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Bug (disambiguation)

Bug (disambiguation)

:If you want to report a bug with the MediaWiki software which runs Wikipedia, go to [http://bugzilla.wikipedia.org/ MediaZilla]. __NOTOC__ Bug can mean many things:

Zoology

- "True bug" in entomology, the order Hemiptera
- Bug, informally can mean any "creepy-crawly", insect, other arthropod, snail, or slug
- Edible crustacean; the Moreton Bay bug and Balmain bug in Australia, the common lobster in New England
- Pathogen, or the disease caused by one

Technology

- Software bug
- Covert listening device or device for telephone tapping
- Integrated circuit chip, for its buglike appearance
- Manually positioned marker in flight instruments
- TV broadcaster's logo superimposed on the screen; see Digital On-screen Graphic

Gambling

- Bug (poker), a restricted wild card
- A card cheat's bug is a holdout device

Other

- Bug (dog breed), crossbreed of Pug and Boston Terrier
- Bug (movie), directed by Jeannot Szwarc in 1975
- BUG computer magazine, of Croatia
- Bug! and Bug Too! video games
- Bug rivers: Western Bug in Ukraine, Poland, and Belarus, and Southern Buh in Ukraine
- Obsession ("to catch the skiing bug")
- Volkswagen Beetle
- Buginese language (ISO 639 code bug)
- To bug someone is to be an annoyance
- A semi-automated telegraph key

Hemiptera

Heteroptera
Homoptera
Hemiptera is an order of insects, comprising some 67,500 known species in two suborders, Heteroptera and Homoptera. Originally the Homoptera were treated as a separate order. Members of the Hemiptera, and of the Heteroptera in particular, are sometimes called "true bugs". The name "heteroptera" comes from their forewings having both membranous and hard portions. It is also this which gives the order its name, hemiptera, coming from the Greek for half-wing. Species of order Hemiptera occur worldwide; they are distinguished from all other insects by both adults and nymphs having piercing and sucking mouthparts housed in a long "beak". These are used mostly to feed on plant juices, but some species are adapted to suck blood from animals or other insects.

Suborder Heteroptera

Main article: Heteroptera 25,000 known species in over 60 families:
- shield bugs or stink bugs (Pentatomidae and related families)
- Leaf footed bugs and squash bugs (Coreidae)
- ground bugs (Lygaeidae)
- assassin bugs (Reduviidae)
- bedbugs and flower bugs (Cimicidae)
- capsid bugs or mirid bugs (Miridae; c.6,000 species)
- back swimmers or water boatman (Notonectidae)
- lesser water boatmen (Corixidae)
- saucer bugs (Naucoridae)
- pond skaters (Gerridae)
- Smaller water strider (Veliidae)

Suborder Homoptera

Smaller water strider There are approximately 42,500 known species.

Series Auchenorryncha

Cicadas and hoppers; 33,000 species in over 30 families.
- cicada (Cicadidae)
- froghopper, spittlebug (Cercopidae and allied families)
- treehopper (Membracidae)
- leafhopper (Cicadellidae)
- jumping plant lice (Psyllidae)

Series Sternorryncha

12,500 species.
- aphids ("greenfly", Aphididae)
- woolly and gall-making aphids (Eriosomatidae, Pemphigidae)
- pine and spruce aphids (Adelgidae, Chermidae)
- phylloxerans (Phylloxeridae, including Vine Phylloxera)
- whitefly (Aleyrodidae)
- Superfamily Coccoidea (scale insects)
- cottony cushion scales, giant coccids, and ground pearls (Margarodidae)
- armored scale (Diaspididae)
- cochineal (Dactylopiidae)
- lac scales (Kerriidae, Lacciferidae)
- soft scales (Coccidae)
- pit scales (Asterolecaniidae)
- mealybugs (Pseudococcidae)
- felted scales (Eriococcidae)

External links

- [http://cirrusimage.com/bugs.htm Large format reference photographs: Common True Bugs of North America]
- http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/hemip.htm
- http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/hemip1.htm
- [http://tolweb.org/tree/eukaryotes/animals/arthropoda/hexapoda/hemiptera/hemiptera.html Tree of Life project] Category:Exopterygota Hemiptera Category:Insects ja:カメムシ目

Arthropod

- Subphylum Trilobitomorpha
- Trilobita - Trilobites (extinct)
- Subphylum Chelicerata
- Arachnida - Spiders, Scorpions, etc.
- Merostomata - Horseshoe crabs, etc.
- Pycnogonida - Sea Spiders
- Subphylum Myriapoda
- Chilopoda - Centipedes
- Diplopoda - Millipedes
- Pauropoda
- Symphyla
- Subphylum Hexapoda
- Insecta - Insects
- Order Diplura
- Order Collembola - Springtails
- Order Protura
- Subphylum Crustacea
- Remipedia
- Cephalocarida
- Branchiopoda
- Ostracoda
- Mystacocarida
- Copepoda
- Branchiura
- Cirripedia - Barnacles
- Tantulocarida
- Malacostraca - Lobsters, Crabs, Shrimp, etc. NOTE: Some classification schemes group
Myriapoda and Hexapoda into one subphylum
called Uniramia. Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) (Greek "jointed feet") are the largest phylum of animals and include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and other similar creatures. In approximate statistics, over eighty percent extant (living today) animal species are arthropods, with over a million modern species described and a fossil record reaching back to the early Cambrian. Arthropods are common throughout marine, freshwater, terrestrial, and even aerial environments, as well as including various symbiotic and parasitic forms. They range in size from microscopic plankton (~0.25 mm) up to forms several metres long. The arthropods have a segmented body with appendages on each segment. They have a dorsal heart and a nervous system on the ventral side of their bodies. All arthropods are covered by a hard exoskeleton that is made out of chitin, a polysaccharide. Periodically, an arthropod sheds this covering when it molts. This covering prevents the arthropod from drying out, but also prevents arthropods from growing too big. The arthropod group identified with the subphylum Chelicerata is the class Arachnida. The most familiar arachnid is the spider. These organisms have two body regions, ten jointed appendages, simple eyes, and often carry on respiration by means of book lungs. Their chelicerae are hollow fangs that pierce prey. The second appendages, the pedipalps, contain sensory receptors. They also have four pairs of jointed legs. On the tip of the abdomen of many spiders there are spinnerets, which they use to make silk for their web. Other arachnids include the scorpions, with their pedipalps shaped like pincers, and the mites and ticks, which can be destructive to both plants and animals. Lobsters, crabs, shrimp, and barnacles belong to the class Crustacea. Their bodies are divided into three parts: abdomen, thorax, and head. Most are aquatic and use gills for respiration. The young stage is a nauplius (larva). The number and type of head appendages helps to determine the crustaceans. One typical crustacean which looks like a lobster is a crayfish. It has four pairs of antennae on its head. Large eyes are attached on the head. Behind those are its mandibles or jaws, which are used to chew food. They are helped by the two pairs of maxillae right behind them. The crayfish also has walking legs and claws on its thorax region. On the abdomen are appendages called swimmerets that females use to hold their eggs. Other groups of arthropods include the Diplopoda, commonly known as millipedes, and the Chilopoda, or the centipedes. A major difference between these groups is the number of legs on each segment.

Basic arthropod structure

centipedes The success of the arthropods is related to their hard exoskeleton, segmentation, and jointed appendages. The appendages are used for feeding, sensory reception, defense, and locomotion. Most arthropods respire (breathe) through a tracheal system (an exception being Pauropoda); a potential difficulty considering that the skeletal structure is external and covers nearly all of the body. Aquatic arthropods use gills to exchange gases. These gills are specialized with an extensive surface area in contact with the surrounding water. Terrestrial arthropods have internal surfaces that are specialized for gas exchange. The insects have tracheal systems: air sacs leading into the body from pores, called spiracles, in the epidermis cuticle. Arthropods have an open circulatory system. Hemolymph, a copper-based blood analogue, is propelled by a series of hearts into the body cavity where it comes in direct contact with the tissues. Arthropods are protostomes. There is a coelom, but it is reduced to a tiny cavity around the reproductive and excretory organs, and the dominant body cavity is a hemocoel, filled with hemolymph which bathes the organs directly. The arthropod body is divided into a series of distinct segments, plus a presegmental acron which usually supports compound and simple eyes and a postsegmental telson. These are grouped into distinct, specialized body regions called tagmata. Each segment at least primitively supports a pair of appendages. The cuticle in arthropods forms a rigid exoskeleton, composed mainly of chitin, which is periodically shed as the animal grows. They contain a inner zone (procuticle) which is made of protein and chitin (a polysaccharide) and is responsible for the strength of the exoskeleton. The outer zone (epicuticle) lies on the surface of the procuticle. It is nonchitinous and is a complex of proteins and lipids. It provides the moisture proofing and protection to the procuticle. The exoskeleton takes the form of plates called sclerites on the segments, plus rings on the appendages that divide them into segments separated by joints. This is in fact what gives arthropods their name—joint feet—and separates them from their very close relatives, the Onychophora and Tardigrada. The skeletons of arthropods strengthen them against attack by predators and are impermeable to water. In order to grow, an arthropod must shed its old exoskeleton and secrete a new one. This process, molting, is expensive in energy consumption. During the molting period, an arthropod is vulnerable. Once their cuticle hardens they are fully developed and can never grow again. Their cuticles slowly expand as they increase in mass. They breakdown (digest) their cuticle every now and then when they need to grow. Their cuticle hardens at their adult size and they slowly grow to fill it up.

Arthropod relationships

Tardigrada At one point it was considered that the different subphyla of arthropods had separate origins from segmented worms, and in particular that the Uniramia were closer to the Onychophora than to other arthropods. However, this is rejected by most workers, and is contradicted by genetic studies. Traditionally the Annelida have been considered the closest relatives of these three phyla, on account of their common segmentation. More recently, however, this has been considered convergent evolution, and the arthropods and allies may be closer related to certain pseudocoelomates such as roundworms that share with them growth by molting, or ecdysis. These two possible lineages have been termed the Articulata and Ecdysozoa. The classification of the arthropods varies somewhat from source to source. There are five main subgroups: the Trilobita, Chelicerata, Myriapoda, Hexapoda, and Crustacea, which may be variously ranked from subphyla to classes, with various other taxa introduced above or below them and corresponding changes in the ranks of their subgroups. Here we have followed a "splitting" taxonomy, containing only generally accepted groups and assigning them higher ranks. Aside from these major groups, there are also a number of fossil forms, mostly from the lower Cambrian, which are difficult to place, either from lack of obvious affinity to any of the main groups or from clear affinity to several of them.

External links and references

- [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/arthropodstory The Arthropod Story] (from [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ Understanding evolution] @ [http://berkeley.edu/ Berkeley.edu])
- http://www.itis.usda.gov ITIS TSN: 82696
- http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/Taxa/Arthropoda/Index.html Campbell, Reece and Mitchell. Biology. 1999
- [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mspiderhydraulic.html Do spiders have hydraulic legs?] (from The Straight Dope) Category: Arthropods Category: Animals ko:절지동물 ja:節足動物

Snail

:Snail also refers to a chess engine; see Snail (chess) as well as a power source for a rotary snowplow. rotary snowplow The name snail applies to most members of the molluscan class Gastropoda that have coiled shells. Other gastropods, which lack a conspicuous shell, are commonly called slugs, and are scattered throughout groups that primarily include snails. Snails are found in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments. While most people are familiar with only terrestrial snails, the majority of snails are not terrestrial. Snails with lungs belong to the group Pulmonata, while those with gills belong to the Paraphyletic group.

Physical characteristics

Paraphyletic Paraphyletic Snails move like worms by alternating body contractions with stretching, with a proverbially low speed. They produce mucus in order to aid locomotion by reducing friction. The mucus also reduces the snail's risk of injury and helps keep away potentially dangerous insects like ants. When retracted into their shells, snails cover the entrance with a 'trapdoor' like structure called an operculum. In winter some snail species hibernate in their shells by closing the opening with a thin shell-like plate that they build only for this use and destroy in spring. Even some slug species build a shell-like object below their upper skin. Snails come in a range of different sizes. The largest land snail is the Giant African Snail (Achatina achatina; Family Achatinidae), which can measure up to 30 cm. Pomacea maculata (Family Ampullariidae), or Giant Apple Snail is the largest freshwater snail, with its size reaching 15 cm diameter and over 600 g weight. The biggest of all snails is Syrinx aruanus, a marine species living in Australia. Shell lengths up to 1 m have been reported. Snail shells, like those of the Nautilus, are one example of the appearance of the phi, the golden ratio, in nature. Patterns on shells of certain sea snails (Conus, Cymbiola) are formed by biological version of cellular automata.

Habitat

As one of the largest classes of animals, snails can be found throughout the world. They are found in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments. The majority of the world's snails live in the oceans and new species are being discovered regularly. Terrestrial snails prefer damp areas around vegetation which they can use for cover during the day.

Diet

A snail's diet varies by species. Terrestrial snails such as garden snails generally eat young plant shoots or bark, or decaying vegetative matter. Carnivorous snails, such as the Decollate Snail feed on other snails. Snails eat by using their radula, or scraping tongue, to shear their food.

Reproduction

Some snails are hermaphrodites, producing both spermatozoa and ova. Others, such as Apple Snails, are either male or female. Prolific breeders, snails in pairs inseminate each other to internally fertilize their ova. Each brood may consist of up to 100 eggs. Garden snails bury their eggs in shallow topsoil primarily while the weather is warm and damp. After 2 to 4 weeks of favorable weather, these eggs hatch and the young emerge. Snails may lay eggs as often as once a month.

Predators

Snails have many natural predators, including ground beetles, snakes, toads, turtles, and birds like chickens, ducks and geese, and even a predatory caterpillar. Snails are widely used as human food (often known as escargots) in Europe, Asia and Africa. Two species commonly eaten in Europe are the Burgundy snail (Helix pomatia) and the brown garden snail (Helix aspersa) also known as the European brown snail.

Lifespan

The lifespan of snails varies from species to species. In the wild, Achatinidae snails live around 5 to 7 years and Helix snails live about 2 to 3 years. Aquatic Apple Snails live only a year or so. Most deaths are due to predators or parasites. As noted at the following address, snails have lived beyond this lifespan: "more than 30 years" http://www.weichtiere.at/Mollusks/Schnecken/weinberg.html

Control (Garden Pests)

Terrestrial snails and slugs are generally both migratory and nocturnal, thus difficult to control. Common methods of control include shallow dishes filled with beer, and the use of molluscicides.

Snails as Food

Snails are eaten as food in some parts of the world. The most well-known example of this is French cuisine. In France, three species are ordinarily eaten:
- Helix pomatia, the Burgundy Snail, prepared in its shell, with parsley butter.
- Typical size: 40 to 55 mm for an adult weight of 25 to 45 g.
- Typically found: in Burgundy.
- Helix aspersa :
- Helix aspersa aspersa is cooked in many different ways, according to different local traditions.
- Typical size: 28 to 35 mm for an adult weight of 7 to 15 g.
- Typically found: Mediterranean countries (Europe and North Africa) and the French Atlantic coast.
- Helix aspersa maxima .
- Typical size 40 to 45 mm for an average weight of 20 to 30 g.
- Typically found: in North Africa. Snails are also popular in Portugal, where they are called "caracóis" (Portuguese for "snails"), and served in cheap snack houses and taverns, usually boiled with garlic. Hélicicultures are snail farms. http://www.weichtiere.at/Mollusks/Schnecken/weinberg.html found at the previous link, "In nature they almost everywhere are put under protection (at least the Roman snail must not be collected any more), but especially the Roman snail and the garden snail (Cornu aspersum) are cultivated on snail farms (Hélicicultures). " http://www.weichtiere.at/Mollusks/Schnecken/land/weinberg/zucht.html

Trivia

In addition to being a common metaphor for a slow person, the snail is traditionally considered in many countries to predict the weather with its behaviour. In Finland this has led to a rhyme, where the snail is asked to show his tentacles. If the snail wears his "horns" high, tomorrow will be fine weather.

Lilla snigel
Lilla snigel, akta dej,
akta dej, akta dej,
annars tar jag dej.

Snail is also the name of the Ultimate Frisbee team for the State University of New York at Geneseo. A snail can withstand the force of air at over 75 Mph (120 km/h) whilst still being able to move across the bonnet of the moving vehicle at the same time.

External links

- [http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/misc/gastro/snail_eating_snails.htm Snail eating]
- [http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/misc/gastro/brown_garden_snail.htm Brown garden snail]
- [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mollusca.html Molluscs]
- [http://www.kiddyhouse.com/Snails/snail.html Kiddyhouse.com page on snails]
- [http://www.petsnails.co.uk/ Snails as pets]
- [http://www.arnobrosi.com/snail.html The trail of the snail]
- [http://www.applesnail.net/ AppleSnail.Net]
- [http://hem.fyristorg.com/ullis/rim.html Lilla snigel] Category:Gastropods ms:siput ja:カタツムリ

Moreton Bay bug

Moreton Bay bug (Thenus orientalis), also known as Bay lobster, is a species of slipper lobster found throughout the waters of Australia's north coast. It is a relatively expensive delicacy served in many restaurants in Queensland.

Distribution

Thenus orientalis has an Indo-west Pacific distribution, meaning that it is found in the Indian Ocean and western parts of the Pacific Ocean. The distribution stretches from the east coast of Africa to the Red Sea, southern Asia, China and Japan as well as the Philippines, Indonesia and the northern half of the coast of Australia, including Moreton Bay, from which it derives its common name.

Culinary uses

The flesh of the Moreton Bay bug is reported to be unusually versatile, and can be cooked in a variety of ways, both sweet and savoury.

External links

- [http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/abrs/fauna/details.pl?pstrVol=MALACOSTRACA;pstrTaxa=7647;pstrChecklistMode=1 Australian Biological Resources Study - Thenus orientalis (Lund, 1793)]
- [http://www.abc.net.au/centralqld/stories/s1450025.htm Recipe for lime and lemon grass Moreton Bay bug cake] Category:Crustaceans

Pathogen

A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host. The term is most often used for agents that disrupt the normal physiology of a multicellular animal or plant. However, pathogens can infect unicellular organisms from all of the biological kingdoms. The term pathogen is derived from the Greek παθογένεια, "birth of pain." The human body has many natural defenses against some of the more common pathogens (such as Pneumocystis) in the form of the human immune system and by some "helpful" bacteria present in the human body's normal flora. However, if the immune system or "good" bacteria is damaged in any way (such as by chemotherapy, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), or antibiotics being taken to kill other pathogens), pathogenic bacteria that was being held at bay can proliferate and cause harm to the host. Such cases are called opportunistic infections. Some pathogens (such as Yersinia pestis, which may have caused the Black Plague, and the Variola virus) have been found to be responsible for massive amounts of casualties and have had numerous effects on afflicted groups. Of particular note in modern times is HIV, which is known to have infected several million humans globally, as well as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Today, while many medical advances have been made to safeguard against infection by pathogens, through the use of vaccination, antibiotics and fungicide, pathogens continue to threaten human life.

Types of pathogens

Below is a listing of different types of notable pathogens as categorized by their structural characteristics, and some of their known effects on infected hosts.

Transmission of pathogens

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Disease

A disease is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort, dysfunction, or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. Sometimes the term is used broadly to include injuries, disabilities, syndromes, symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts these may be considered distinguishable categories. Pathology is the study of diseases. The subject of systematic classification of diseases is referred to as nosology. The broader body of knowledge about diseases and their treatments is medicine.

Syndromes, illness and disease

Medical usage sometimes distinguishes a disease, which has a known specific cause or causes (called its etiology), from a syndrome, which is a collection of signs or symptoms that occur together. However, many conditions have been identified, yet continue to be referred to as "syndromes". Furthermore, numerous conditions of unknown etiology are referred to as "diseases" in many contexts. Illness, although often used to mean disease, can also refer to a person's perception of their health, regardless of whether they in fact have a disease. A person without any disease may feel unhealthy and believe he has an illness. Another person may feel healthy and believe he does not have an illness even though he may have a disease such as dangerously high blood pressure which may lead to a fatal heart attack or stroke.

Transmission of disease

Some diseases, such as influenza, are contagious or infectious, and can be transmitted by any of a variety of mechanisms, including droplets from coughs and sneezes, by bites of insects or other vectors, from contaminated water or food, etc. Other diseases, such as cancer and heart disease are not considered to be due to infection, although micro-organisms may play a role.

Social significance of disease

The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications. The controversial recognitions as diseases of post-traumatic stress disorder, also known as "shell shock"; repetitive motion injury or repetitive stress injury (RSI); and Gulf War syndrome has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves. The social implication of viewing aging as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread. A condition may be considered to be a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. Oppositional-defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and, increasingly, obesity are conditions considered to be diseases in the United States and Canada today, but were not so-considered decades ago and are not so-considered in some other countries. Conversely, the number of people in the West who consider homosexuality to be a disease became widespread in the 20th century but has been decreasing in the last two decades. To consider a condition to be a disease can sometimes involve a negative social value judgement. Lepers were a group of afflicted individuals who were historically shunned and the term "leper" still evokes social stigma. Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomena, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma.

Other uses of the term

In biology, disease refers to any abnormal condition of an organism that impairs function. The term disease is often used metaphorically for disordered, dysfunctional, or distressing conditions of other things, as in disease of society.

External links

- [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html Health Topics], MedlinePlus descriptions of most diseases, with access to current research articles.
- [http://www.cdc.gov/health/default.htm Center for Disease Control Health Topics A-Z], fact sheets about many common diseases
- [http://rarediseases.about.com/ Rare/Orphan Diseases]
- [http://www.national-health.org/rarediseases/ National Organization for Rare Disorders] Extensive, useful information on rare diseases.
- [http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/sections.htm The Merck Manual], detailed description of most diseases, freely searchable online. Category:Diseases Category:Medical terms als:Krankheit zh-min-nan:Pīⁿ ms:Penyakit ja:病気 simple:Disease th:โรค

Covert listening device

A 'bug' is the common name for a covert listening device, usually a combination of a miniature radio transmitter with a microphone. The use of bugs, called bugging, is a common technique in espionage and, increasingly, in police investigations. Most bugs use a radio transmitter, but there are many other options for carrying a signal: radio frequencies may be sent through the main wiring of a building and picked up outside; transmissions from a cordless phone can be monitored; and it is possible to pick up the data from poorly configured wireless computer networks or tune in to the radio emissions of a computer monitor. Bugs come in all shapes and sizes. The original purpose of bugs was to relay sound, but today the miniaturisation of electronics has progressed so far that even commercially-available bugs designed to carry TV signals are usually the size of a cigarette packet. Professional bugs can fit into pens, calculators and other commonplace items. Some are only the size of small shirt buttons, although the power and operational life of the smallest bugs is very short. The development of modern 'wireless' technology has presented new security concerns. To be 'wireless' a device must transmit information, either by radio waves or infrared light, and this potentially makes all the information sent via that link available to others. Radio waves are the easiest to intercept, but even infrared transmissions can be picked up through a window. Some wireless devices, such as wireless computer networks, do encrypt transmissions, but the standard forms of encryption are weak. Such devices, whether wireless keyboards or wireless telephones, should not be used in any environment where sensitive information is handled. Most bugs emit radio waves. The standard counter-measure for bugs is therefore to 'sweep' for them with a receiver, looking for the radio emissions. Professional sweeping devices are very expensive. Low-tech sweeping devices are available through amateur electrical magazines, or they may be built from circuit designs on the Internet. But sweeping is not foolproof. Advanced bugs can be remotely operated to switch on and off, and some even rapidly switch frequencies according to a predetermined pattern in order to make location with sweepers more difficult. A bug that has run out of power may not show up during a sweep, which means that the sweeper will not be alerted to the surveillance. Those bugs that do not emit radio waves are very difficult to detect. Radio-based bugs are a technical solution to a problem - remotely listening to people's conversations - but a simpler option is simply to record the conversation on a normal recording machine. There are a number of options for this:
- Pocket sized devices, either worn or carried in baggage, linked to a small microphone which is usually mounted on the surface to pick up the audio. Digital devices such as minidisc recorders or the latest palm-sized camcorders produce very high quality recordings and are conveniently small.
- Larger recording devices hidden in the room, for example above suspended ceilings. These are popular in workplaces for monitoring staff.
- Ultra-directional microphones, or parabolic microphones. These are like the microphones seen on camcorders, or carried by sound technicians. They are constructed to receive signals only from one direction. The most high-tech directional microphones can eavesdrop on conversations from a hundred metres away or more. Microphone arrays can be used as well.
- Laser microphones. These are very expensive and highly technical to operate. A laser beam is bounced off a window, or off any object near to the conversation monitored. Any object which can resonate/vibrate (for example, a picture on a wall) will do so in response to the pressure waves created by noises present in a room. The electronics detect the minute difference in the distance travelled by the light to pick up this resonance and reproduce the sound causing it.
- Some equipment that is not a threat on itself may exhibit microphonics.
- Mobile phones can be used as bugs as well.
- The adversary can use a trojan horse to acquire access to microphones connected to computers. If a microphone is hidden in a room it is almost impossible to detect, as it has no radio emission. Very sensitive equipment could be used to look for magnetic fields, or for the characteristic electrical 'noise' emitted by the computerised technology in digital tape recorders; however, if the place being monitored has many computers, photocopiers or other pieces of electrical equipment installed, it may become very difficult. Older analog equipment is even more difficult to detect. Another method is using very sensitive infrared cameras to detect waste heat of a bug, or different thermal conductivity of a place where it is hidden after briefly chilling the surface of the object with eg. liquid nitrogen.

Bugging devices in EU headquarters

Electronic bugging devices were found in March 2003 at offices used by French and German delegations at the European Union headquarters in Brussels. Devices were also discovered at offices used by other delegations. The discovery of the telephone tapping systems was first reported by Le Figaro newspaper, which blamed the US.

External links

- [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/03/19/world/main544558.shtml CBS news story]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2864063.stm BBC News story]
- [http://www.privacyinternational.org Privacy International]
- [http://www.spybusters.com/Great_Seal_Bug.html The Great Seal bug] - A completely passive bug invented by Leon Theremin

Telephone tapping

Telephone tapping or wire tapping/ wiretapping (in US) is the monitoring of telephone conversations by a third party, often by covert means. The telephone tap or wire tap received its name because, historically, the monitoring connection was applied to the wires of the telephone line of the person who was being monitored and drew off or tapped a small amount of the electrical signal carrying the conversation.

Legal status

Telephone tapping is officially strictly controlled in many countries to safeguard an individual's privacy; this is the case in all developed democracies. In theory, telephone tapping often needs to be authorised by a court, and is, again in theory, normally only approved when evidence shows it is not possible to detect criminal or subversive activity in less intrusive ways; often the law and regulations require that the crime investigated must be at least of a certain severity. In many juristictions however, permission for telephone tapping is easily obtained on a routine basis without further investigation by the court or other entity granting such permission. Illegal or unauthorised telephone tapping is often a criminal offence. However, in certain jurisdictions such as Germany, courts will accept illegally recorded phone calls without the other party's consent as evidence. In the United States, federal agencies may be authorized to engage in wiretaps by the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, a court with secret proceedings, in certain circumstances. Under United States federal law and most state laws there is nothing illegal about one of the parties to a telephone call recording the conversation, or giving permission for calls to be recorded or permitting their telephone line to be tapped. However, several states (i.e., California, Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania and Washington) require that all parties consent when one party wants to record a telephone conversation. Many businesses and other organization record their telephone calls so that they can prove what was said, train their staff, or monitor performance. This activity may not be considered telephone tapping in some, but not all, jurisdictions because it is done with the knowledge of at least one of the parties to the telephone conversation. It is considered better practice to announce at the beginning of a call that the conversation is being recorded.

Wiretapping methods

The official tapping of telephone lines

The contracts or licenses by which the state controls telephone companies often require that the companies must provide access for tapping lines to the security services and the police. In the U.S., telecommunications carriers are required by law to cooperate in the interception of communications for law enforcement purposes under the terms of CALEA. Taps must be secret and undetectable. When telephone exchanges were mechanical, a tap had to be installed by technicians, linking circuits together to route the audio signal from the call. Now that many exchanges have been converted to digital technology tapping is far simpler and can be ordered remotely by computer. Telephone services provided by cable TV companies also use digital switching technology. If the tap is implemented at a digital switch, the switching computer simply copies the digitzed bits that represent the phone conversation to a second line and it is impossible to tell whether a line is being tapped. Even a well designed tap installed on a phone wire can be difficult to detect. The noises that some people believe to be telephone taps are simply crosstalk created by the coupling of signals from other phone lines. Data on the calling and called number, time of call and duration, will generally be collected automatically on all calls and stored for later use by the billing department of the phone company. This data can be accessed by security services, often with fewer legal restrictions than for a tap. This information used to be collected using special equipment known as pen registers and trap and trace devices and U.S. law still refers to it under those names. Today, a list of all calls to a specific number can be obtained by sorting billing records. A telephone tap during which only the call information is recorded but not the contents of the phone calls themselves, is called a Pen Register tap. For telephone services via digital exchanges, the information collected may additionally include a log of the type of communications media being used (some services treat data and voice communications differently to conserve bandwidth).
- See also: Carnivore

The unofficial tapping of telephone lines

It is also possible to tap conversations unofficially. There are a number of ways to monitor telephone conversations:
- Recording the conversation - the person making/receiving the call records the conversation using a coil tap ('telephone pickup coil') attached to the ear-piece, or they fit an [http://www.foxwholesale.com/CovertTelephoneRecordingDevice.html in-line tap with a recording output]. Both of these are easily available through electrical shops. Most who record telephone conversations, such as journalists, will use the recording for their own private work.
- Direct line tap - this is what the state used to do via the telephone exchange. But unofficial tapping, where the user's line is physically tapped near the house, is also possible. The tap can either involve a direct electrical connection to the line, or an induction coil. An induction coil is usually placed underneath the base of a telephone or on the back of a telephone handset to pick up the signal inductively. With a direct connection, there will be some drop in signal levels because of the loss of power from the line, and it may also generate noise on the line. An induction tap does not drain voltage or current from the line because it isn't physically connected to the phone line. Direct taps sometimes require regular maintenance, either to change tapes or replace batteries, which may give away their presence.
- Radio tap - this is like a bug that fits on the telephone line. The state does not normally do this because they have access via the telephone exchange, though certain organizations exempt from the common framework of law that applies to citizens may use devices like this. It can be fitted to one phone inside the house, or outside on the phone line. It may produce noise (there might even be signal feedback down the line on amateur made equipment) to alert the caller, but probably not as modern state of the art equipment operates in the 30-300 GHz range. The unit is powered from the line so once installed it's maintenance free, and only transmits when there is a call in progress. These devices tend to be low powered because the drain on the line would become too great, however a state of the art receiver could be located as far away as ten kilometers under ideal conditions, but is usually located within a radius of 1 to 3 km. Research however has also shown that a satellite can be used to pickup emissions in the range of a few milliwatts. To guard against unofficial amateur line taps, the phone should be regularly inspected , and the telephone line should be checked for new joints, or small wires connected to the line; a time-domain reflectometer is a worthy tool here. If you have reason to suspect your phone has been tapped consult a technical surveillance countermeasures (TSCM) specialist. Never contact a TSCM specialist from a phone you suspect is tapped or on any other phone on the premises or any other phone that is linked to you or your organization (home phone, company cellular etc.)

Location data and mobile phones

Mobile phones are, in surveillance terms, a major liability. This liability will only increase as the new third-generation (3G) phones are introduced. This is because the base stations will be located closer together. For mobile phones the major threat is the collection of communications data. This data not only includes information about the time, duration, originator and recipient of the call, but also the identification of the base station where the call was made from, which equals its approximate geographical location. This data is stored with the details of the call and has utmost importance for traffic analysis. It is also possible to get greater resolution of a person's location by combining information from a number of cells surrounding the persons location, forcing the phone to communicate with at least two or three of them and measuring the timing advance, a correction for the speed of light in the GSM standard. This additional precision must be specifically enabled by the telephone company - it is not part of ordinary operation. There is no countermeasure against the state/telephone companies doing this, perhaps with an exception of locking the phone to only one distant base station and accessing it from a distance using a high-gain antenna (which significantly impairs the attractive mobility), limiting the location data disclosed to the network to a quite large distant arc (not a circle - the base station antennas are typically divided into three individually controlled sectors, with usually 120° angle each). The old first generation mobile phones could be easily monitored by anyone with a 'scanning all-band receiver' because the system used an analogue transmission system - like an ordinary radio transmitter. The second generation digital phones are harder to monitor because they use a digitally compressed transmission. However the state can tap mobile phones with the co-operation of the phone company. It is also possible for organizations with the correct technical equipment, such as large corporations, to monitor mobile phone communications and decrypt the audio. A special device called an "IMSI-catcher" pretends to the mobile phones in its vicinity to be a legitimate base station of the mobile phone network, subjecting the communication between the phone and the network to a man in the middle attack. This is possible because while the mobile phone has to authenticate itself to the mobile telephone network, the network does not authenticate itself to the phone. This blatant flaw in GSM security was intentionally introduced to facilitate eavesdropping without the knowledge or cooperation of the mobile phone network. Once the mobile phone has accepted the IMSI-catcher as its base station the IMSI-catcher can deactivate GSM encryption using a special flag. All calls made from the tapped mobile phone go through the IMSI-catcher and are then passed on to the mobile network. Up to now no phone is known which actively alerts the user when a base station or an IMSI-catcher deactivates GSM encryption. Some phones include a special monitor mode (activated with secret codes or special software) which displays GSM operating parameters such as encryption while a call is being made. But no matter whether GSM encryption is active or not, users should not trust the encryption to be secure enough that an eavesdropper can not decrypt the encrypted data. The GSM specification refers to the encryption algorithms used for encrypting voice/data services as algorithms A5/1,2,3. Today a ciphertext-only attack (an attack without knowledge of some of the originally unencrypted plaintext) requires a few milliseconds to find the correct A5 decryption key allowing the attacker to eavesdrop on any GSM phone conversation in less than a second. Other exploits on GSM security easily allow call hijacking, altering of data messages and call theft. There is no defense against IMSI-catcher based eavesdropping, except using end-to-end call encryption; products offering this feature, secure telephones, are already beginning to appear on the market, though they tend to be expensive and incompatible with each other, which limits their proliferation, much to the joy of various intelligence agencies. There were proposals for European mobile phones to use stronger encryption, but this was opposed by a number of European countries, including the Netherlands and Germany, which are among the world's most prolific telephone tappers (over 10000+ phone numbers in both countries in 2003). Mobile phones can be used anonymously. Pre-paid mobile phones can be bought without having to give a name or address, and because cards are used there is no billing information. However, once the user has been identified as using a certain phone, they can be tracked with the unique built-in IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identification) that is burnt into each mobile phone. The IMEI emitted by the phone does not change, regardless of what SIM is inserted into the phone. It is even transmitted when no SIM at all is present in the phone. If longer-term anonymity is required, it is necessary to change the phone and SIM every few days. Sometimes, for complete anonymity it is not advisable to have a mobile phone on your person at all. Some phones may still transmit information to the network or be accessible from the network even though the user has switched them off. It is therefore strongly recommended to remove the batteries from the phone.

One Ring Calls

These pesky calls cannot be recognized by a caller ID as a CID displays the caller's number only after 2 rings. The purpose of a one ring call is usually to determine if a person is using the phone. Accessing the Telephone exchange is the only way to determine the origin of these calls.

External links

- [http://www.irdchips.com/ A picture of an in-line tapping device mentioned in the article above.]
- [http://www.foxwholesale.com/TapDetectors.html Types of tap detectors]
- The first version of text of this article was taken from http://secdocs.net/manual/lp-sec/scb7.html which is licensed under the GFDL, and hence can be used in Wikipedia.
- [http://www.rcfp.org/taping/ A guide to whether phone conversations can be taped in the United States]
- [http://www.callcorder.com/phone-recording-law.htm Telephone tapping laws for Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and the USA]
- [http://www.askcalea.net/reports.html Administrative Office of the United States Courts reports on phone tapping]
- [http://www.privacyinternational.org Privacy International]
- [http://www.veritape.com Software for recording telephone calls directly to PC]
- [http://www.mercom.com Large Capacity Telephone Recording Systems] category:telephony Category:Law enforcement techniques Category:Surveillance ja:盗聴

Flight instruments

Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircraft's attitude, airspeed, and altitude. Most aircraft have these seven basic flight instruments: ; Altimeter : Gives the aircraft's height (usually in feet or meters) above some reference level (usually sea-level) by measuring the local air pressure. It is adjustable for local barometric pressure (referenced to sea level) which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings. ; Attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) :Shows the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail. ; Airspeed indicator : Shows the aircraft's speed (usually in knots) relative to the surrounding air. It works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's pitot tube. The indicated airspeed must be corrected for air density (which varies with altitude, temperature and humidity) in order to obtain the true airspeed, and for wind conditions in order to obtain the speed over the ground. ; Magnetic compass : Shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. While reliable in steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing, descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the earth's magnetic field. For this reason, the heading indicator is also used for aircraft operation. For purposes of navigation it may be necessary to correct the direction indicated (which points to a magnetic pole) in order to obtain direction of true north or south (which points to the earth's axis of rotation). ; Heading indicator : Also known as the directional gyro, or DG. Sometimes also called the gyrocompass, though usually not in aviation applications. Displays the aircraft's heading with respect to magnetic north. Principle of operation is a spinning gyroscope, and is therefore subject to drift errors (called precession) which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the instrument to the magnetic compass.

; Turn and bank indicator : Also called the turn and slip indicator. Displays direction of turn and rate of turn. Internally mounted inclinometer displays 'quality' of turn, i.e. whether the turn is correctly coordinated, as opposed to an uncoordinated turn, wherein the aircraft would be in either a slip or a skid. Replaced in the late sixties and early seventies by the newer turn coordinator, the turn and bank is typically only seen in aircraft manufactured prior to that time.

; Turn coordinator : Displays rate and direction of roll while the aircraft is rolling; displays rate and direction of turn while the aircraft is not rolling. Internally mounted inclinometer also displays quality of turn. Replaced the older turn and bank indicator.

; Vertical speed indicator : Also sometimes called a variometer. Senses changing air pressure and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent, usually in feet per minute or meters per second.

Arrangement in instrument panel

Most aircraft built since about 1953 have four of the flight instruments located in a standardized arrangement known as the "basic T". The attitude indicator is in top center, airspeed to the left, altitude to the right and heading indicator under the attitude indicator. The other two, turn-coordinator and vertical-speed are usually found under the airspeed and altitude. The magnetic compass will be above the instrument panel, often on the windscreen centerpost.

External links

A history of how aircraft instrumentation was developed with an emphasis on the gyro horizon: [http://www.daileyint.com/flying/flywar13.htm The Gyro Horizon Enables Instrument Flying] Category:Aircraft instruments Category:Measuring instruments

Bug (poker)

A bug in poker is a limited form of wild card. One or both jokers are often added to the deck and played as bugs. The bug is played as an ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush. For example, the hand K-K-X-5-2 is just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but any four same-suit cards with a bug make a flush, and a hand such as 7-X-5-4-3 makes a straight. Category:Poker terminology

Bug (dog breed)

A dog hybrid is a cross between two purebred dogs of different breeds (selectively bred varieties). Hybrids are also known as crossbreeds or crossbreds, although the term crossbreed is also used to refer to a mixed-breed dog where the breed of only one parent or grandparent is known. A dog of unknown parentage is called a mongrel. In biology, the word hybrid refers specifically to a cross between two different species e.g. the dog and coyote. In less technical conversation and particularly in the dog world, the word refers to selective crosses and their progeny, even if outcrossed to other breeds. For example, the Queensland Wild Dog Management Strategy, September 2002, states that hybrid will also refer to the descendants of crossbred progeny. Some dog hybrids are now being selectively bred. The term designer dogs has been coined to refer to these crosses. The practice causes much controversy; opponents cite the often exorbitant prices charged for these puppies, the 'impulse buy' nature of such purchases (which leads to a high abandonment rate), the unpredictability of temperament or type and the lack of pedigree history, particularly any defective genes or genetic illnesses in the breeding lines. Proponents argue that supply follows demand, and point out that there are bona fide reasons for the breeding of some of these crosses, notably to provide pets for people with allergies. Among the better known dog hybrids are Labradoodles and Australian Bulldogs, which each have their own breed fancy associations. Poodle crosses are also popular. Dog hybrids are not recognized by the main registries. They should not be confused with independent breeds, which are also not recognized. The difference lies in the longevity of the breed, the numbers of breeders and the existence of a legitimate breed club, the number of specimens of the breed past a certain number of generations, whether or not it breeds true to type, for how long a breed registry has been maintained, and the reason for the non-recognition. Often independent breed clubs oppose recognition, for reasons which usually concern maintaining independent control of the qualities of their chosen breed.

Casual crossbreeds

With the long-time popularity of the "breed" name cockapoo, used since at least 1970 and constructed by combining elements of its two contributing breeds (Cocker Spaniel/Poodle), it has become extremely common to find mixed-breed dogs named with breed names invented in the same way. The tendency for using such names in a jocular way dates back at least to Queen Elizabeth's Dorgis (Dachshund/Corgi). However, extremely few of these become mainstream "breeds" over long periods with determined breeders, and, as of 2004, cockapoo is still the only such combined name to make it into the dictionary. None-the-less, names such as these commonly appear in for-sale ads. Among these:
- Poodle hybrids of all kinds.
- Bordachy (Pron. bor-DA-ki) Border Terrier/Dachshund.
- Bug Boston terrier/Pug or Beagle/Pug
- Chiweiner (Chihuahua/Dachshund). Its popularity is increasing especially in the Pacific Northwest. The Chiweiner is characterized by its Dachshund face and slightly long Chihuahua-like body. Its small size makes it a good house pet.
- Gerchowder (German Shepherd Dog/Chow Chow)
- Puggle (Pug/Beagle)[http://www.puggle.org/breedinfo.asp]. (also sometimes known as a Bug)
- Chowggle (Beagle/Chow Chow)

References

- Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed., 2004

External links

- [http://www.achclub.com/modules.php?name=Breeders List of hybrid dogs recognised by the American Canine Hybrid Club]
- [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0115_040115_tvdesignerdogs.html National Geographic News Article on Designer Dogs]
- [http://www.canismajor.com/dog/poodogs.html Much Ado About Poo]
- D
- Category:Dog breeding

BUG

BUG can refer to:
- BUG, an album by Dave Davies
- A three letter code for the Buginese language

Western Bug

Bug or Buh (Polish: Bug Image:Ltspkr.png [bug], Ukrainian: Буг or Західний Буг, Belarusian: Буг or Захо́дні Буг, Russian: Буг or Западный Буг), sometimes called Western Bug to distinguish it from Southern Bug, flows from central Ukraine to the west, forming part of the boundary between that nation and Poland, passes along the Polish-Belarusian border, within Poland, and empties into the Narew river near Serock (actually to the artificial Zegrze Lake). The part between the lake and the Vistula River is sometimes referred to as Bugo-Narew. The Vistula River drains into the Baltic Sea. Bug is 772 km long (587 km in Poland) and is the 4th longest Polish river. The basin area is 39,420 km² (19,284 km² in Poland). Bug is connected with the Dnieper river by the Dnieper-Bug Canal. Traditionally the Bug was also often considered the ethnographical border between Orthodox and Catholic peoples.

Cities

- Wyszków
- Drohiczyn
- Brest
- Terespol
- Włodawa
- Hrubieszów
- Serock

Tributaries

Pełtew, Sołokija, Bukowa, Huczwa, Uherka, Włodawka, Krzna, Liwiec, Ług, Mukhavets, Leśna, Nurzec, Brok

Southern Buh

: The Western Bug or Buh is another river which flows from Ukraine through Poland. The Southern Buh, Bug, or Boh River (, Pivdennyi Buh; , Yuzhny Bug; ancient Greek: Hypanis) is entirely located in Ukraine. It rises in the west, in the Podolian uplands, about 145 km from the Polish border, and flows southeasterly into the Black Sea through the Odessian steppe. It is 806 km long and drains 63,700 km². Major cities: Khmelnytskyi, Vinnytsia, Pervomaisk, Mykolaiv. Mykolaiv Category:Rivers of Ukraine

Obsession

obsession (disambiguation)|obsession

Buginese language

Buginese (locally Basa Ugi, elsewhere also Bahasa Bugis, Bugis, Bugi, De') is the language spoken by about four million people mainly in the southern part of Sulawesi, Indonesia.

History

The word Buginese derived from the word Bahasa Bugis in Malay. In Buginese, it is called Basa Ugi while the Bugis people are called To Ugi. Ugi in buginese means The First King which refers to the first king of ancient Bugis kingdom, Cina. Little is known about the early history of this language due to the lack of written records. The earliest written record of this language is the I La Galigo, an epic cycle about the early life at the South Sulawesi and full of myths. Another written source of Buginese is Lontara, a term which refers to the traditional script and history record as well. However the earliest history record of lontara is dates to around the 17th century and cannot be accepted as a reliable source of history since it was influenced by myths. Prior to the Dutch arrival in 18th century, a missionary, B.F. Matthews translated the bible into Buginese, which made him the first Europeans to acquire knowledge of the language. He was also one of the first Europeans to master Makassarese. The dictionaries and grammar books compiled by him and the literature and folkfore texts he published remain basic sources of information about both languages. Upon colonization by the Dutch, a number of Bugis fled from their home area of South Sulawesi seeking for better life. This led to the existence of small groups of buginese speakers through out the Malay Archipelago.

Classification

Buginese is an Ergative-absolutive language of the Austronesian language family and to be more specific, it is a Western Malayo-Polynesian. Therefore, this language is closely related to the languages from western part of Malay Archipelago such as Javanese, Madurese and Sundanese. In fact buginese language absorbed certain words from these language such as word janrang means 'horse' which it is believed to come from the word Javanese anyarang. Buginese also related to language from the eastern part of archipelgo like Malay.

Geographical Distribution

Most of the native speakers (around 3 millions) are concentrated in South Sulawesi, Indonesia but there are small groups of Buginese speakers in the islang of Java, Samarinda and east Sumatra of Indonesia, Sabah and Malay Peninsula, Malaysia and South Philippines. This Bugis diaspora is caused by the migration during 18th and 19th centuries which was driven by the Dutch colonization and its Cultivation System (in Dutch: cultuurstelsel).

Script

It was traditionally written using the Lontara script, of the Brahmic family, which is also used for the Makassar language and the Mandar language. The name lontara derives from the Malay word for the palmyra palm, lontar, the leaves of which are the traditional material for manuscripts in India, South East Asia and Indonesia. However, today it is often written using the Roman alphabet.

The Buginese Lontara

The Buginese lontara (locally known as Askara Bugis) has a slightly different pronunciation from the other lontaras like the Makassarese. It is also used diacritics to distinguish the vowels /a/, /e/, /e'/, /i/, /o/ and /u/. center However, old texts usually did not use diacritics as the readers are expected to know how to pronounce the words. This led to a various pronunciation like the word bolo (means house) is pronounced bala by the young readers and non native speakers which they are not familiar with the old texts.

Dialects And Subdialects

The Bugis still distinguish themselves according to their major precolony states (Bone, Wajo, Soppeng and Sidenreng) or groups of petty states (around Pare-Pare, Sinjai and Suppa.) The languages of these areas, with their relatively minor differences from one another, have been largely recognized by linguists as constituting dialects: recent linguistic research has identified eleven of them, most comprising two or more sub-dialects. These are part of the list of Buginese dialect:Bone (Palakka, Dua Boccoe, Mare), Pangkep (Pangkajane), Camba, Sidrap (Sidenreng, North Pinrang, Alitta), Pasangkayu (Ugi Riawa), Sinjai (Enna, Palattae, Bulukumba), Soppeng (Kessi), Wajo, Barru (Pare-Pare, Nepo, Soppeng Riaja, Tompo, Tanete), Sawitto (Pinrang), Luwuk (Luwuk, Bua Ponrang, Wara, Malangke-Ussu).

External links

- [http://www.joshuaproject.net/languages.php?rol3=bug Article about Buginese by Joshua Project]
- [http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/show_lsearch.php?id=00048 Buginese Soppeng dialect]
- [http://members8.tsukaeru.net/kimata/report/inamura_buginese.pdf Buginese text written in Latin alphabet]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language.asp?code=BPR Buginese details at Ethnologue]
- [http://e-publishing.library.cornell.edu/Dienst/UI/1.0/Summarize/seap.indo/1107130756 The I La Galigo Epic Cycle of South Celebes and Its Diffusion] Category:Malayo-Polynesian languages Category:Austronesian languages Category:Sulawesi Category:Languages of Malaysia ms:Bahasa Bugis

Telegraph key

Telegraph key (also known as the Morse key) is a generic term for any switching device used primarily to send Morse code. Similar keys are used for all forms of manual telegraphy. Two common uses include the electrical telegraph over wires which activates a Telegraph sounder and radio telegraphy. Several variants exist.

Straight keys

A straight key is the common telegraph key seen in old movies. It is a simple bar with a knob on top and a contact underneath. When the bar is depressed against spring tension, it forms a circuit and allows electricity to flow. Traditionally, American telegraph keys had flat topped knobs and narrow bars (frequently curved.) British telegraph keys had ball shaped knobs and thick bars. This appears to be purely a matter of culture and training, but the users of each are tremendously partisan. The straight key is simple and reliable, but the rapid pumping action needed to send a string of dots (or dits as most operators call them) poses some significant drawbacks. Transmission speeds are limited to around 20 words per minute, and in the early days of telegraphy a number of professional telegraphers developed a repetitive stress injury known as glass arm or telegrapher's paralysis.

Alternative key designs

The first widely accepted alternative key was the sideswiper or sidewinder, sometimes called a cootie key. This key uses a side-to-side action with contacts in both directions and the arm spring-loaded to return to center. A series of dits could be sent by rocking the arm back and forth. Since few people are able to make the leftward and rightward motions identically, the alternating action produces a distinctive rhythm or swing. Experienced telegraphists can recognize one another by keying style, nicknamed "fist", as easily as they can recognize a voice. Although the sideswiper is seldom seen or used today, nearly all advanced keys use some form of side-to-side action. Undoubtedly the most popular side-to-side mechanical keys is the semi-automatic key or bug, sometimes known by as a Vibroplex key, after the company that first manufactured them. When the paddle is pressed to the left it makes a continuous contact suitable for sending dashes (or dahs, as most operators call them). When the paddle is pressed to the right, a horizontal pendulum is set into motion which rocks against the contact points, sending a series of short pulses (dits) at a speed which is controlled by the position of the pendulum weight. A skilled operator can achieve sending speeds of 60 to 80 words per minute with a bug. Like the bug, the electronic keyer operates sideways. When pressed to one side the electronics generate a series of "dahs" and when pressed the other way, a series of "dits". Most electronic keyers include a dit memory function which frees the operator from the need to perfectly time his transitions in the sequence dah-dit-dah. With dit memory, if the operator's keying action is about one dit ahead of the actual transmission, the keyer's output for each letter will be machine-perfect. An iambic keyer sports dual paddles, one for dit and one for dah; pressing both at the same time produces an alternating dit-dah-dit-dah sequence. Electronic keyers allow very high speed transmission of code. pendulum

Biambic, triambic, etc..

Keys offering one switch for dashes and another for dots were dubbed "iambic," but others misheard the term, interpreting it as "biambic." Thus keys with multiple switches have been dubbed "triambic", and beyond, i.e. a number of arbitrarily complex keyers were designed and built in the early 1970s for wearable computing. The most popular designs, the pentambic and septambic keyers, are still in widespread use today.

Odd uses

Telegraph keys were once used in the study of operant conditioning with pigeons. Starting in the 1940s, initiated by B. F. Skinner at Harvard University, the keys were mounted vertically behind a small circular hole about the height of a pigeon's beak in the front wall of an operant conditioning chamber. Electromechanical recording equipment detected the closing of the switch whenever the pigeon pecked the key. Depending on the psychological questions being investigated, keypecks might have resulted in the presentation of food or other stimuli. Modern pigeon response keys are specially made switches but are still called "keys" due to their origins as telegraph keys. Category:Telecommunications history

External links

- [http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/radio_history/morse/morsekeydev.php History of the Morse Key]
- [http://www.ae4rv.com/tn/education/bug.htm Virtual Vibroplex, Flash-based bug demonstration by AE4RV]
- [http://www.telegraph-office.com/ The Telegraph Office] ja:電鍵

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Bug (disambiguation)

Zoology

Technology

Gambling

Other

Hemiptera

Suborder Heteroptera

Suborder Homoptera

Series Auchenorryncha

Series Sternorryncha

External links

Arthropod

Basic arthropod structure

Arthropod relationships

See also:

External links and references

Snail

Physical characteristics

Habitat

Diet

Reproduction

Predators

Lifespan

Control (Garden Pests)

Snails as Food

Trivia

External links

Moreton Bay bug

Distribution

Culinary uses

Further reading

External links

Pathogen

Types of pathogens

Transmission of pathogens

See also

Disease

Syndromes, illness and disease

Transmission of disease

Social significance of disease

Other uses of the term

See also

External links

Covert listening device

Bugging devices in EU headquarters

External links

See also

Telephone tapping

Legal status

Wiretapping methods

The official tapping of telephone lines

The unofficial tapping of telephone lines

Location data and mobile phones

One Ring Calls

See also

External links

Flight instruments

Arrangement in instrument panel

External links

Bug (poker)

Bug (dog breed)

Casual crossbreeds

References

External links

BUG

Western Bug

Cities

Tributaries

See also

Southern Buh

Obsession

Buginese language

History

Classification

Geographical Distribution

Script

The Buginese Lontara

Dialects And Subdialects

External links

Telegraph key