3.75 mg/floz (120 mg per litre) (12 to 55 mg per tea bag, i.e. one serving)
- Green tea, 2.5 mg/floz (85 mg/litre) (8 to 30 mg per tea bag, i.e. one serving)
- White tea, 2.0 mg/floz (68 mg/litre) (6 to 25 mg per tea bag, i.e. one serving)
- Decaf, 0.5 mg/oz (17 mg/litre) (1 to 4 mg per tea bag, i.e. one serving)
- Tisanes (i.e. Herbal teas) - caffeine content depends on the herb, e.g. Chamomile and Rooibos "teas" have no caffeine while Yerba mate and Guarana do contain varying quantities. Many tea drinkers characterise herbal tea simply as that which, unlike black or green tea, contains no caffeine.

Chocolate

Chocolate is a weak stimulant due to content of theobromine, theophylline, and caffeine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15549276] However, chocolate contains too little of these compounds for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with coffee.

Other sources

- Energy drink - 10 mg/floz (340 mg/litre). Some countries limit the caffeine content at 135 mg/litre.
- Soft drink (caffeinated) - 3 to 8 mg/floz (100 to 270 mg/litre, some countries limit the caffeine content in cola drinks to 200 mg/l)
- Pill (caffeine) - 200 mg (100 mg in Canada and many countries within EU)
- Buckfast Tonic Wine - 375 mg/litre (0.05% of caffeine by weight)
- Jolt Gum - 45 mg/piece
- Bawls - 67mg per 10oz, 80 per 12oz

Equivalents to 200 mg of caffeine

- One caffeine pill (Two in some countries where these are 100 mg)
- ~2 shots of espresso from robusta beans (2 floz)
- ~2 "5 floz containers" of regular coffee (10 floz)
- ~1.3 L soft drink (these can vary widely in content)
- ~5 cups (8 floz) of black tea or ~10 cups (8 floz) of green tea
- ~5 cans of soda (these can vary widely in content) In the European Union, a warning must be placed on packaging if the caffeine content of any beverage exceeds 150 mg per litre. This includes caffeine from any source (including guarana, which is often found in energy drinks). In many countries, caffeine is classified as a flavouring.

History

Although tea consumption in China began thousands of years ago, the first documented use of caffeine in a beverage for its pharmacological effect was by the sufis of Yemen, who used coffee to stay awake during prayers in the 15th century. In the 16th century there were coffeehouses in Cairo and Mecca. Coffeehouses opened in Europe in the 17th century. Caffeine was isolated by the German chemist Friedrich Ferdinand Runge in 1819. According to the legend, he did this at the instigation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (Weinberg & Bealer 2001).

Mechanism of Action

Caffeine is thought to act by blocking adenosine receptors on the surface of cells. This thereby blocks a pathway leading to breakdown of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The usual effect of adenosine in nerve cells is to inhibit nerve conduction by inhibiting post-synaptic potentials. The caffeine molecule, being structurally similar to adenosine, binds to the same receptors but does not stimulate them, thereby decreasing the adenosine action. The resulting increased nerve activity causes the release of the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline), which in turn leads to several effects such as higher heart rate, increased blood pressure, increased blood flow to muscles, decreased blood flow to the skin and inner organs, and release of glucose by the liver. It also increases the levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain, similar to amphetamines. Other purported mechanisms of action of caffeine include mobilisation of intracellular calcium and inhibition of specific phosphodiesterases, however these only occur at high non-physiological concentrations.

Metabolism and toxicology

Caffeine is completely absorbed from the stomach and small intestine, within 45 minutes of ingestion. It is widely distributed in total body water and is eliminated by apparent first-order kinetics that can be described by a one-compartment open-model system. Caffeine is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system. The first metabolic products of caffeine are three dimethylxanthines: paraxanthine (84%), theobromine (12%) and theophylline (4%). Paraxanthine increases lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in the blood plasma. Theobromine, the principal alkaloid in cocoa (chocolate), can dilate blood vessels and increase urine volume. Theophylline relaxes smooth muscles of the bronchi and is used to treat asthma. However, the therapeutic dose is many time greater than the levels achieved from caffeine metabolism. Each of these metabolites is further metabolised and then excreted in the urine. Caffeine is quickly and completely removed from the brain, and, unlike other CNS stimulants or alcohol, its effects are short-lived. In many people, caffeine does not negatively affect concentration or higher mental functions, and hence caffeinated drinks are often consumed in the course of work. Continued consumption of caffeine can lead to tolerance. Upon withdrawal, the body becomes oversensitive to adenosine, causing the blood pressure to drop dramatically, leading to headache and other symptoms. Any accumulated sleep debt will be fully felt on withdrawal as well. Intravenous caffeine (in the form of caffeine benzoate 500 mg over 1 hour) is occasionally used medically to treat post-lumbar puncture ("spinal tap") headache[http://www.emedicine.com/neuro/topic557.htm]. Although caffeine solutions are often used as a chemical standard for bitterness, caffeine is added to some soft drinks such as colas, Irn-Bru and Mountain Dew ostensibly for its taste. Mountain Dew While safe for humans, caffeine and its related compounds theobromine and theophylline are considerably more toxic to some other animals such as dogs, horses and parrots due to a much poorer ability to metabolize these compounds. Caffeine does more damage to spiders than most drugs.

Toxicity

Too much caffeine can lead to caffeine intoxication. The symptoms of this disorder are restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis, gastrointestinal complaints, even hallucinations. They can occur in some people after as little as 250 mg per day. More than 1,000 mg per day may result in muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, cardiac arrhythmia or tachycardia, and psychomotor agitation. Caffeine intoxication can lead to symptoms similar to those of panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. The minimum lethal dose ever reported is 3,200 mg, intravenously. The LD₅₀ of caffeine is estimated between 13 and 19 grams for oral administration for an average adult. The LD₅₀ of caffeine is dependent on weight and estimated to be about 150 to 200 mg per kg of body mass, roughly 140 to 180 cups of coffee for an average adult taken within a limited timeframe that is dependent on half-life. The half-life, or time it takes for the amount of caffeine in the blood to decrease by 50%, ranges from 3.5 to 10 hours. In adults the half-life is generally around 5 hours. However contraceptive pills increase this to around 12 hours, and, for women over 3 months pregnant, it varies from 10 to 18 hours. In infants and young children, the half-life may be longer than in adults. With common coffee and a very rare half-life of 100 hours, it would require 3 cups of coffee every hour for 100 hours just to reach LD₅₀. Though achieving lethal dose with coffee would be exceptionally difficult, there have been many reported deaths from intentional overdosing on caffeine pills. Studies in humans have shown that caffeine may cause miscarriage or may slow the growth of a developing fetus when given in doses greater than 300 mg (an amount equal to three cups of coffee) a day. In addition, use of large amounts of caffeine by the mother during pregnancy may cause problems with the heart rhythm of the fetus. Excessive ingestion of caffeine can result in increased blood pressure and pulse, increased urine production, vasoconstriction (tightening or constricting of superficial blood vessels) sometimes resulting in cold hands or fingers, increased amounts of fatty acids in the blood, and increased production of gastric acid. Those suffering from overdose should seek medical attention. If medical care is not possible, they should find a quiet place to rest. Within an hour after the effects first arise, peak influence on the body should occur, with a 15-30 minute plateau, after which the effects should abate and the sufferer can return to normal activity.

Withdrawal

Caffeine withdrawal usually manifests itself in long drawn-out headaches. A feeling of "pressure" is created and the sufferer has difficulty concentrating and maintaining a train of thought. Unless the user can identify the fact that they are going into caffeine withdrawal, usually they regard it as a common or garden headache. The feeling is sometimes described as similar to dehydration, but can be recognized by the fact that from soon after they get up (assuming morning usage) the feeling slowly comes on then stays steady. Although painkillers such as asprin can relieve symptoms, often a small dose of caffeine does the best job. A cup of white or black tea relieves the symptoms quite well and almost instantly.

Abuse

Caffeine, in its many forms, has been used for its stimulating effects. In modern times, though, the substance can be produced in much higher quantities, and has found its way into many products. Purer forms, such as those in caffeine pills, are easily available. These pills are sometimes used by college students and shift workers to last an entire night without sleep. Caffeine pills have been under media fire for recent and past deaths of students, usually take on the form of a caffeine overdose. One such example of this was the death of a North Carolina student, Jason Allen. He swallowed most of a bottle of 90 such pills [http://www.collegepublisher.com/media/paper87/DFPArchive/science/1103981.html]. This was the equivalent of about 250 cups of coffee (or, alternatively, a gallon and a half (5 liters) of espresso, or 22 gallons (~85 liters) of caffeinated Mountain Dew (this soft drink is not available in caffeinated form in all areas). Allen probably ingested about 18 grams of caffeine, since caffeine pills are restricted to 200 milligrams or less in the U.S., and most manufacturers make them in that size. A few other deaths by caffeine overdose have been known, almost always in the case of massive pill consumption. Long periods of abuse can lead to detrimental effects on the esophagus; persons who consume high amounts of caffeine may have a risk for higher incidents of peptic ulcers, erosive esophagitis, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. They may also have heart problems, insomnia, chronic muscle tension, and nervousness. The term caffeinism has been coined to mean addiction to (or debilitating dependence on) caffeine.

References

- Weinberg BA, Bealer BK. The world of caffeine. New York & London: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-92722-6.
- Noever, R., J. Cronise, and R. A. Relwani. 1995. Using spider-web patterns to determine toxicity. NASA Tech Briefs 19(4):82. Published in New Scientist magazine, 27 April 1995.

External links

- [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202105.html US National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus® Drug Information: Caffeine]
- [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/caffeine/caffeine.shtml Erowid Caffeine Vault]
- [http://www.mrkland.com/fun/xocoatl/caffeine.htm Caffeine in chocolate?]
- [http://chemistry.about.com/od/moleculescompounds/a/caffeine.htm Caffeine Chemistry]
- [http://www.CaffeineWeb.com Site dedicated to "Caffeinism's Mimicry of Mental Illness"]
- [http://www.thenakedscientists.com/html/columnists/dalyacolumn2.htm Why do plants make caffeine?]
- [http://www.cspinet.org/new/cafchart.htm Caffeine Content of Foods]
- [http://www.benbest.com/health/caffeine.html Is Caffeine a Health Hazard?]
- [http://www.coffeefaq.com/caffaq.html The Caffeine FAQ]
- [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Caffeine Computational Chemistry Wiki]
- [http://www.energyfiend.com/death-by-caffeine/ Death by Caffeine Calculator (humor)]
- [http://www.energyfiend.com/the-caffeine-database/ Caffeine content of drinks, mints, chocolates, and pills]
- [http://www.nescafe.com/ Nescafe - Coffee company] Category:Xanthines Category:Coffee ms:Kafeina ja:カフェイン simple:Caffeine th:คาเฟอีน

Xanthine

Xanthines are a group of alkaloids that are commonly used for their effects as mild stimulants and as bronchodilators, notably in treating the symptoms of asthma. Methylated xanthine derivatives include caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine (found mainly in chocolate). These drugs inhibit phosphodiesterase and antagonise adenosine. The core compound, xanthine, is a product on the pathway of purine degradation and is converted to uric acid by the action of the xanthine oxidase enzyme. Some people lack sufficient xanthine oxidase, and thus xanthine cannot be converted to uric acid. This, rare, inherited disease is called xanthinuria. Those with the disease thus have higher than usual concentrations of xanthine in their blood and urine which can lead to health problems such as renal failure. There is no specific treatment, sufferers are advised by doctors to avoid foods high in purine and to maintain a high fluid intake. Xanthines are purine derivatives and found very rarely in constituents of nucleic acids. !

Alkaloid

An alkaloid is a nitrogenous organic molecule that has a pharmacological effect on humans and animals. The name derives from the word alkaline; originally, the term was used to describe any nitrogen-containing base (an amine in modern terms). Alkaloids are found as secondary metabolites in plants (e.g., in potatoes and tomatoes), animals (e.g., in shellfish) and fungi, and can be extracted from their sources by treatment with acids (usually hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, though organic acids such as maleic acid and citric acid are sometimes used). Usually alkaloids are derivatives of amino acids. Even though many alkaloids are poisonous (such as strychnine or coniine), some are used in medicine as analgesics (pain relievers) or anaesthetics, particularly morphine and codeine. Most alkaloids have a very bitter taste. Although formally an alkaloid, the class of pyrazoles contain two nitrogen atoms in the aromatic ring structure and are not found in nature. They must be produced synthetically.

Alkaloid classifications

Alkaloids are usually classified by their common molecular precursors, based on the metabolic pathway used to construct the molecule. When not much was known about the biosynthesis of alkaloids, they were grouped under the names of known compounds, even some non-nitrogenous ones (since those molecules' structures appear in the finished product; the opium alkaloids are sometimes called "phenanthrenes", for example), or by the plants or animals they were isolated from. When more is learned about a certain alkaloid, the grouping is changed to reflect the new knowledge, usually taking the name of a biologically-important amine that stands out in the synthesis process.
- Pyrrolidine group: hygrine, cuscohygrine, nicotine.
- Tropane group: atropine, cocaine, ecgonine, scopolamine.
- Quinoline group: quinine, quinidine, dihydroquinine, dihydroquinidine, strychnine, brucine, veratrine, cevadine
- Isoquinoline group: The opium alkaloids (morphine, codeine, thebaine, heroin, papaverine, narcotine, narceine, hydrastine, berberine)
- Phenethylamine group: MDMA, methamphetamine, mescaline, ephedrine
- Indole group:
- Tryptamines: DMT, NMT, psilocybin, serotonin
- Ergolines: the ergot alkaloids (ergine, ergotamine, lysergic acid, etc.), LSD
- Beta-carbolines: harmine, yohimbine, reserpine, emetine
- Purine group:
- Xanthines: caffeine, theobromine, theophylline
- Terpenoid group:
- Aconite alkaloids: aconitine
- Steroids: solanine, samandarin
- Betaines (quaternary ammonium compounds): muscarine, choline, neurine
- Pyrazole group: pyrazole, fomepizole ? ja:アルカロイド

Tea

–907).]] Tea is a product made from the leaves or buds of the tea bush Camellia sinensis. It is commonly consumed in the form of a beverage made by steeping it in hot water for a few minutes. The English word tea derives from the Chinese 茶, pronounced te in the Min Nan dialect. The flavour of the raw tea is developed by processes including oxidation, heating, drying and the addition of other herbs, spices, or fruit. Tea is a natural source of caffeine. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs containing no actual tea, such as rosehip tea or chamomile tea. Alternative terms for this are tisane or herbal infusion, both bearing an implied contrast with tea. This article is concerned exclusively with preparations and uses of the tea plant, Camellia sinensis. About 3,000,000 tonnes of tea are produced worldwide annually.

Cultivation and classification

Tea is grown primarily in China, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Iran, Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Japan, Indonesia, Nepal, Australia, Argentina, and Kenya. In the tea trade, Sri Lanka and Taiwan are still referred to by their former names of Ceylon and Formosa, respectively. Ceylon The main types of tea are distinguished by their processing. Camellia sinensis is an evergreen shrub whose leaves, if not dried quickly after picking, soon begin to wilt and oxidize. This process resembles the malting of barley, in that starch is converted into sugars; the leaves turn progressively darker, as chlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. The next step in processing is to stop the oxidation process at a predetermined stage by removing the water from the leaves via heating. The term fermentation was used (probably by wine fanciers) to describe this process, and has stuck, even though no true fermentation happens (i.e. the process is not driven by microbes and produces no ethanol). Without careful moisture and temperature control, fungi will grow on tea. The fungi will cause fermentation which will contaminate the tea with toxic and carcinogenic substances. In fact, when real fermentation happens, the tea must be discarded. Tea is traditionally classified based on the degree or period of fermentation (oxidation) the leaves have undergone: ;White tea (白茶): Young leaves (new growth buds) that have undergone no oxidation; the buds may be shielded from sunlight to prevent formation of chlorophyll. White tea is produced in lesser quantities than most of the other styles, and can be correspondingly more expensive than tea from the same plant processed by other methods. It is also less well-known in the western countries, though this is changing with the introduction of white tea in bagged form. ;Green tea (綠茶): The oxidation process is stopped after a minimal amount of oxidation by application of heat; either with steam, a traditional Japanese method; or by dry cooking in hot pans, the traditional Chinese method. Tea leaves may be left to dry as separate leaves or rolled into small pellets to make gun-powder tea. The latter process is time consuming and is typically done only with pekoes of higher quality. The tea is processed within one to two days of harvesting. ;Oolong (烏龍茶): Oxidation is stopped somewhere between the standards for green tea and black tea. The oxidation process will take two to three days. ;Black tea/Red tea (紅茶): The tea leaves are allowed to completely oxidize. Black tea is the most common form of tea in the western countries. The literal translation of the Chinese word is red tea, which may be used by some tea-lovers. However, red tea may also refer to rooibos, an increasingly popular South African tisane. The oxidation process will take around two weeks and up to one month. Black tea is further classified as either orthodox or CTC (Crush, Tear, Curl, a production method developed about 1932). Unblended black teas are also identified by the estate they come from, their year and the flush (first, second or autumn). Orthodox and CTC teas are further graded according to the post-production leaf quality by the Orange Pekoe system. ;Pu-erh (普洱茶/黑茶): Two forms of Pu-erh are available, green (青饼) and mature (熟饼). Mature Pu-erh is made from green Pu-erh tea leaf that has been allowed to go through a second stage of oxidation. This is done through a process similar to composting, except that both the moisture and temperature of the tea are carefully monitored. The tea is then usually compressed into various shapes including bricks, discs or spinning tops. While most teas are consumed within a year of production, pu-erh can be aged for many years to improve its flavour. Outside of Yunnan province, China where the tea is produced, the term Pu-erh is used directly to refer to the mature form of the tea. The tea is often steeped for long periods of time or even boiled (Tibetans boil it overnight). Pu-erh is considered a medicinal tea in China. Teas that undergo the composting such as mature Pu-erh are sometimes collectively referred to as Black tea (黑茶) in Chinese. This is not to be confused with the western term Black tea, which is known in Chinese as Red Tea (紅茶). ;Yellow tea (黃茶): Either used as a name of high-quality tea served at the Imperial court, or of special tea processed similarly to green tea, but with a slower drying phase. ;Kukicha (茎茶): Also called winter tea, kukicha is made from twigs and old leaves pruned from the tea plant during its dormant season and dry-roasted over a fire. Popular as a health food in Japan and in macrobiotic diets. Image:Da Hong Pao Oolong tea leaf close.jpg|Da Hong Pao tea an Oolong tea Image:Bai Hao Yin Zhen tea leaf (Fuding).jpg|Fuding Bai Hao Yinzhen tea, a white tea Image:Gunpowder tea in pile.jpg|Pile of typical Gunpowder tea Image:Lipton Earl Grey in pile.jpg|Pile of Lipton Finest Earl Grey

Blends and additives

white tea]] Almost all teas in tea-bags and most other teas sold in western countries are blends. Though recently with improvements in the dry freeze technique and the improved infusion method, tea powder and condensed tea essence that only needs hot or cold water to make a cup of tea are sold. Blending may occur at the level of tea-planting area (e.g., Assam), or teas from many areas may be blended. The aim of blending is a stable taste over different years, and a better price. More expensive, more tasty tea may cover the inferior taste of cheaper tea. There are various teas which have additives and/or different processing than "pure" varieties. Tea is able to easily receive any aroma, which may cause problems in processing, transportation or storage of tea, but can be also advantageously used to prepare scented teas. Variants include: ; Breakfast tea : Generally a blend of different black teas that are robust and full-bodied, and go well with milk. Some flavours are English, Irish and Scottish. Afternoon blends are lighter. Both blends are popular in the British Isles. ; Jasmine tea : Spread with jasmine flowers while oxidizing, and occasionally some are left in the tea as a decoration. Many other flowers, including roses and other fragrant blooms, are used as flavouring in tea in China. ; Earl Grey tea : Usually a mix of black teas, with essence of the citrus fruit bergamot added. ; Spiced teas : Include the Indian chai, flavoured with sweet spices such as ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, black pepper, clove, Indian bay leaf and sometimes nutmeg are common in southern Asia and the Middle East. ; Touareg Tea : Strong green tea with Nana mint, prepared in desert areas of North Africa and the Middle East. ; Jagertee : A tea with rum added. ; Gen Mai Cha (genmaicha): A Japanese tea with roasted rice added, and favoured (as are many teas) by adherents of a macrobiotic diet. ; Lapsang souchong (正山小种 or 烟小种) : Originally from Mount Wuyi in the Fujian province of China. Lapsang souchong is a black tea which is dried over smoldering pine root, thereby developing a strong smoky flavour.

History

Tea creation myths

- The original cup of tea was not invented but discovered as a course daily affair of the simple inhabitants in the hills of Min-nan http://www.sgwiki.com/wiki/Tea
- In one story, Gautama Buddha is said to have discovered tea, when a falling tea leaf happened to land in his cup one day as he sat meditating in a garden.
- Another story has it that Bodhidharma cut his eyelids off so that he wouldn't fall asleep while meditating, and the first tea plants sprang up from the ground where he flung the severed eyelids.
- According to Chinese legend, the god of agriculture would chew leaves, stems, and roots of various plants to discover medicinal herbs. If he consumed a poisonous plant, he would chew tea leaves to detoxify the poison.
- In yet another story Shennong (the legendary Emperor of China and founder of Chinese medicine) was on a journey 5000 years ago, when a few leaves from a wild tea tree fell into his hot water. The emperor, known for his wisdom in the ways of science, believed that the safest way to drink water was by first boiling it. One day during a journey, the emperor noticed that leaves had fallen into his boiling water. The leaves turned the water a light-brown color and gave off an enticing aroma. The ever inquisitive and curious monarch took a sip of the brew and was pleasantly surprised by its excellent flavor and its restorative properties. He then found that tea leaves eliminated numerous other poisons from the body. Because of this, tea is considered one of the earliest Chinese medicines.

Origin and dissemination of tea

Chinese medicine.]]

Chinese Tea History

Whether or not these legends have any basis in fact, tea has played a significant role in Asian culture for centuries as a staple beverage, a curative and a symbol of status. It is not surprising its discovery is ascribed to religious or royal origins. The fact is that the Chinese have enjoyed tea for centuries: Scholars hailed the brew as a cure for a variety of ailments, the nobility considered the consumption of good tea as a mark of their status and the common people simply enjoyed its flavor. The tea plant has been traced to China and possibly Southeast Asia; historically the origin of tea as a medicinal herb useful for staying awake is unclear. China is considered the birthplace of tea drinking with recorded tea use in its history to at least 1000 B.C.. The use of tea as a beverage drunk for pleasure on social occasions dates from the Tang Dynasty or earlier. For its later uses, see below. The Tang dynasty writer Lu Yu 陆羽's Cha Jing 茶经 is an early work on the subject. The Chinese are credited most for the development and cultivation of tea and the methods of its early preparation and use. The oldest written record regarding tea appeared more than 2000 years ago in China in a labor contract between a master and laborer where tea was already treated as a saleable commodity. There is no clear record regarding when human beings began consuming tea or if people in ancient times ate tea leaves or drank brewed tea. There is some evidence that tea leaves were roasted in the process. More about History of tea in China can be found here.

8th Century: Steaming Process is Introduced

The Han Dynasty used tea as medicine. Tea drinking was widespread during the Tang period according to Cha Jing or Cha Ching (Classics of Tea) written around 760 by Lu Yu (729-804). The book describes how tea plants were grown, the leaves processed, and tea prepared as a beverage. It also describes how tea was evaluated. The book even discusses where the best tea leaves were produced. A form of compressed tea referred to as white tea was being produced as far back as the Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.). At this time in tea's history, the nature of the beverage and style of tea preparation were quite different from the way we experience tea today. Tea leaves were processed into cakes. The dried teacake, generally called "brick tea" was ground in a stone mortar. Hot water was added to the powered teacake, or the powdered teacake was boiled in earthenware kettles then consumed as a hot beverage. This special white tea of Tang was picked in early spring when the new growths of tea bushes that resemble silver needles were abundant. These "first flushes" were used as the raw material to make the compressed tea.

12th Century: Tea Culture is Introduced

During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), production and preparation of all tea changed. The tea of Song included many loose-leaf styles (to preserve the delicate character favored by the court society), but a new powdered form of tea emerged. Tea leaves were picked and quickly steamed to preserve their color and fresh character. After steaming, the leaves were dried. The finished tea was then ground into fine powders that were whisked in wide bowls. The resulting beverage was highly regarded for its deep emerald or iridescent white appearance and its rejuvenating and healthy energy. Drinking tea was considered stylish among government officers and intellectuals during the Southern Song period in China (12th to 13th centuries). They would read poetry, write calligraphy, paint, and discuss philosophy while enjoying tea. Sometimes they would hold tea competitions where teas and tea instruments were judged. When Song Dynasty emperor Hui Zhong proclaimed white tea to be the culmination of all that is elegant, he set in motion the evolution of an enchanting variety. This Song style of tea preparation incorporated powdered tea and ceramic ware in a ceremonial aesthetic known as the Song tea ceremony. Japanese monks traveling to China at this time had learned the Song preparation and brought it home with them. Although it later became extinct in China, this Song style of tea evolved into the Japanese tea ceremony, which endures today. Many forms of white tea were made in the Song Dynasty due to the discerning tastes of the court society. Hui Zhong, who ruled China from 1101-1125, referred to white tea as the best type of tea, and he has been credited with the development of many white teas in the Song Dynasty, including "Palace Jade Sprout" and "Silver Silk Water Sprout." Producing white teas was extremely labor-intensive. First, tea was picked from selected varietals of cultivated bushes or wild tea trees in early spring. The tea was immediately steamed, and the buds were then selected and stripped of their outer, unopened leaf. Only the delicate interior of the bud was reserved to be rinsed with spring water and dried. This process produced white teas that were paper thin and small. Once processed, the finished tea was distributed and often given as a tribute to the Song court in loose form. It was then ground to a fine, silvery-white powder that was whisked in the wide ceramic bowls used in the Song tea ceremony. These white powder teas were also used in the famous whisked tea competitions of that era.

13th Century: Tea Roasting Process is Introduced

In China, steaming tea leaves was the primary process used for centuries in the preparation of brewed tea. After the transition from compressed tea to the powdered form, the production of tea for trade and distribution changed once again. The Chinese learned to process tea in a different way in the mid-13th century. Tea leaves were roasted and then crumbled rather than steamed. This is the origin of today's loose teas and the practice of brewed tea. In 1391, the Ming court issued a decree that only loose tea would be accepted as a "tribute." As a result, loose tea production increased and processing techniques advanced. Soon, most tea was distributed in full-leaf, loose form and steeped in earthenware vessels.

17th Century: Tea Fermentation Process is Introduced

In 17th century China, various types of tea plants were grown in different regions and numerous advances were made in tea production. In the southern part of China, tea leaves were sun dried and half fermented. However, this method was not common in the rest of China.

Late 18th and 19th Century: Mass Production is Introduced

Modern-day white teas can be traced to the Qing Dynasty in 1796. Back then, teas were processed and distributed as loose tea that was to be steeped, and they were produced from "chaicha," a mixed-variety tea bush. They differed from other China green teas in that the white tea process did not incorporate de-enzyming by steaming or pan-firing, and the leaves were shaped. The silver needle white teas that were produced from the "chaicha" tea bushes were thin, small and did not have much silvery-white hair. It wasn't until 1885 that specific varietals of tea bushes were selected to make "Silver Needles" and other white teas. The large, fleshy buds of the "Big White," "Small White" and "Narcissus" tea bushes were selected to make white teas and are still used today as the raw material for the production of white tea. By 1891, the large, silvery-white down-covered Silver Needle was exported, and the production of White Peony started around 1922.

Japanese Tea History

9th Century: Importing Tea and Culture

The earliest known references to green tea in Japan is in a text written by a Buddhist monk in the 9th century. Tea became a drink of the religious classes in Japan when Japanese priests and envoys sent to China to learn about its culture brought tea to Japan. The first form of tea brought from China was probably in a teacake. Ancient recordings indicate the first batch of tea seeds were brought by a priest named Saicho in 805 and then by another named Kukai in 806. It became a drink of the royal classes when Emperor Saga, the Japanese emperor, encouraged the growth of tea plants. Seeds were imported from China, and cultivation in Japan began.

12th Century: Kissa Yojoki - the Book of Tea

In 1191, the famous Zen priest Eisai (1141-1215) brought back tea seeds to Kyoto. Some of the tea seeds were given to the priest Myoe Shonin, and became the basis for Uji tea. The oldest tea specialty book in Japan, Kissa Yojoki (how to stay healthy by drinking tea) was written by Eisai. The two-volume book was written in 1211 after his second and last visit to China. The first sentence states, "Tea is the ultimate mental and medical remedy and has the ability to make one's life more full and complete." The preface describes how drinking tea can have a positive effect on the five vital organs, especially the heart. It discusses tea's medicinal qualities which include easing the effects of alcohol, acting as a stimulant, curing blotchiness, quenching thirst, eliminating indigestion, curing beriberi disease, preventing fatigue, and improving urinary and brain function. Part One also explains the shapes of tea plants, tea flowers and tea leaves and covers how to grow tea plants and process tea leaves. In Part Two, the book discusses the specific dosage and method required for individual physical ailments. Eisai was also instrumental in introducing tea consumption to the warrior class, which rose to political prominence after the Heian Period. Eisai learned that the general Samurai (Shogun) Sanetomo Minamoto had a habit of drinking too much every night. In 1214, Eisai presented a book he had written to the general, lauding the health benefits of tea drinking. After that, the custom of tea drinking became popular among the Samurai. Very soon, green tea became a staple among cultured people in Japan -- a brew for the gentry and the Buddhist priesthood alike. Production grew and tea became increasingly accessible, though still a privilege enjoyed mostly by the upper classes.

13th Century: Roasting Process Introduced to Japan

In the 13th century Ming dynasty, southern China and Japan enjoyed much cultural exchange. Significant merchandise was traded and the roasting method of processing tea became common in Kyushu, Japan. Since the steaming (9th century) and the roasting (13th century) method were brought to Japan during two different periods, these teas are completely distinct from each another.

16th Century: The Tea Culture Emerges

The pastime made popular in China in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries -- reading poetry, writing calligraphy, painting, and discussing philosophy while enjoying tea – eventually became popular in Japan and with Samurai society. The modern tea ceremony developed over several centuries by Zen Buddhist monks under the original guidance of the monk Sen-no Rikyu (1522-1591). In fact, both the beverage and the ceremony surrounding it played a prominent role in feudal diplomacy. Many of the most important negotiations among feudal clan leaders were carried out in the austere and serene setting of the tea ceremony. By the end of the sixteenth century, the current "Way of Tea" was established. Eventually, green tea became available to the masses, making it the nation's most popular beverage.

18th Century: Modern Japanese Green Tea Introduced

Soen Nagatani developed Japanese Sencha (unfermented green tea) in 1740. Sencha uses dried crumbled tea leaves and is now a mainstay in Japan. Rather than being ground and mixed with hot water, steamed tea leaves are pressed, rolled and dried into loose tea.

19th Century: Machines Replace Hand Rolling

At the end of the Meiji period (1868-1912), machine manufacturing of green tea was introduced and began replacing handmade tea. Machines took over the processes of primary drying, tea rolling, secondary drying, final rolling, and steaming.

20th Century: Automation Creates Superior Tea

Automation contributed to improved quality control and reduced labor. Sensor and computer controls were introduced to machine automation so that unskilled workers can produce superior tea without compromising in quality. Certain regions in Japan are known for special types of green tea, as well as for teas of exceptional quality, making the leaves themselves a highly valued commodity. This combination of Nature's bounty and manmade technical breakthroughs combine to produce the most exceptional green tea products sold on the market today. Today, roasted green tea is not as common in Japan and powdered tea is used in ceremonial fashion.

21st Century: Green Tea's Role in Japanese Society

Green tea's traditional role in Japanese society is as a drink for special guests and special occasions. Green tea is served in many companies during afternoon breaks. The Japanese have a custom of buying confectioneries for their colleagues when on vacations or business trips. These snacks are usually opened and enjoyed with green tea. If you visit a Japanese company on business, you are likely to be offered a cup of tea to sip during your meeting. At a restaurant, a cup of green tea is often served with meals at no extra charge, with as many refills as desired. The best traditional Japanese restaurants take as much care in choosing the tea they serve as in preparing the food itself. When guests arrive, Japanese brew a pot of green tea. A thermos full of green tea is also a staple on family or school outings as an accompaniment to bento (box lunches). Families oftentimes bring along proper Japanese teacups, to enhance the enjoyment of the traditional drink. The strong cultural association the Japanese have with green tea has made it the most popular beverage to drink with traditional Japanese cuisine, such as sushi, sashimi and tempura. Many Japanese are still taught the proper art of the centuries-old Tea Ceremony as well. Still, the Japanese now enjoy green tea processed using state of the art technology that accentuates both its health benefits and its taste. Today, hand pressing -- a method demonstrated to tourists -- is taught only as a technique preserved as a part of the Japanese cultural tradition. As the Venetian explorer Marco Polo failed to mention tea in his travel records, it is conjectured that the first Europeans to encounter tea were either Jesuits living in Beijing who attended the court of the last Ming Emperors; or Portuguese explorers visiting Japan in 1560. Russia discovered tea in 1618 after a Ming Emperor of China offered it as a gift to Czar Michael I. Soon imported tea was introduced to Europe, where it quickly became popular among the wealthy in France and the Netherlands. English use of tea dates from about 1650 and is attributed to Catherine of Braganza (Portuguese princess and queen consort of Charles II of England). See also: History of tea in China

Exploitation, supply and demand

History of tea in China The high demand for tea in Britain caused a huge trade deficit with China. The British set up tea plantations in colonial India to provide their own supply. They also tried to balance the trade deficit by selling opium to the Chinese, which later led to the First Opium War in 1838–1842. The Boston Tea Party was an act of uprising in which Boston residents destroyed crates of British tea in 1773, in protest against British tea and taxation policy. Prior to the Boston Tea Party, residents of Britain's North American 13 colonies drank far more tea than coffee. In Britain, coffee was more popular. After the protests against the various taxes, Americans stopped drinking tea as an act of patriotism. Similarly, Britons slowed their consumption of coffee. These days, contradicting tea economies do exist. Tea farmers in the Republic of Korea, Japan, Taiwan and China often enjoy better incomes compared to farmers in black tea producing countries.

The word tea

The Chinese character for tea is 茶, but it is pronounced very differently in the various Chinese dialects. Two pronunciations have made their way into other languages around the world. One is 'te' (POJ: tê) which comes from the Min Nan dialect spoken around the port of Xiamen (Amoy). The other is 'cha', used by the Cantonese dialect spoken around the ports of Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong, as well as in the Mandarin dialect of northern China. Yet another different pronunciation is 'zoo', used in the Wu dialect spoken around Shanghai. Languages that have Te derivatives include Armenian, Catalan ('te'), Danish ('te'), Dutch ('thee'), English ('tea'), Esperanto ('teo'), Estonian ('tee'), Faroese, Finnish ('tee'), French ('thé'), German ('Tee'), Hebrew ('תה', /te/ or /tei/), Hungarian ('tea'), Icelandic, Indonesian ('the'), Italian ('tè'), Latvian, Malay, Norwegian ('te'), Polish ('herbata' from Latin 'herba the'), Singhalese, Spanish ('té'), Swedish ('te'), Tamil ('thè'), Yiddish, and scientific Latin. Those that use Cha or Chai derivatives include Albanian, Arabic, Bulgarian, Bangla, Croatian, Czech ('čaj'), Greek, Hindi, Japanese ('茶', 'ちゃ', 'cha'), Korean, Malayalam, Nepali ('chia'), Persian, Portuguese ('chá'), Romanian, Russian, ('чай', 'chai'), Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, ('čaj'), Swahili, Tagalog, Thai, Tibetan, Turkish ('çay'), Ukrainian, and Vietnamese ('trà' and 'chè' are both direct derivatives of the Chinese 茶; the latter term is used mainly in the north). It is tempting to correlate these names with the route that was used to deliver tea to these cultures, but this correspondence does not follow. For example, most British trade went through Canton, which uses cha. In Ireland, or at least in Dublin, the term "cha" is sometimes used for tea, with "tay" as a common pronunciation throughout the land, and "char" was a common slang term for tea throughout British Empire and Commonwealth military forces in the 19th and 20th centuries, crossing over into civilian usage. In North America, the word "chai" is used to refer almost exclusively to the Indian "chai" (or "masala chai") beverage. Perhaps the only place in which a word unrelated to tea is used to describe the beverage is South America (particularly Andean countries), because a similar stimulant beverage, hierba mate, was consumed there long before tea arrived. In various places of South America, any tea is referred to as mate.

Tea culture

Tea is often drunk at social events, such as afternoon tea and the tea party. It may be drunk early in the day to heighten alertness; it contains theophylline and bound caffeine (sometimes called "theine"), although there are also decaffeinated teas. There are tea ceremonies which have arisen in different cultures, Japan's complex, formal and serene one being the most known. Other examples are the Korean tea ceremony or some traditional ways of brewing tea in Chinese tea culture.

China

Chinese tea culture]] Due to the importance of tea in Chinese society and culture, tea houses can be found in most Chinese neighborhoods and business districts. Chinese-style tea houses offer dozens of varieties of hot and cold tea concoctions. They also serve a variety of tea-friendly and/or tea-related snacks. Beginning in the late afternoon, the typical Chinese tea house quickly becomes packed with students and business people, and later at night plays host to insomniacs and night owls simply looking for a place to relax. Formal tea houses also exist. They provide a range of Chinese and Japanese tea leaves, as well as tea making accoutrements and a better class of snack food. Finally there are the tea vendors, who specialize in the sale of tea leaves, pots, and other related paraphernalia.

Two Periods

In China, at least as early as the Tang Dynasty, tea was an object of connoisseurship; in the Song Dynasty formal tea-tasting parties were held, comparable to modern wine tastings. As much as in modern wine tastings, the proper vessel was important and much attention was paid to matching the tea to an esthetically appealing serving vessel. Historically there were two phases of tea drinking in China based on the form of tea that was produced and consumed, namely: Tea bricks versus Loose Leaf Tea.

Tea Bricks

Tea served prior to the Ming Dynasty was typically made from tea bricks. Upon harvesting, the tea leaves were either partially dried or were thoroughly dried and ground before being pressed into bricks. The pressing of Pu-erh is likely a vestige of this process. Tea bricks were also sometimes used as currency. To improve its resiliency as currency, some tea bricks were mixed with binding agents such as blood. Serving the tea from tea bricks required multiple steps:
- Toasting: Tea bricks are usually first toasted over a fire to destroy any mold or insects that may have burrowed into the tea bricks. Such infestation sometimes occurred since the bricks were stored openly in warehouses and storerooms. Toasting also likely imparted a pleasant flavour to the resulting tea.
- Grinding: The tea brick was broken up and ground to a fine powder resembling Japanese powdered tea (Matcha).
- Whisking: The powdered tea was mixed into hot water and frothed with a whisk before serving. The colour and patterns formed by the powdered tea were enjoyed while the mixture was imbibed. The ground and whisked teas used at that time called for dark and patterned bowls in which the texture of the tea powder suspension could be enjoyed. The best of these bowls, glazed in patterns with names like oil spot, partridge-feather, hare's fur, and tortoise shell, are highly valued today. The patterened holding bowl and tea mixture were often lauded in the period's poetry with phrases such as "partridge in swirling clouds" or "snow on hare's fur". Tea in this period was enjoyed more for its patterns and less for its flavour. The practice of using powdered tea can still be seen in the Japanese Tea ceremony or Chado.

Loose-Leaf Tea

After 1391, Emperor Hung-wu, the first Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, decreed that tributes of tea to the court were to be changed from brick to loose-leaf form. The imperial decree quickly transformed the tea drinking habits of the people, changing from whisked teas to steeped teas. The arrival of the new method for preparing tea also required the creation or use of new vessels.
- The tea pot was needed such that the tea leaves can be steeped separately from the drinking vessel for an infusion of proper concentration. The tea also needs to be kept warm and the tea leaves must be separated from the resulting infusion when required.
- Tea caddies and containers also became necessary in order to keep the tea and conserve its flavour. This due to the fact that tea leaves do not preseve as well as tea bricks. Furthermore, the natural aroma of tea became the focus of the tea drinking due to the new preparation method.
- A change in Chinese tea drinking vessels was also evident at this point. Smaller bowls with plain or simple designs on the interior surfaces were favoured over the larger patterned bowls used for enjoying the patterns created by powdered teas. Tea drinking in small bowls and cups was likely adopted since it gathers and directs the fragrant steam from the tea to the nose and allows for better appreciation of the tea's flavour. This is the current and preferred method of preparing tea in Chinese culture. : See also Taiwan, Tibet and Hong Kong listed below.

Vietnam

Tea is cultivated extensively in the north of the country, making Vietnam one of the world's largest exporters. The tea is normally drunk green, and strongly brewed. The word in the Vietnamese language is tra (pronounced cha/ja) or che.

Britain

The British are amongst the largest per capita tea consumers in the world - each person consuming on average 2.5 kg per year. The popularity of tea dates back to the 19th Century when India was part of the British Empire, and British interests controlled tea production in the subcontinent. Tea initially was such a luxury that the teapoy, a dedicated piece of furniture, was developed for storing it. For most people in Britain tea drinking is not the delicate, refined cultural expression that much of the world imagines - a cup (or more often a mug) of tea is something drunk several times a day quite unceremoniously. "Tea" is not only the name of the beverage, but of a late afternoon light meal, irrespective of beverage drunk. Frequently (outside the UK) this is referred to as "high tea", however in the UK high tea is an evening meal. The term evidently comes from the meal being eaten at the "high" (main) table, rather than the smaller table common in living rooms. Tea is usually served with milk (not cream) and sugar, although taking sugar is increasingly less common. There is a tradition of tea rooms in the UK which usually provide the traditional fare of cream and jam on scones, but these have declined in popularity since World War II. In Devon and Cornwall particularly, cream teas are a speciality. Lyons Corner Houses were a successful chain of such establishments.

Industrial Revolution

Some scholars suggest the tea played a role in British industrial revolution. Afternoon tea possibly became a way to increase the number of hours laborers could work in factories; the stimulants in the tea, accompanied by sugary snacks would give workers energy to finish out the days work. Further, tea helped alleviate some of the consequences of the urbanization that accompanied the industrial revolution: drinking tea required boiling one's water, thereby killing water-borne diseases like dysentery, cholera, and typhoid [http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/savage/tea.html].

Hong Kong

The English-style tea has evolved into a new local style of drink, the Hong Kong-style milk tea, more often simply "milk tea", in Hong Kong. It is popular at cha chaan tengs and fast food shops such as Café de Coral and Maxims Express. Traditional Chinese tea, including green tea, flower tea, jasmine tea and Pu-erh tea, are also common, and are served at dim sum restaurant during yum cha.

Iran

Tea found its way to Persia (Iran) from India and soon became the national drink. The whole part of northern Iran along the shores of the Caspian Sea is suitable for the cultivation of tea. Especially in the Gilan province on the slopes of Alborz large areas are under tea cultivation and millions of people work in the tea industry for their livelihood. That region covers a large part of Iran's need for tea. Iranians have one of the highest per capita rate of tea consumption in the world and from old times every street has had a Châikhâne (Tea House). Châikhâne's are still an important social place. Iranians traditionally drink tea by pouring it into the saucer and putting a lump of sugar in the mouth before drinking the tea. This is seen nowhere else in the world.

Ireland

Ireland has, for a long time, been one of the biggest per-capita consumers of tea in the world. The national average is four cups per person per day, with many people drinking six cups or more. As with Britain tea in Ireland is usually taken with milk and/or sugar. The two main brands of tea sold in Ireland are Lyons and Barrys. There is a considerable amount of light-hearted debate over which brand is superior. The Irish love of tea is perhaps best illustrated by the stereotypical housekeeper, Mrs Doyle in the popular sit-com Father Ted.

India

Father Ted One of the world's largest producers, India is a country where tea is popular all over as a breakfast and evening drink. It is often served as masala chai with milk and sugar, and sometimes scented. Almost all the tea consumed is black Indian tea. Usually tea leaves are boiled in water while making tea, and milk is added. Offering tea to almost every visitor to a family is a cultural norm. Tea has entered the common idiom; for example, asking money for "chai-pani" means asking for a tip; in certain states, it may mean asking for a bribe. Darjeeling Tea is known for its delicate aroma and light color and is aptly termed as "the champagne of teas", Assam tea is known for its robust taste and dark color, and Nilgiri tea is dark, intensely aromatic and flavorful.

Pakistan

As in India, tea is popular all over Pakistan. During British Rule tea became so popular in the subcontinent that it is now a common breakfast and all-day drink. Most of the tea consumed in Pakistan is imported from Kenya.

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, tea is served in the English style, with milk and sugar, but the milk is always warmed. Tea is a hugely popular beverage among the Sri-Lankan people, and part of its land is surrounded by the many hills of tea plantations that spread for miles and miles round. Drinking tea has become part of the culture of Sri Lanka.

Turkey

As pictured, Turkish tea or Çay is produced on the eastern Black Sea coast, which has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile soil. Turkish tea is prepared in a samovar and can be served strong ("koyu"/dark) or weak ("açık"/light). It is drunk from small glasses in order to show the colour of the tea, with lumps of beetroot sugar. To a lesser extent than in other Muslim countries, tea replaces alcohol as the social beverage.

Russia and Poland

alcohol]] In Russia and Poland, it is customary to drink tea brewed separately in a teapot and diluted with freshly boiled water ('pair-of-teapots tea', 'чай парой чайников'). The traditional implement for boiling water for tea used to be the samovar (and sometimes it still is). The podstakannik, or tea glass holder (literally "under the glass"), is also a part of Russian tea tradition. Tea is a family event, and is usually served with sugar and lemon (but without milk), and an assortment of jams, pastries and confections, including pastila, pressed apple paste.

Czech Republic

Specific tea culture developed in the Czech Republic in recent years, including many styles of tearooms. Despite having the same name, they are mostly different from the British style tea rooms. Pure teas are usually prepared with respect to their country of origin and good tea palaces may offer 80 teas from almost all tea-producing countries. Different tea rooms have also created various blends and methods of preparation and serving.

Commonwealth countries

Afternoon tea and the variant cream tea (called Devonshire Tea in Australia) is the staple "tea ceremony" of the English speaking Commonwealth countries, available in homes and tea rooms throughout the United Kingdom, Australia, India, Africa and New Zealand, although in most of these places it is no longer a daily routine. . Note that "tea" may also refer to a meal in Commonwealth nations, as in England, regardless of the beverage served with the meal. This could lead to confusion over the meaning of an invitation to "tea". The solution, in countries such as Australia and New Zealand, is to refer to the drink as a "cuppa" (as in a "cup of tea").

United States

Afternoon tea is rarely served in the United States except in ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also have cream teas on the menu. In the United States, about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold, or iced. Iced tea can be purchased, like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores; usually, this pre-made tea is sweetened, and sometimes some other flavouring, such as lemon or raspberry, is added. Also, like soda, it can be purchased as a fountain drink, though in some establishments it is pumped from a Bag-In-Box, and in others, from a separate container near the fountain that contains freshly brewed tea. In the Southern U.S. states, iced tea is available in both "sweet" and "unsweet." Southern sweet tea is made by adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly-brewed hot tea. In addition to tea bags and loose tea, powdered "instant iced tea mix" is available in stores. This is made by preparing tea and then dehydrating it, similar to instant coffee. Iced tea is more frequently ordered during periods of hot weather, and hot tea is likewise more common in cold weather. Any confusion when one is visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either "hot tea" or "iced tea." Beware, however, that "iced tea" may, or may not, be presweetened, depending on the region. In the South, "iced tea" is often considered to be "sweet tea" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea and/or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea. Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard flatware sets; the iced tea spoon is a standard flatware teaspoon, but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea. Iced tea debuted in 1904 in the United States. Hot tea is often consumed "black" but sugar or honey can be added; milk or creamer is less common. It is also common for tea to be flavoured by adding a slice of lemon, or lemon juice. When cream is added to tea, it may be called "English style". Visitors from countries where tea consumption is more ubiquitous frequently complain that American restaurants are not familiar with proper tea preparation. Instead of pouring boiling water over tea leaves or a tea bag, waiters usually bring the customer a tea bag and a cup (or small pot) of hot water in which to dunk it. If the customer is lucky, the water has just been boiled, but often it has been sitting for a while and there is no way to know. Traditionally, red and white teas were difficult to find in the United States, and even green tea was uncommon; however, they have recently become more popular. Recently, many coffee houses have begun to serve a milky, sweet, spiced tea called "chai", based on Indian "masala chai". Bubble tea from Taiwan has also become popular in the United States in recent years. This beverage contains spheres of sweet tapioca, which settle to the bottom of the glass or cup prior to serving. Decaffeinated tea is widely available in the United States, for those who wish to reduce the physiological effects of caffeine.

U.S. regional tea traditions

Sweet tea, with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southern U.S. states. In these states, when a person says "tea", he or she normally means sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is called "unsweet" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. In the North, "tea" generally means the hot beverage. In Texas and much of the Western United States, iced tea almost always means freshly-brewed unsweetened tea, generally served in a tall glass and garnished with a lemon wedge. Sweeteners are then added by the customer (or not) according to taste. Free refills are a matter of course in most restaurants. Sun tea is frequently brewed in temperate areas by placing tea and water together in a glass jar left outdoors in direct sunlight. Steeping times are necessarily long. Tea may also be brewed with no heat at all by simply immersing the tea bags or infuser in room-temperature water and allowing a period of several hours (typically overnight) for steeping.

Alcoholic "tea"

The so-called Long Island Iced Tea usually contains no tea; it is an alcoholic cocktail that looks like and (if made correctly) tastes similar to iced tea. A variant recipe uses actual iced tea as a mixer.

Historical background

During the colonial period, tea and tea taxes were a bone of contention between the American Colonies and England. This led to the Boston Tea Party, a precipitating event of the American Revolution, where angry Colonists destroyed the tea cargo of three British ships by dumping them into Boston Harbor. Boycotts of tea by the colonists during this period led to an increase in consumption of other beverages, such as coffee or herbal tea. To this day, coffee remains more popular than tea in the United States.

Japan

herbal tea] Green tea (ryoku-cha) is very popular in Japan. Simply ordering cha (tea) or o-cha normally brings green tea. Specialty shops sell vast varieties of teas, as do sections in supermarkets. In cafeterias and lunch-type restaurants, hot or cold green tea usually accompanies the meal according to the customer's preferences. It is the beverage of the workplace, and employees drink it during breaks in the day. Hosts provide green tea to

Cacao

:For the town in French Guiana see Cacao, French Guiana Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is a small (4-8 m tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae (formerly Sterculiaceae), native to tropical South America, but now cultivated throughout the tropics. Its seeds are used to make cocoa and chocolate. The tree grows naturally in the low foothills of the Andes at elevations of around 200-400 m in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins; it is believed to have been introduced to Central America by the Maya people. It requires a humid climate with regular rainfall and good soil. It is an understorey tree, growing best with some overhead shade. The leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10-40 cm long and 5-20 cm broad. leaves The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches; they are small, 1-2 cm diameter, with pink calyx. The fruit, called a cacao pod, is ovoid, 15-30 cm long and 8-10 cm wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighs about 500 g when ripe. The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds, usually called "beans", embedded in a white pulp. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40-50% as cocoa butter). Their most important active constituent is Theobromine, a compound somewhat similar to Caffeine. The scientific name Theobroma means "food of the gods", while cacao probably comes from the Yucatec Maya word cacau.

Cultivation

Cacao is planted on over 70000 square kilometres worldwide with 40% of production coming from Côte d'Ivoire. Ghana and Indonesia each produce about 15%, with smaller amounts from Brazil, Nigeria and Cameroon. A tree begins to bear when 4 or 5 years old. In one year, when mature, it may have 6,000 flowers, but only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds are required to produce around 1 kg of cocoa paste. cocoa There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from the Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate. For details of processing, see cocoa. cocoa Cacao beans were commonly used as currency in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. In some areas, such as Yucatán, they were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.

External links

- [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16035 The food of the Gods] - the nature, growth, cultivation, manufacture and history of Cocoa, by Brandon Head, from Project Gutenberg

Yaupon Holly

Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria), also called Yaupon or Cassina (the latter shared with the Dahoon Holly), is an evergreen holly found in the southeast United States. It is a shrub or small tree reaching 5-8 m tall. The leaves are alternate, ovate to elliptical with an acute apex and crenate or finely serrated margin, 2-4.5 cm long and 1-2 cm broad, glossy dark green above, slightly paler below. Yaupon flowers are white, with a four-lobed corolla. The fruit is a small round or red (occasionally yellow) berry 5-6 mm diameter containing four seeds.

Cultivation and uses

Native Americans used the leaves and stems to brew a tea called Asi or Black Drink for male-only purification and unity rituals. The ceremony included vomiting, and Europeans incorrectly believed that it was the drink itself that caused it (hence the Latin name). The active ingredient is actually caffeine, and the vomiting was either learned or as a result of the great quantities in which they drank the beverage (Hudson, The Southeastern Indians, ISBN 0870492489). Category:Aquifoliales

Insect

Subclass: Apterygota :Orders :
- Archaeognatha (Bristletails) :
- Thysanura (Silverfish) :
- Monura - extinct Subclass: Pterygota :
- Infraclass: "Paleoptera" (paraphyletic) ::Orders ::
- Ephemeroptera (mayflies) ::
- Protodonata - extinct ::
- Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) ::
- Diaphanopteroidea - extinct ::
- Palaeodictyoptera - extinct ::
- Megasecoptera - extinct ::
- Archodonata - extinct :
- Infraclass: Neoptera ::Orders ::
- Blattodea (cockroaches) ::
- Isoptera (termites) ::
- Mantodea (mantids) ::
- Dermaptera (earwigs) ::
- Plecoptera (stoneflies) ::
- Protorthoptera - extinct ::
- Orthoptera (grasshoppers, etc) ::
- Phasmatodea (walking sticks) ::
- Caloneroptera - extinct ::
- Titanoptera - extinct ::
- Embioptera (webspinners) ::
- Zoraptera ::
- Grylloblattodea ::
- Mantophasmatodea (gladiators) :
- Superorder: Exopterygota ::Orders ::
- Psocoptera (booklice, barklice) ::
- Thysanoptera (thrips) ::
- Phthiraptera (lice) ::
- Hemiptera (true bugs) :
- Superorder: Endopterygota ::Orders ::
- Raphidioptera (snakeflies) ::
- Megaloptera (alderflies, etc.) ::
- Neuroptera (net-veined insects) ::
- Coleoptera (beetles) ::
- Strepsiptera (twisted-winged parasites) ::
- Mecoptera (scorpionflies, etc.) ::
- Siphonaptera (fleas) ::
- Diptera (true flies) ::
- Trichoptera (caddisflies) ::
- Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) ::
- Hymenoptera (ants, bees, etc.) ::
- Protodiptera extinct ::Incertae sedis ::
- Glosselytrodea extinct ::
- Miomoptera - extinct Insects are invertebrate animals of the Class Insecta, the largest and (on land) most widely distributed taxon within the Phylum Arthropoda. Insects comprise the most diverse group of animals on the earth, with over 800,000 species described—more than all other animal groups combined: "Indeed, in no one of her works has Nature more fully displayed her exhaustless ingenuity," Pliny exclaimed. Insects may be found in nearly all environments on the planet, although only a small number of species have adapted to life in the oceans where crustaceans tend to predominate. There are approximately 5,000 dragonfly species, 2,000 praying mantis, 20,000 grasshopper, 170,000 butterfly and moth, 120,000 fly, 82,000 true bug, 350,000 beetle, and 110,000 bee and ant species. Estimates of the total number of current species, including those not yet known to science, range from two to thirty million, with most authorities favoring a figure midway between these extremes. The study of insects is called entomology.

Relationship to other arthropods

A few smaller groups with similar body plans, such as springtails (Collembola), are united with the insects in the Subphylum Hexapoda. The true insects (that is, species classified in the Class Insecta) are distinguished from all other arthropods in part by having ectognathous, or exposed, mouthparts and eleven (11) abdominal segments. Most species, but by no means all, have wings as adults. Terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes, millipedes, scorpions and spiders, are sometimes confused with insects due to the fact that both have similar body plans, sharing (as do all arthropods) a jointed exoskeleton.

Morphology and development

Insects range in size from less than a millimeter to over 18 centimeters (some walkingsticks) in length. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by an exoskeleton, a hard outer covering made mostly of chitin. The body is divided into a head, a thorax, and an abdomen. The head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, and a mouth. The thorax has six legs (one pair per segment) and wings (if present in the species). The abdomen has excretory and reproductive structures. Insects have a complete digestive system. That is, their digestive system consists basically of a tube that runs from mouth to anus, contrasting with the incomplete digestive systems found in many simpler invertebrates. The excretory system consists of Malpighian tubules for the removal of nitrogenous wastes and the hindgut for osmoregulation. At the end of the hindgut, insects are able to reabsorb water along with potassium and sodium ions. Therefore, insects don't usually excrete water with their feces, a fact which allows them to store water in the body. This process of reabsorption enables them to withstand hot, dry environments. osmoregulation Most insects have two pairs of wings located on the second and third thoracic segments. Insects are the only invertebrate group to have developed flight, and this has played an important part in their success. The winged insects, and their secondarily wingless relatives, make up the subclass Pterygota. Insect flight is not very well understood, relying heavily on turbulent atmospheric effects. In more primitive insects it tends to rely heavily on direct flight muscles, which act upon the wing structure. More advanced flyers, which make up the Neoptera, generally have wings that can be folded over their back, keeping them out of the way when not in use. In these insects, the wings are powered mainly by indirect flight muscles that move the wings by stressing the thorax wall. These muscles are able to contract when stretched without nervous impulses, allowing the wings to beat much faster than would be otherwise possible. Insects use tracheal respiration in order to transport oxygen through their bodies. Openings on the surface of the body called spiracles lead to the tubular tracheal system. Air reaches internal tissues via this system of branching trachea. The circulatory system of insects, like that of other arthropods, is open: the heart pumps the hemolymph through arteries to open spaces surrounding the internal organs; when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph seeps back into the heart. Insects hatch from eggs, and undergo a series of moults as they develop and grow in size. This manner of growth is necessitated by the exoskeleton. Moulting is a process by which the individual escapes the confines of the exoskeleton in order to increase in size, then grows a new outer covering. In most types of insects, the young, called nymphs, are basically similar in form to the adults (an example is the grasshopper), though wings are not developed until the adult stage. This is called incomplete metamorphosis. Complete metamorphosis distinguishes the Endopterygota, which includes many of the most successful insect groups. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a larva, which is generally worm-like in form. The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa, a stage sealed within a cocoon or chrysalis in some species. In the pupal stage, the insect undergoes considerable change in form to emerge as an adult, or imago. Butterflies are an example of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis. imago.]]

Behavior

Many insects possess very refined organs of perception. In some cases, their senses can be more capable than humans. For example, bees can see in the ultraviolet spectrum, and male moths have a specialized sense of smell that enables them to detect the pheromones of female moths over distances of many kilometers. Social insects, such as the ant and the bee, are the most familiar species of eusocial animal. They live together in large well-organized colonies that are so tightly integrated and genetically similar the colonies are sometimes considered superorganisms.

Roles in the environment and human society

Many insects are considered pests by humans, because they transmit diseases (mosquitos, flies), damage structures (termites), or destroy agricultural goods (locusts, weevils). Many entomologists are involved in various forms of pest control, often using insecticides, but more and more relying on methods of biocontrol. Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to the environment and to humans. Some