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Burial Mound

Burial mound

. Painting by Viktor Vasnetsov.]] A tumulus (plural tumuli or tumuluses) is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans and can be found throughout much of the world. A tumulus composed largely or entirely of stones is usually referred to as a cairn. The method of inhumation may involve a cist, a mortuary enclosure, a mortuary house or a chamber tomb. Examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe. Maeshowe from the 5th and the 6th centuries. Originally, the site had 2000 to 3000 tumuli, but due to quarrying and agriculture "only" 250 remain]]

Sites

Scandinavia

6th centuries, Sweden from the early 6th century]] Burial mounds were in use until the 11th century in Scandinavia. In their undamaged state they appear as small, man-made hillocks, though many examples have been damaged by ploughing or deliberately damaged so that little visible evidence remains. By burning the deceased, he was moved to Valhalla by the consuming force of the fire. The fire could reach temperatures of 1500 °C. The remains were covered with cobblestones and then a layer of gravel and sand and finally a thin layer of turf. :Thus he (Odin) established by law that all dead men should be burned, and their belongings laid with them upon the pile, and the ashes be cast into the sea or buried in the earth. Thus, said he, every one will come to Valhalla with the riches he had with him upon the pile; and he would also enjoy whatever he himself had buried in the earth. For men of consequence a mound should be raised to their memory, and for all other warriors who had been distinguished for manhood a standing stone; which custom remained long after Odin's time. [...] It was their faith that the higher the smoke arose in the air, the higher he would be raised whose pile it was; and the richer he would be, the more property that was consumed with him. (Ynglinga saga) Ynglinga saga As the old Scandinavians worshiped their ancestors, the mounds were also places of worship. Of note is King Björn's barrow in Håga (Old Norse name: Haug) near Uppsala. This location has a very strong connection with Björn at Haugi. First, the Nordic Bronze Age barrow gave its name to the location Håga ("the barrow"), which became part of the cognomen of the king, at Haugi ("at the barrow"), and interestingly, the mound was later named after the king.

Ukraine, Russia and Central Asia

Main article: Kurgan. The word kurgan is of Turkicn origin borrowed from Russian language. In the north, there are royal kurgans of Varangian chieftains, such as the Black Grave in Chernihiv (excavated in the 19th century), Oleg's Grave in Staraya Ladoga, and vast, intricate Rurik's Hill near Rurikovo gorodische. [http://tinyurl.com/6dvm9] Other important kurgans are found in South Russia and are associated with much more ancient steppe peoples, notably the Scythians (e.g., Pazyryk) and Proto-Indo-Europeans (e.g., Ipatovo) The steppe cultures found in South Russia naturally continue into Central Asia, in particular Kazakhstan.

Britain

In Britain, early references to tumuli were made by William Camden, John Aubrey, and William Stukeley. During the 19th century in England the excavation of tumuli was a popular pastime amongst the educated and wealthy middle classes who became known as "barrow-diggers". This leisure activity played a key role in laying the foundations for the scientific study of the past in England.

Israel

England Near the western city limits of modern Jerusalem in Israel, 19 tumuli have been documented (Amiran, 1958). Though first noticed in the 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by William Foxwell Albright, and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by Gabriel Barkay in 1983. Since 21 kings reigned in Jerusalem during the Israelite monarchy from David to Zedekiah (who was conquered and humiliated by the Chaldean king, Nebuchadnezzar), it is not unreasonable to suspect that these mounds were the locations of ceremonies to mourn/honor them after they had already received proper burial in the royal tombs (probably located in the heart of the city where they could be continuously guarded). See 2 Chronicles 16:14, 21:19 (which states that King Jehoram was not given this honor), 32:33, the book of Jeremiah 34:5 (a conditional promise for Zedekiah that he did not earn), and Biblical archaeology. Gabriel Barkay popularized this theory after studying tumuli near Salamis in Cyprus. More than half of these ancient Israeli structures have now been threatened or obliterated by modern construction projects, including Tumulus #4, which was excavated hastily in a salvage operation. The most noteworthy finds from this dig were two LMLK seal impressions and two other handles with associated Concentric Circle incisions, all of which suggests this tumulus belonged to either King Hezekiah (Barkay, 2003, p. 68) or his son Manasseh (Grena, 2004, p. 326).

Japan

Manasseh, early 5th century.]] In Japan, powerful leaders built tumuli known as kofun. The Kofun period of Japanese history takes its name from these burial mounds. The largest is over 400 meters in length. In addition to other shapes, kofun include a keyhole shape.

U.S.A.

Mound building was a central feature of the public architecture of many Native American cultures from Chile to Minnesota. Thousands of mounds in the USA have been destroyed as a result of farming, pot-hunting, amateur and professional archaeology, road-building and construction. Surviving mounds are still found in river valleys, especially along the Mississippi, Tennessee and Ohio Rivers. Mounds were used for burial, to support residential and religious structures, to represent a shared cosmology, and to unite and demarcate community. Common forms include conical mounds, ridge-top mounds, platform mounds, and animal effigy mounds, but there are many variations. Mound building in the USA is believed to date back to at least 1200 BCE in the Southeast (see Poverty Point), and recent research shows that it may predate that as well. The Adena and Mississippian cultures are principally known for their mounds. The largest mound site north of Mexico is Cahokia, a vast World Heritage Site located just east of St. Louis, Missouri. The most visually impressive mound site (due to the area being free of trees) is in Moundville, Alabama.

The Czech Republic

During the early Middle Ages, Slavic tribesmen inhabiting Czech lands used to bury their dead under barrows. This practice has been widespread in southern and eastern Bohemia and some neighboring regions, like Upper_Austria and Lusatia, which at that time have been also populated with Slavic people. However, there are no known Slavic barrows in central part of the country (around Prague), neither they are found in Moravia. This has led some of the archaeologists to speculations about at least three distinct waves of Slavic settlers, which have colonized Czech lands separately from each other, each wave bringing its customs with it (including burial rituals). At places where barrows have been constructed, they are usually found in groups (10 to 100 together), often forming several clearly distinct lines going from the west to the east. Only a few of them have been studied scientifically so far; in them, both burials by fire (with burnt ashes) and unburnt skeletons have been found, even on the same site. It seems that builders of the barrows have at some time switched from burials by fire to burying of unburnt corpses; however, the reason for such change is unknown. The barrows date too much back to history (700 AD to 800 AD) to contain any Christian influences - it is almost certain that all people buried in them were pagans. As Czech barrows usually served for burials of poor villagers, only a few objects are found in them except for cheap pottery. Only one Slavic barrow is known to have contained gold. Most of the Czech burial barrows have been damaged or destroyed by intense agriculture in the densely populated region. Those which remain are usually located in forests, especially at hilltops in remote places. Therefore there is no general knowledge about burial barrows in the Czech population. The best Slavic barrow sites can be found near to Vitín, a small village close to České Budějovice. There are two groups of barrows close to Vitín, each containing about 80 barrows ordered in lines. Some of the barrows are as much as 2 meters high. There are also some prehistoric burial barrows in Czechia, built by unknown people. Unlike Slavic barrows, they can be found all across the country, though they are scarce. Distinguishing them from Slavic ones is not an easy task for the unskilled eye.

Types of barrows

Archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. Some British types are listed below:
- Bank barrow
- Bell barrow
- Bowl barrow
- D-shaped barrow A round barrow with a purposefully flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs
- Fancy barrow A generic term for any Bronze Age barrows more elaborate than a simple hemispherical shape.
- Long barrow
- Oval barrow A type of Neolithic long barrow consisting of an elliptical, rather than rectangular or trapezoidal mound.
- Platform barrow The least common of the recognised types of round barrow, consisting of a flat, wide circular mound, which may be surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern England with a marked concentration in East and West Sussex.
- Pond barrow a barrow consisting of a shallow circular depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression. Bronze age
- Ring barrow a bank which encircles a number of burials.
- Round barrow a circular feature created by the Bronze Age peoples of Britain and also the later Romans, Vikings and Saxons. Divided into sub classes such as saucer and bell barrow. The Six Hills are a rare Roman example.
- Saucer barrow circular Bronze Age barrow featuring a low, wide mound surrounded by a ditch which may be accompanied by an external bank.
- Square barrow A burial site, usually of Iron Age date, consisting of a small, square, ditched enclosure surrounding a central burial, which may also have been covered by a mound

List of notable barrow diggers

- Thomas Bateman
- Sir Richard Colt Hoare
- William Cunnington
- Rev. Bryan Faussett
- Canon William Greenwell
- Llewellyn Jewitt
- Rev. W. C. Lukis
- John Robert Mortimer
- Augustus Pitt Rivers
- John Thurman
- Charles Warne

References

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- Grinsell, L.V., 1936, The Ancient Burial-mounds of England. London: Methuen.

External links

- [http://www.eng-h.gov.uk/mpp/mcd/intro2.htm English Heritage Monument Class Descriptions] Category: European archaeology Category:Monument types Category:Archaeology of the Americas Category:Asian archaeology Category:Cemeteries Category:Religious places

Soil

Soil is unconsolidated rock particles mixed with organic matter from plant decay. Soil is vital to all life on Earth because it supports the growth of plants, which supply food and oxygen and absorbs carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Soil serves as a habitat for animal life from microorganisms to small animals.

Soil components

Soils vary widely in composition and structure from place to place. Soils are formed through the weathering of rock and the breakdown of organic matter. Weathering is the action of wind, rain, ice, sunlight and biological processes on rocks, which breaks them down into small particles. The proportions of minerals and organic matter determine the structure and other characteristics of a particular soil. Soils can be divided into two general layers or strata: topsoil, the topmost layer, where most plant roots, microorganisms, and other animal life are located, and subsoil, which is deeper and often more dense and less rich in organic matter. Water and air are also components of most soils. Air, trapped in spaces between soil particles, and water, trapped in spaces and on the surface of particles, comprises about half of the soil by volume. Both are important to plant growth and other life in the soil profile of a particular ecosystem. The rock and mineral content of soil is categorized according to particle size as sand (coarsest), silt or clay (finest); the ratio of these particles to a great degree determines the soil classification and characteristics. Former soils which become buried below the effects of organisms are called paleosols. Soil develops naturally over time through the action of plants, animals, and weathering. Soil is also affected by human habitation. People can alter soil to make it more suitable for plant growth through the addition of organic material and natural or synthetic fertilizer, and by improving its drainage or water-retaining capacity. Human actions also can degrade soil through the depletion of nutrients, pollution, contamination, and compaction, and by increasing the rate of erosion, which is the relocation of soil through the movement of water or wind.

Natural soil development

An example of soil development from bare rock occurs on recent lava flows in warm regions under heavy and very frequent rainfall. In such climates plants become established very quickly on basaltic lava, even though there is very little organic material. The plants are supported by the porous rock becoming filled with nutrient bearing water, for example carrying dissolved bird droppings or guano. The developing plant roots themselves gradually break up the porous lava and organic matter soon accumulates but, even before it does, the predominantly porous broken lava in which the plant roots grow can be considered soil.

Chemical processes in soils

Weathering releases ions such as Potassium (K⁺) and Magnesium (Mg²⁺) into the soil solution. Some of these elements (as ions) are taken up by plants, but the majority not left in solution are absorbed through ion exchange by clays such as montmorillonite. When the level of ions is low in the soil an equilibrium process forces ions back into solution, where they can be used by plants. However if acid is introduced into soil, e.g. by acid rain, hydrogen ions bind in preference to clays, forcing ions out where they can be washed away during rain. Acidity also encourages the weathering of clays, releasing toxic aluminium ions (of which clays are composed) into the solution. To stop this occurring, farmers may apply alkaline materials such as slaked lime. Although the elements nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, which are necessary for plant growth, may be abundant in soil, only a fraction of these elements may be in a chemical form which plants can use. In processes such as nitrification and mineralisation, bacteria and other organisms convert unusable forms (such as NH₄⁺) to usable forms (such as NO₃^-). The raw products are initially present as gases in the atmosphere. Processes such as the nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle continually exchange nutrients between the soil and atmosphere. The organic component of soils originate in plant debris (such as fallen leaves), animal excreta, and other decomposing organic materials. These materials, when broken down, form humus, a dark, nutrient-rich material. Chemically, humus is composed of very large molecules including esters of carboxylic acid, phenolic compounds, and derivatives of benzene. Organic material in soil provides nutrients necessary for plant growth. Organic material also contributes to water retention, drainage ability, and oxygenation of soil. If oxygen enters a wet soil, because of lowered ground water table, organic matter in the soil will be broken down further by oxidation, which can lead to subsidence. An example of this can be seen in soils in the Everglades region of Florida, which have been drained by canals for agriculture, primarily sugar production. Originally very high in organic content, oxygenation and compaction have led to breakdown of the soil structure and nutrient content, and degradation of the soil's ability to support continued high crop yields.

Biological processes in soil

Wetland soil processes

The diffusion of dissolved oxygen in saturated soils is slower than in unsaturated soils. Wetland (also referred to as hydric) soils form due to soil microbial cellular respiration in excess of soil oxygen supply, resulting in oxygen depletion. Anaerobic soil chemistry results, which creates a reducing environment. This eliminates plants and creatures not adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.

Biological soil crusts

Biological soil crusts are formed by living organisms and their by-products, creating a surface crust of soil particles bound together by organic materials.

References

- Soil Survey Staff. (1975) Soil Taxonomy: A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. USDA-SCS Agric. Handb. 436. U.S. Gov. Print. Office. Washington, DC.
- Soil Survey Division Staff. (1993) Soil survey manual. Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 18.
- Logan, W. B., Dirt: The ecstatic skin of the earth. 1995 ISBN 1573220043
- Faulkner, William. Plowman's Folly. New York, Grosset & Dunlap. 1943. ISBN 0933280513
- Jenny, Hans, Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology 1941
- [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html Why Study Soils?]
- [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_06/chapter_12l_R.html Soil notes]
- [http://www.home2garden.org/soil.html Soil articles]

Rock (geology)

, plutonic, metamorphic rock types of North America. ]] Rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids. Rocks are classified by mineral and chemical composition; the texture of the constituent particles; and also by the processes that formed them. These indicators separate rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks are formed from molten magma, and are divided into two main categories: Plutonic rock and Volcanic rock. Plutonic rocks result when the magma cools and crystallises slowly within the Earth's crust, while Volcanic rocks result from the magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta. Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of either detrital or organic matter, or chemical precipitates (evaporites), followed by compaction of the particulate matter and cementation. The latter can occur at or near the earth's surface, especially in the case of carbonate-rich sediments. Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type (including previously-formed metamorphic rock) to different temperature and pressure conditions than those in which the original rock was formed. These temperatures and pressures are always higher than those at the earth's surface, and must be sufficiently high so as to change the original minerals into other mineral types or else into other forms of the same minerals (e.g. by recrystallisation). The transformation of one rock type to another is described by the geological model called the rock cycle. The Earth's crust (including the lithosphere) and mantle are formed of rock.

External links

- [http://www.geol.lsu.edu/henry/Geology3041/2IgneousClassify/IgneousClassFlow.htm Classification of Igneous Rocks] Category:Geology Category:Rocks ja:岩石 ms:Batu th:หิน

Kurgan

---- Kurgan (кургáн) is the Russian word (of Turkic origin) for tumulus, a type of burial mound or barrow, heaped over a burial chamber, often of wood. In 1956 Marija Gimbutas introduced her Kurgan hypothesis combining kurgan archaeology with linguistics to locate the origins of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) speaking peoples. She tentatively named the culture "Kurgan" after their distinctive burial mounds and traced its diffusion into Europe. This hypothesis has had a significant impact on Indo-European research. Those scholars who follow Gimbutas identify a Kurgan culture as reflecting an early Indo-European ethnicity which existed in the steppes and southeastern Europe from the fifth to third millennia BC. Several places in Russia are called Kurgan, including one town after this prominent landscape feature. landscape, Poland]]

Archaeology

Kurgan type barrows were characteristic of Bronze Age nomadic peoples of the steppes, from the Altai to the Caucasus and Romania. Sometimes, burial mounds are quite complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, members of the elite were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots.

Some excavated kurgans

See also Scythia.
- The Ipatovo kurgan revealed a long sequence of burials from the Maykop culture ca. 4000 BC down to the burial of a Sarmatian princess of the 3rd century BC, excavated 1998–1999.
- Kurgan 4 at Kutuluk near Samara, Russia, dated to ca. 24th century BC, containing the skeleton of a man, estimated to have been 35 to 40 years old and about 135 cm tall. Resting on the skeleton's bent left elbow was a copper object of a length of ca. 65 cm with a blade of a diamond-shaped cross-section and sharp edges, but no point, and a handle, originally probably wrapped in leather. No similar object is known from Bronze Age Eurasian steppe cultures, and the object has been compared to the vajra thunderbolt of Indian Indra.
- Novovelichkovskaya kurgan of ca. 2000 BC on the Ponura River, Krasnodar region, southern Russia, containing the remains of 11 people, including an embracing couple, buried with bronze tools, stone carvings, jewelry, and ceramic vessels decorated with red ocher. The tomb is associated with the Novotitorovka culture nomads.
- Issyk kurgan, 31 miles east of Alma Ata, southern Kazakhstan, containing a skeleton, possibly female, with 4.000 gold ornaments, with a headdress reminiscent of Kazakh bridal hats, discovered n 1969.
- Kurgan 11 of the Berel cemetery, in the Bukhtarma River valley of Kazakhstan, containing a tomb of ca. 300 BC, with a dozen sacrificed horses, preserved with their skin, hair, harnesses, and saddles intact, buried side by side on a bed of birch bark next to a funeral chamber containing the pillaged burial of two Scythian nobles, excavated in 1998.
- Ryzhanovka kurgan, a 10 metres high kurgan 125 km south of Kiev, containing the tomb of a Scythian chieftain, 3rd century BC, excavated in 1996.
- Aleksandrovo kurgan, a Thracian kurgan of ca. the 4th century BC.
- Håga Kurgan, a large Nordic Bronze Age kurgan from ca 1000 BC.

Literature

- "In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth" by J. P. Mallory, ISBN 0500276161
- "The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe: Selected Articles Form 1952 to 1993" von Marija Gimbutas u.a., ISBN 0941694569
- "Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture" ed. James Mallory, D. Q. Adams, ISBN 1884964982
- D. Ya. Telegin et al., Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul'tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona. Kiev: Shlyakh, 2001. Reviewed by J.P. Mallory, JIES vol. 32, 3/4, p. 363–366.

External links

- [http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/Kurgans.htm Kurgan Culture]
- [http://www.rdg.ac.uk/archaeology/Research/Klin_Yar/Ipatovo.htm the Ipatovo kurgan]
- [http://www.archaeology.org/cgi-bin/perlfect/search/search.pl?mode=all&q=Kurgan excavated kurgans] (archaeology.org).
- [http://www.csen.org/BAR%20Book/BAR.%20Part%2001.TofC.htmlKurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age] book for download (www.csen.org) Category:Ancient peoples Category:European archaeology Category:Monument types Category:Indo-European Category:Eurasian nomads Category:Archaeological sites category:archaeological cultures Category:Scythians ja:クルガン

World

:This article is about the World, meaning the Earth. For uses of the specific phrase "The World", see The World (disambiguation) The World (disambiguation)] The World (disambiguation) In English, world is rooted in a compound of the obsolete words were, man, and eld, age; thus, its oldest meaning is "age or life of man". Its primary modern meaning is the planet Earth, especially when capitalized: the World. In this sense, a world map is a map of the surface of the Earth. World can also refer to human population in general or to a distinct group of people.
Physical locations
In other contexts, "world" is sometimes used to mean any planet or moon; for example, Mars and Titan are two worlds within the solar system. "World" is sometimes used to refer to the entire Universe. This is less common now that knowledge of space is more commonplace; however, it is still used vaguely in this sense (as in "the whole wide world"), which it is actually the most frequent sense in philosophy.
Other meanings
World can be used in less literal words; for example, two people with very little in common are "living in two different worlds." The "end of the world" usually means "the end of everything I am familiar with."
- In Christianity the world connotes the fallen and corrupt world order of human society outside the community of believers. The world is frequently cited alongside the flesh and the Devil as a source of temptation that Christians should flee. Monks speak of striving to be "in this world, but not of this world", and the term "worldhood" has been distinguished from "monkhood", the former being the status of merchants, farmers, and others who deal with "worldly" things.
- World can also refer to a fictional setting, for example the world of Star Trek or the world of The Lord of the Rings. See fictional realm.
- In knowledge engineering and knowledge level modeling, a system's world is the knowledge that system has about its environment.
- The term can also be used in a culturally specific context: commentators increasingly refer, for example, to the "Muslim world" as if it were a distinct entity.
- In Native American mythology, the Fifth World is the coming world that will exist after the current world.
- World can refer to WORLD Magazine, the fourth largest newsweekly in the United States.
- In Europe, the word "World" refers to Europe (and sometimes America as well).
First World, Second World, Third World
Europe]] The terms First World, Second World, and Third World were used to divide the nations of Earth into three broad categories. The three terms did not arise simultaneously. After World War II it became common to speak of the capitalist and Communist countries as two major blocs, scarcely using such terms as the "free world" as compared to the "communist bloc". The two "worlds" were not numbered. It was eventually pointed out that there were a great many countries that fit into neither category, and in the 1950s this latter group came to be called the Third World. It then began to seem that there ought to be a "First World" and a "Second World." These latter terms were always much less common. In the context of the Cold War:
- First World refers to nations that were within the Western European and United States' sphere of influence — e.g., the NATO countries of North America and Western Europe, Japan, South Korea, and some of the former British colonies such as Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
- Second World referred to nations within the Soviet Union's sphere of influence, principally the Warsaw Pact countries. Besides the Soviet Union proper, most of Eastern Europe was run by satellite governments working closely with Moscow. This term may or may not also refer to Communist countries whose leadership were at odds with Moscow, e.g. China and Yugoslavia. Recently, this term has been used to describe former Third World countries that have experienced too much development to be classified any longer as being a part of the Third World.
- Third World refers to nations within neither sphere of influence, who were often members of the Non-Aligned Movement. They were mostly developing countries, and many of them are located in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. They are often nations that were colonized by another nation in the past. After World War II, the First and Second Worlds struggled to expand their respective spheres of influence to the Third World. The militaries and intelligence services of the United States and the Soviet Union worked both secretly and overtly to influence Third World governments, with mixed success. There were a number of countries which did not fit comfortably into this neat definition of partition, including Switzerland, Sweden, and the Republic of Ireland, which chose to be neutral. Finland was under the Soviet Union's sphere of influence but was not communist, nor was it a member of the Warsaw Pact. Austria was under the United States' sphere of influence, but in 1955, when the country again became a fully independent republic, it did so under the condition that it remained neutral. With the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union, the term "Second World" largely fell out of use, though the term "Third World" remains popular, mostly as another term for developing countries. The remaining Communist countries either became more isolated from the world economy, as in North Korea and Cuba, or began integrating capitalist concepts such as private enterprise into their societies and forging new trading ties with external capitalist economies, as in Vietnam and China. In more recent use, the term First World refers to developed nations, while Third World, in contrast, refers to developing/undeveloped nations. There is also the less commonly used term Fourth World, often used to refer to nations that lack any national representation at the UN, but that may enjoy representation at UNPO — indigenous peoples living within or across state boundaries. "The World" can also be used to refer to the group of people on the planet earth.
See also

- World economy Category:Culture Category:Geography Category:Universe ja:世界

Cairn

] A cairn is a manmade pile of stones. They are nearly always in uplands, on moors or mountain tops. The term tends to be used in reference to Scotland, but is occasionally used elsewhere.

Purpose

They are built for several purposes:
- To mark a path across stony or barren terrain, and across glaciers.
- To mark the summit of a mountain.
- To mark a burial site, or in commemoration of the dead.
- Some are also merely sites where a farmer has removed large amounts of stone from a field. Additionally cairns have been used to commemorate all kinds of events from sites of battles to places where a cart has tipped over. They vary from loose, small piles of stones to elaborate feats of engineering. In some places, games are regularly held to find out who can build the most beautiful cairn.

History

The word derives from the Scottish Gaelic càrn which has a much broader meaning, and can take in various types of hill, and natural stone piles. Naturally, due to the idea's simplicity, cairns can be found all over the world in alpine or mountainous regions. They can also be found in barren desert and tundra areas. tundra] These present-day traditions emerged from the Bronze Age habit of putting cists into cairns, which would be situated in conspicuous positions, often on the skyline above the village of the deceased. These cairns are still to be found, but are often much bigger than modern day ones in Scotland. It is thought that the stones were placed there for a variety of reasons, including deterring grave robbers and scavengers. A more sinister explanation is that they were to stop the dead from rising. It is noteworthy that there is a still a Jewish tradition of placing small stones on a person's grave whenever you visit. Possibly this comes from a similar origin. Stupas in India and Tibet etc. probably started out in a similar fashion, although they now generally contain the ashes of a Buddhist saint or lama. In Scotland, it is traditional to carry a stone up from the bottom of the hill to place on a cairn. In such a fashion, cairns would grow ever larger. An old Scots Gaelic blessing is Cuiridh mi clach air do chàrn, i.e. 'I'll put a stone on your cairn'. In North Africa, they are sometimes called kerkour, and they are also common on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. In the Faroe Islands which are plagued by frequent fogs and heavy rain, and have some of the highest seacliffs in the world, cairns are common as a means of navigation over rugged and hill terrain. In addition, in former times, most travel in the islands, was by boat, rather than foot, so upland areas were often deserted. Faroe Islands] In North American mountain regions, cairns are often used to mark hiking trails or cross-country routes at or above the treeline. Most are small, a foot or less in height, but a few are built taller so as to protrude through a layer of snow. It is traditional for each person passing by a cairn to add a stone, as a small bit of maintenance to counteract the destructive effects of severe winter weather. Oftentimes the habit is to only add to the top, and to use a smaller stone than the previous top stone, resulting in a precarious stack of tiny pebbles.

Cairns as "people"

Although the practice is not common in English, cairns are sometimes referred to by their anthropomorphic qualities. In German and Dutch, a cairn is known as Steinmann and Steenman respectively, meaning literally "stoneman". A form of the Inuit inukshuk is also meant to represent a human figure, and is called an inunguak ("imitation of a person"). inukshuk]]

Mortuary enclosure

A mortuary enclosure is a term given in archaeology and anthropology to an area, surrounded by a wood, stone or earthwork barrier, in which dead bodies are placed for excarnation and to await secondary and/or collective burial. There are some parallels with mortuary houses although the two are the products of different cultural practices and traditions regarding the treatment of the dead. The mortuary enclosures of the British Neolithic were sub-rectangular banks with external ditches and raised platforms of stone or wood within them, thought to be used for the exposure of corpses prior to burial elsewhere. Remains of mortuary enclosures of this period are often found under long barrows.

External link

[http://csweb.bournemouth.ac.uk/proj_cran/manorsh.htm A possible mortuary enclosure at Handley Down in Dorset] Category: Monument types Category:Death customs

Mortuary house

In archaeology and anthropology a mortuary house is any purpose-built structure, often resembling a normal dwelling in many ways, in which a dead body is buried. Following the laying to rest of the deceased, who is often surrounded with grave goods, an earthwork called a kurgan in Russian or barrow in English is raised over the house and the structure left sealed. The term has parallels with Christian sepulchres which contain only one burial. Mortuary houses differ from mortuary enclosures in size, design and in the latter's capacity for multiple burials. Category: Monument types Category:Death customs

Duggleby Howe

Duggleby Howe (also known as Howe Hill, Duggleby) is one of the largest round barrows in Britain, located on the southern side of the Great Wold Valley in East Yorkshire, and is one of four such monuments in this area, known collectively as the Great barrows of East Yorkshire. Duggleby Howe is believed on the basis of artefacts recovered to be of Late Neolithic date, but no radiocarbon dates are available. The monument consists of a mound, the base of which was 120 feet (37 metres) in diameter. The top of the barrow was apparently truncated at some point in the past, leaving an almost-level platform some 47 feet (14 metres) in diameter. On this was constructed a post-mill of medieval type. The mound was 22 feet (7 metres) high at the eastern end and 18 or 19 feet (5 or 6 metres) high at the western end. The barrow lies within a roughly circular enclosure, approximately 370 metres in diameter, formed from interrupted ditches, and open to the south. To the east of the barrow, one within the enclosure and one outside, are two ring ditches, believed to be of Bronze Age date. Although the barrow itself was long known, it was not until 1979 that the existence of the enclosure was confirmed using aerial photographs taken by D.N. Riley. The barrow was first excavated in either 1798 or 1799 by the Reverend Christopher Sykes, but of his excavation no records remain. Beginning on July 21st 1890 J.R. Mortimer, under the sponsorship of Sir Tatton Sykes, excavated "an area of 40 feet square over the centre of the barrow, and a portion of the east side" over a period of more than six weeks. This excavation was re-assessed by Ian Kinnes, Timothy Schadla-Hall, Paul Chadwick and Philip Dean in 1983 to produce the interpretation presented below.

Phase I

In the first phase of activity at Duggleby Howe a shaft grave was excavated and at the base of it was interred an adult male in a crouched position accompanied by a Towthorpe bowl, flint cores and flint flakes. Higher up in the fill of the shaft grave were interred an adult and an infant, both in a crouched position. At the feet of the adult was placed another adult's skull.

Phase II

Once the shaft grave had been back-filled two adults, accompanied by flint and antler tools, were laid in the hollow created by the settling of the fill of the shaft grave.

Phase III

To the east of the shaft grave was then cut a shallow grave in which was deposited another adult in a couched position, accompanied by flint arrowheads, flint flakes, a bone pin, and various implements formed from boar tusk and beaver tooth. The primary round barrow, comprised of "clayey or earthy matter" was then erected and in it were included the remains of four infants, three children, an adolescent and an adult. The mound was then completed with a layer of "small chalk grit" and a thinner layer of "Blue Kimmeridge clay".

Phase IV

Subsequent to the construction of the primary mound, 53 cremations were inserted into the crest of it. None of the cremated remains were enclosed in vessels, but instead occurred in heaps 6-18 inches (15-45 centimetres) in diameter and 1-6 inches (2-15 centimetres) high. Because not all of the barrow was excavated, Mortimer considered it possible that there were equally as many cremations preserved in the untouched part of the mound. The cremations were unaccompanied by artefacts except for three fragments of burnt bone pin.

Phase V

The barrow was subsequently enlarged by the addition of "roughly quarried chalk" to create the massive final mound. Later the mound was used as the emplacement for a post-mill. Kinnes and his colleagues see Duggleby Howe as a cemetery used over a long period of time, representing a stratified funerary sequence for the Late Neolithic. Roy Loveday has suggested, as did J.R. Mortimer, that in fact the many burials may represent instead a sacrifice to mark the death of a powerful figure, perhaps the individual found at the base of the original shaft grave. Mortimer's excavation technique, although good for the time, has not recorded the archaeological stratigraphy sufficiently well to allow this question to be settled.

The Great Barrows of East Yorkshire

- Willy Howe
- South Side Mount
- Wold Newton Barrow 284
- Duggleby Howe

References

- Kinnes, I., Schadla-Hall, T., Chadwick, P. and Dean, P., 1983, Duggleby Howe reconsidered, Archaeological Journal 140: pp 83-108
- Loveday, R., 2002, Duggleby Howe revisited, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21: pp 135-146
- Manby, T.G., 1988, The Neolithic period in eastern Yorkshire, in Manby, T.G. (ed.) Archaeology in Eastern Yorkshire: Essays in Honour of T.C.M. Brewster. John R. Collis: Sheffield.
- Maule Cole, E., 1902, Duggleby Howe, Transactions of the East Riding Antiquarian Society IX: pp 57-61
- Mortimer, J.R., 1905, Forty Years Researches in British and Saxon Burial Mounds of East Yorkshire. A. Brown and Sons: London.
- Riley, D.N., 1980, Recent air photographs of Duggleby Howe and the Ferrybridge henge, Yorkshire Archaeological Journal 52: pp 174-178 Category:Archaeological sites in Britain Category:History of the East Riding of Yorkshire

6th century

from China, Northern Wei period, was built in the early 6th century.]]

Events

- The first academy of the east the Academy of Gundeshapur founded in Iran by Khosrau I of Persia.
- Irish colonists and invaders, the Scots, began migrating to Caledonia (later known as Scotland)
- Glendalough monastery, Wicklow Ireland founded by St. Kevin
- Zen Buddhists enter Vietnam from China.
- Buddhist Jataka stories are translated into Persian by order of the Zoroastrian king Khosrau.
- Buddhism introduced to Japan from Baekje (Korea) in 552, thus contributing to the changes that occurred in the Asuka period.
- Outbreak of bubonic plague in Constantinople and the rest of the Roman Empire.
- Establishment of Karantania, first stable and independent state of Slovenians and of Slavs.
- The Kutriguri Bulgars move into modern Romania.
- Jewish influence in Aksum.
- Nubia is largely converted to Coptic Christianity.
- The area of modern Aargau falls to the Franks.
- The Kingdom of Funan dies out.
- Black Death raged over south east Asia.
- Silk Road farther into Europe.

Significant persons

- Pope Gregory the Great (590-604)
- Arthur, defeated the Anglo-Saxons
- Justinian, Byzantine Emperor (527-565)
- Belisarius, last great Roman general
- Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594?)
- Beowulf, (fictional?) king of the Geats
- Jordanes, author of the Getica.
- Procopius, a historian.
- Abraham Kidunaia
- Austell

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

- Dionysius Exiguus creates the Anno Domini system, inspired by the birth of Jesus, in 525. This is the system upon which the Julian calendar, Gregorian calendar, and Common Era systems are based.
- Backgammon (nard) invented in Persia by Burzoe
- Chess entered Persia from India and was modified
- Breast-strap horse harness in use in Frankish kingdom
- Byzantine Empire acquires silk technology from China

Decades and years

Category:6th century 06th century ko:6세기 ja:6世紀 simple:6th century th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 6

Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: ) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. It is bordered by Norway on the west, Finland on the northeast, the Skagerrak Strait and the Kattegat Strait on the southwest, and the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia on the east. Sweden has a low population density except in its metropolitan areas, with most of the inland consisting of forests and mountainous wilderness. Following the decline of the Viking Age, Sweden spent a couple of centuries fighting with its neighbouring countries Denmark (from the 12th century 1710), and Norway (in the 16th and 17th century). In the 17th and 18th centuries Sweden extended its territory through warfare and became a Great Power, twice its current size. The extended territory was subsequently lost within a century. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a policy of keeping free of alliances. Sweden was one of the poorest countries in Europe in the 19th century, shaped by heavy alcohol consumption, until improved transportation and communication allowed it to utilize natural assets from different parts of the country, most notably timber and iron ore, which allowed the creation of a welfare state in the early 20th century. Today, the country is defined by liberal tendencies and a strong national quest for equality, and usually ranks among the top nations in the UN Human Development Index.

History

Pre-history

For details, see: Prehistoric Sweden Soon after the recession of the last ice age, Sweden became populated by hunters and gatherers, during the Stone Age (6000 BC – 4000 BC). The region developed rather slowly compared to southern Europe; while the Romans wrote poetry, Scandinavia had just entered the Iron Age. Sweden was first mentioned in the 1st century, by Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote that the Suiones tribe lived out in the sea and were powerful in both arms and ships. This referred to the inhabitants of eastern Sweden: Svealand, primarily around lake Mälaren; towns of Stockholm, Sigtuna, and Birka. From this tribe, Sweden derived its name. The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by Geats (Götar) in the Götaland territory. Little is known for certain about that time, but chronicles based on Norse sagas and the Beowulf epos go back about 2,000 years. During the Viking Age of the 9th and 10th century, Swedish vikings travelled east setting its mark on the Baltic countries, Russia, the Black Sea, further through the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople and southern Europe.

Middle Ages

For details, see: Early Swedish history and Foundation of Modern Sweden With Christianization in the 12th century, the country became consolidated, with its centre in the water-ways of the northern Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. In the 14th century Sweden, like the rest of Europe, was struck by the Black Death (the Plague), with all its effect. During the middle ages, the expansion of Sweden into the northern wilderness of Laplandia, the Scandinavian peninsula, and present-day Finland continued. Finland was a part of Sweden proper from 1362 until 1809. In 1389, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under a single monarch in a treaty known as the Kalmar Union. After several wars and disputes between these nations, King Gustav I of Sweden (House of Vasa) broke free in 1521 and established a nation state, considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden to the Protestant Reformation. Gustav I is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation". He was the first monarch from the House of Vasa. The House of Vasa also ruled between 1587 and 1668 in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1592 and 1599 Sweden and Poland were ruled in a personal union by Sigismund I Vasa.

A major power

Sigismund I Vasa (orange) overlayed by present day Sweden (red)]] For details, see: Rise of Sweden as a Great Power, Swedish Empire, Sweden and the Great Northern War, Absolute Monarchy in Sweden, Sweden-Finland and Union between Sweden and Norway The 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the great powers in Europe, due to successful participation, initiated by King Gustav II Adolph, in the Thirty Years' War and by Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the The Deluge of Poland. Mighty as it was, it crumbled in the 18th century with Imperial Russia taking the reins of northern Europe in the Great Northern War, and finally in 1809 when the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland was created out of the eastern half of Sweden. After Denmark was defeated in the Napoleonic wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel. This led to the Campaign against Norway, which was fought in 1814, and ended with the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a union with Sweden that was not dissolved until 1905. But the campaign also signified the last of the Swedish wars and its 200 years of peace are arguably unique in the world today.

Modern history

For details, see: Modernization of Sweden The 19th century saw a significant population increase, generally attributed to peace, vaccination, and potatoes, doubling the population from 1750 to 1850. Many people in the countryside, where most Swedes lived, found themselves unemployed. The result was poverty, alcoholism, and massive emigration; it is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States alone. In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Sweden's second biggest city, Gothenburg. However, as the Industrial revolution progressed during the century, people gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in Socialistic unions. A threatening Socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of Parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.

Recent history

For details, see: Industrialization of Sweden and Sweden during World War II
Sweden remained neutral during World War I and World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been disputed. Sweden was part of the Marshall aid package but continued to stay non-aligned during the Cold War, and is still not a member of any military alliance. Following the second World War, Sweden made use of its natural resources and undemolished state, making it possible to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe, leading it to be one of the richest countries in the world by 1960. During most of the post-war era, the country was ruled by the Swedish Social Democratic Party that established a welfare state, striving for a "well being for all"-policy. As other economies were re-established, Sweden was surpassed in the 1970s, and had to adjust its politics in the 1990s, but still ranks among the top nations concerning well being of its inhabitants.

Politics

Sweden has been a monarchy for almost a millennium, with its taxation controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). It consisted of four chambers, made up by representatives from the 4 estates: clerics, nobility, townsmen and peasants, until 1866 when Sweden became a Constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. Its First Chamber was indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years. local government Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag holds supreme authority in Sweden, and its acts are not subject to judicial review. Acts of the parliament must be made inapplicable at every level if they are obviously against constitutional laws. Legislation may be initiated by the Cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a supermajority and confirmation after the following general elections. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression. Executive power was shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, Parliamentarism was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of Constitutional Monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties. Social Democracy has played a dominant political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1956, the Cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only three general elections have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in Parliament to form a government. It is considered the reason for the Swedish post-war welfare state, with a government expenditure of slightly more than 50% of the gross domestic product. Some Swedish political figures that have received worldwide recognition include Joe Hill, Raoul Wallenberg, Dag Hammarskjöld, Olof Palme and Hans Blix.

Energy politics

For details, see Nuclear power phase-out After the 1973 oil crisis, the energy politics were determined to become less dependent on the import of petroleum. Since then, energy has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. Accidents at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (USA) prompted the Swedish parliament in 1980 after a referendum to decide that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26 per cent of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and biomass. In 1998, electricity from hydropower accounted for 76 TWh and 48 per cent of the country's production of electricity. At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 92TWh. [http://www.scientific-alliance.org/pdf/essential_programme_to_underpin_government_policy_on_nuclear_power.pdf] (PDF file) In March 2005, an opinion poll with 1027 persons asked, showed 83 per cent support for maintaining or increasing nuclear power [http://www.uic.com.au/nip39.htm]. Since then however, reports about radioactive leakages at a nuclear waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published [http://www.forbes.com/finance/feeds/afx/2005/06/29/afx2116521.html]. This doesn't seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nuclear power.

Economy

PDF] The standard of living has become enviably high under this social democratic system. It features a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. The engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. The public and the trade unions controlled pension funds, non-profit organizations and the reserve funds of the trade-unions owns more than 50% of Sweden capital. 80% of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions. The public sector accounts for 53% of the GDP. Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Agriculture accounts for only 2% of GDP and 2% of the jobs. The government's commitment to fiscal discipline resulted in a substantial budgetary surplus in 2001, which was cut by more than half in 2002, due to the global economic slowdown, revenue declines, and spending increases. The Swedish Riksbank is focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to reach 3.5% in 2004, assuming a continued moderate global recovery. However, open unemployment has steadily increased since 2001 and stood at 5.6% as of October 2005. Counting everyone who neither studies full-time or has employment, the percentage is around 14% (peaking at 20% in the summer months) . Sweden is known for having an uneven distribution of income, where the income in major towns are higher than in the countryside. Sweden's communication and transportation systems are important components of the infrastructure.

Welfare state

:For details, see Social welfare in Sweden What is known as [http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/scn/faq28.html The Scandinavian Model], is usually described as a mean way between socialism and capitalism and has been labelled the most developed form of capitalism. The government provides for childcare, maternity and paternity leave, a ceiling on health care costs, free education (all levels), retirement pensions, free dental care up to 20 years of age and sick leave (partly payed by the employer). Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days partly paid leave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 days reserved specifically for each parent, in effect providing the father with a so called "daddy-month". In addition, the ceiling on health care costs makes it easier, relative to other nations, for Swedish workers to take time off for medical reasons. The Swedish welfare system remains generous, but a recession in the 1990s forced an introduction of a number of reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralisation of some types of healthcare services to municipal control. [http://fcpp.org/main/publication_detail.php?PubID=814] The welfare state requires high taxes, but the population is generally affirmative of this. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and a high income state tax of about 50% that kicks in when you earn more than about 300 000 SEK. The employing company pays an additional 32% of so called Employers fee. In addition, a national VAT of 25% is added to many things bought by private citizens except food (12% VAT), transports and books (6% VAT) with the exception of petrol/diesel which is under heavy taxation.
Education
As part of its social welfare system, Sweden provides an extensive childcare system that guarantees a place for all young children from 1-5 years old in a public day-care facility. Between ages 6-16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three year upper secondary school leading sometimes to an exam in a technical profession and always to the qualifications for further studies at a university college (högskola) or university.
Geography
university college (högskola) or university] university college (högskola) or university university college (högskola) or university in northern Norrland]] Norrland in northern Götaland]] Götaland]] Götaland Götaland]] Sweden enjoys a mostly temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly due to the Gulf Stream. In the south of Sweden leaf-bearing trees are prolific, in the north pines and hardy birches dominate the landscape. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and in the winter, night is unending for a corresponding period. East of Sweden is the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and mellowing the climate further yet. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain, a range that separates Sweden from Norway. The southern part of the country is chiefly agricultural, with forests covering a larger percentage of the land the further north one goes. Population density is also higher in southern Sweden, with centres being in the valley of lake Mälaren and the Öresund region. Gotland and Öland are the two largest Islands of Sweden.
Counties
For details, see: Counties of Sweden Sweden is divided into 21 counties or län. They are Stockholm County, Uppsala County, Södermanland County, Östergötland County, Jönköping County, Kronoberg County, Kalmar County, Gotland County, Blekinge County, Skåne County, Halland County, Västra Götaland County, Värmland County, Örebro County, Västmanland County, Dalarna County, Gävleborg County, Västernorrland County, Jämtland County, Västerbotten County and Norrbotten County. Each has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse which is appointed by the Government. In each county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is the municipal representation appointed by the county electorate. Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, making a total of 290 municipalities, in 2004. There are also older historical divisions of Sweden, primarily into provinces and lands.
Largest cities
Denotes inhabitants in the municipality (kommun) area. Area is in km². The figures are as of 2005. Detailed list at List of municipalities of Sweden by population.
Demographics
For details, see: Demographics of Sweden Sweden has one of the world's highest life expectancies. As of approximately 12 August 2004, the total population of Sweden for the first time exceeded 9,000,000, according to Statistics Sweden. The country's population includes some 17,000 indigenous Samis. Some 50,000 of the ethnic Finns of Sweden also constitute an indigenous minority, although many more of the Sweden Finns descend from 20th century immigrants. Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. Currently, almost 12% of the residents are born abroad, and about one fifth of Sweden's population are either immigrants or the children of immigrants. The largest immigrant groups are from Finland, the former Yugoslavia, Iraq and then other Nordic Countries, in that order. This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, earlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration. Soviet intervention against the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the 1968 Czechoslovakian liberalization resulted in the first surges of intellectual political refugees. Some American deserters from the Vietnam War also found refuge among the Swedes, who in international politics took a clear stand against what they typically viewed as imperialism executed by both the Soviet Union and the United States of America. After the 1973 coup in Chile, and the following military dictatorships in Chile and other South American countries, political refugees came to dominate the image of immigration to Sweden, including refugees from Iran, Iraq and Palestine.
Language
:For details, see: Swedish language Swedish is a Germanic language, related to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Like the U.S., Sweden has no official language, but the Swedish language has held a de facto status as such. The dominating language has always been Swedish and there has never been a political issue about making it an official language. However, with the recognition of five minority languages of Sweden (being Finnish, Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish) on April 1, 2000, the issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language was raised. On December 7, 2005, the parliament voted on this issue, and with the count 147 to 145 the earlier position was settled, i.e. swedish is not the official language according to law. It was, however, strengthen as the principal language in that same proposal. Most Swedes, especially those under 50, have no difficulty understanding and speaking English, thanks to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television programmes and films. English is usually taught from the fourth grade of school. Many students also take additional languages; often French, German or Spanish.
Culture
Spanish cottage in the rural countryside, painted in the traditional Swedish Falu red]] Swedish authors of worldwide recognition include Carolus Linnaeus, Emanuel Swedenborg, August Strindberg, Selma Lagerlöf, Vilhelm Moberg, Harry Martinson and Astrid Lindgren. Many well-known inventions and discoveries, historical and modern, were made by Swedes. Some notable figures are Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius, Baltzar von Platen, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, John Ericsson, Anders Jonas Ångström, Lars Magnus Ericsson, Svante Arrhenius, Arvid Carlsson, Håkan Lans. Swedish 20th century culture is noted by pioneering works in the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmakers Ingmar Bergman and Bo Widerberg received Academy Awards, and actresses Greta Garbo, Zarah Leander, Ingrid Bergman and Anita Ekberg made careers abroad. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson have received international recognition.
Music
:For details, see: Music of Sweden The best-known opera singers are the 19th century soprano Jenny Lind and the 20th century tenor Jussi Björling, who had great success abroad. Also sopranos Christina Nilsson Birgit Nilsson, and tenors Nicolai Gedda, baritone Håkan Hagegård and the contemporary mezzo-soprano Anne-Sofie von Otter are worth mentioning. The most successful Swedish popular music artists are ABBA, Europe, Roxette, Ace of Base, Army of Lovers, The Cardigans, and guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. A number of bands with less emphasis on pop music have come out of the country in recent years, including Blindside, The Sounds, The Hives, Refused, Millencolin, The (International) Noise Conspiracy, Sahara Hotnights, The Hellacopters, The Soundtrack of Our Lives, Kent, Infinite Mass, A
- Teens, and Looptroop. In underground circles, Sweden is known for a large number of death metal and black metal acts such as Bathory, Meshuggah, The Haunted, Opeth, Naglfar and In Flames. Sweden is also responsible for the Swechno scene, offering a distinct house and techno sound.
Media
:For details, see: Media in Sweden Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality dailies are Dagens Nyheter (centrist), Svenska Dagbladet (right-wing) and Göteborgs-Posten (centrist), main popular dailies are the evening tabloids Aftonbladet (left-wing) and Expressen (centrist). The free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by The Local. The television industry consisted solely of the public service company Sveriges Television and its two channels until 1987, when the first commercial channel, TV3, was started. Today, there are three freely available channels, although most apartment complexes at a low fee provide additional 8-10 channels. It is for this reason that many Swedes pay for Satellite Television. It provides much greater selection, and there is no cable TV infrastructure.
Holidays
:For details, see: Holidays in Sweden Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-christian tradition. They include Midsummer, celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night on April 30 lighting bonfires; Labour Day on May 1st is dedicated to Socialistic demonstrations; and December 13th, the day of Saint Lucia the lightgiver. June 6 is National Day of Sweden and as of 2005 a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar.
Cuisine
Swedish cuisine, like that the other Scandinavian countries (Denmark and Norway), is traditionally simple. Fish and meat play prominent roles and vegetarianism has historically been non-existent.
Sports
Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating. The two main spectator sports are soccer and ice hockey. Some notable soccer

Burial mound

Sites

Scandinavia

Ukraine, Russia and Central Asia

Britain

Israel

Japan

U.S.A.

The Czech Republic

Types of barrows

List of notable barrow diggers

References

External links

Soil

Soil components

Natural soil development

Chemical processes in soils

Biological processes in soil

Wetland soil processes

Biological soil crusts

References

See also:

Rock (geology)

See also

External links

Kurgan

Archaeology

Some excavated kurgans

See also

Literature

External links

World

Physical locations

Other meanings

First World, Second World, Third World

See also

Cairn

Purpose

History

Cairns as "people"

See also

Mortuary enclosure

External link

Mortuary house

Duggleby Howe

Phase I

Phase II

Phase III

Phase IV

Phase V

The Great Barrows of East Yorkshire

References

6th century

Events

Significant persons

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

Decades and years

Sweden

History

Pre-history

Middle Ages

A major power

Modern history

Recent history

Politics

Energy politics

Economy

Welfare state

Education

Geography

Counties

Largest cities

Demographics

Language

Culture

Music

Media

Holidays

Cuisine

Sports