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Boxing

Boxing

:For other uses, see Boxing (disambiguation) or Boxer (disambiguation) Boxer (disambiguation) Boxing, also called pugilism and prizefighting, is a sport where two participants of similar weight attack each other with their fists in a series of two to three-minute intervals called "rounds". In both Amateur and Professional divisions, the combatants (called boxers or fighters) avoid their opponent's punches whilst trying to land punches of their own. Points are awarded for clean, solid blows to the legal area on the front of the opponent's body above the waistline, with hits to the head and torso especially valuable. The fighter with the most points after the scheduled number of rounds is declared the winner. Victory may also be achieved if the opponent is knocked down and unable get up before the referee counts to ten (a Knockout, or KO) or if the opponent is deemed too injured to continue (a Technical Knockout, or TKO).

Origins

Earliest evidence suggests that boxing was prevalent in North Africa during 4000 BC and the Mediterranean in 1500 BC. A Greek ruler named Thesus, who ruled around 900 B.C., was entertained by men who would seat in front of each other and beat another with their fists until one of them was killed. In time, the fighters fought on their feet and wore gloves (not padded) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows, but were otherwise naked when competeing. First accepted as an Olympic sport (the ancient Greeks called it Pygmachia) in 688 BC, participants in the ancient games trained on punching bags (called a korykos). Keeping their fingers free, fighters then wore leather straps (called himantes) on their hands, wrists, and sometimes lower arms, to protect them from injury. In Rome, fighters were usually criminals and slaves. They hoped to become champions and gain their freedom. However, free men also fought. Eventually, fist fighting became so popular that even aristocrats started fighting, but that was banned by the ruler Augustus. In 500 A.D., the sport was banned by Theodoric the Great.

London Prize Ring rules (1839)

Records of boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire. The sport would later resurface in English during the early 18th century in the form of bare-knuckle prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the "London Protestant Mercury," and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719. This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used. Early bare-knuckle fighting was crude with no written rules. There were no weight divisions, round limits and no referee. Modern rules banning gouging, grappling, biting, headbutting, fish-hooking and blows below the belt were absent. The first boxing rules were introduced by heavyweight champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton also invented "mufflers" (padded gloves), which were used in training and exhibitions. In 1839, the London Prize Ring rules were introduced which superceded Jack Broughton's rules. Later revised in 1853, they stipulated the following:
- Fights occur in a 24-foot-square ring surrounded by ropes.
- If a fighter was knocked down, he must rise within 30 seconds of his own power to be allowed to continue.
- Biting, headbutting and hitting below the belt were declared fouls.

Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)

In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them. There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square ring. Rounds were three minutes long with one minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down and wrestling was banned. The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. Gloves protected the hands of both fighters but their considerable size and weight made knock-out victories more difficult to achieve. Resultantly, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans. With the gradual acceptance of formalised rules, two distinct branches of boxing emerged; Professional and Amateur. The boxing rules enforced by governing bodies worldwide today at the local, national and international level are all derived in some way from the Marquis of Queensberry Rules.

Amateur boxing

In amateur boxing (the version of the sport found at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games) the primary emphasis is on landing scoring punches rather than concern with doing physical damage to one's opponent. Competitors wear protective headgear and box for three to five rounds of two or three minutes each. Gloves in amateur boxing have a white strip across the knuckle. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands on the head or torso is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows (a belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches - any boxer repeatedly landing "low blows" is disqualified). Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging (if this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalised, or ultimately, disqualified). Also, in amateur boxing, referees will readily step in and stop the contest even if the competitor is only relatively lightly injured. As a result, the risk of grievous injury is sufficiently reduced in amateur boxing versus professional boxing.

Amateur boxing history

The Queensberry Amateur Championships continued from 1867 to 1885, and so, unlike their professional counterparts, amateur boxers did not deviate from using gloves once the Queensberry Rules had been published. In Britain, the Amateur Boxing Association (A.B.A.) was formed in 1880 when twelve clubs affiliated. It held its first championships the following year. Four weight classes were contested, Featherweight (9 stone), Lightweight (10 stone), Middleweight (11 stone, 4 pounds) and Heavyweight (no limit). (A stone is equal to 14 pounds). By 1902, American boxers were contesting the titles in the A.B.A. Championships, which, therefore, took on an international complexion. By 1924, the A.B.A. had 105 clubs in affiliation. Boxing first appeared at the Olympic Games in 1904 and, apart from the Games of 1912, has always been part of them. From 1972 through 2004, Cuba and the United States have won the most Gold Medals, 29 for Cuba and 21 for the U.S. Internationally, amateur boxing spread steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century, but when the first international body, the Federation Internationale de Boxe Amateur (International Amateur Boxing Federation) was formed in Paris in 1920, there were only five member nations. In 1946, however, when the International Amateur Boxing Association (A.I.B.A.) was formed in London, twenty-four nations from five continents were represented, and the A.I.B.A. has continued to be the official world federation of amateur boxing ever since. The first World Amateur Boxing Championships were staged in 1974. In the late 19th and early 20th century, amateur boxing was encouraged in schools, universities and in the armed forces, but the champions usually came from among the urban poor. Women's boxing first appeared in the Olympic Games at a demonstration bout in 1904. For most of the 20th century, however, it was banned in most nations. Its revival was pioneered by the Swedish Amateur Boxing Association, which sanctioned events for women in 1988. The British Amateur Boxing Association sanctioned its first boxing competition for women in 1997. The first event was to be between two thirteen-year-olds, but one of the boxers withdrew because of hostile media attention. Four weeks later, an event was held between two sixteen-year-olds. The A.I.B.A. accepted new rules for Women's Boxing at the end of the 20th century and approved the first European Cup for Women in 1999 and the first World Championship for women in 2001. Women's boxing will be an exhibition sport at the 2008 Olympics, but it won't become an official Olympic sport at the 2012 Olympics. Fights at the amateur boxing level were scored by five judges, who gave 20 points to whoever they thought won a round, and 19 or less to the loser. This form of scoring changed after the 1988 Olympic games in Seoul, when Michael Carbajal and Roy Jones Jr. lost their gold medal fights to South Korean opponents, with the boxing media generally believing that Carbajal and Jones Jr. should have won their bouts. It was later discovered that the judges had been bribed to give South Koreans the gold medals against Carbajal and Jones Jr. Ironically, at the same Games, a South Korean boxer sat in the ring for about 90 minutes after being declared the loser in a fight he thought he should have won. As a consequence of all the controversies of the 1988 Olympic boxing competition, a new scoring system was invented for amateur boxing: using a computer, judges must press a button every time they think a boxer landed a punch. When three or more of the five judges press the button within a second of each other, the punch counts as a "point" for the fighter that landed it. Punches to the head or face of an opponent usually score the most points for a competitor. At any point of the fight in which a fighter is leading by twenty points (or sometimes more), the referee is indicated and the fight is stopped, the leading fighter winning by "mercy", and credited with a knockout.

Professional boxing

Professional bouts are far longer than amateur bouts (ranging from four to twelve rounds), headgear is not permitted, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more punishment before a fight is halted. At any time, however, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant can not or should not continue to box. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win, which appears on the boxer's record as a knockout win (or loss). A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. If a knockout or disqualification does not occur, the fight must go to the scorecards. Professional fights have three judges each, and each of the judges must use the 10 point must system: Under this system, each time a boxer wins a round in the judges' eyes, the judge gives that boxer 10 points, and the other 9 or less. If the judge deems the round to be a tie, he or she may score it 10-10. When the fight reaches its scheduled distance, all scores are added, round by round, to determine who won on each judges' cards. When all three judges have the same boxer as the winner, this is an unanimous decision. When two judges have one boxer winning the fight and the other one has it a tie, this is called a majority decision. When two judges have one boxer winning the fight and the other judge has the other boxer winning, this is called a split decision. When one judge gives his or her vote to one boxer, another one gives it to the other boxer, and the third judge calls it a tie, this is a draw. It is also a draw when two judges score the fight a tie, regardless of who the third judge score the bout for. In Britain, the bout is only scored by the referee, except when a title is at stake, in which case it is scored by three judges. If a fight can not go on because of an injury caused to one of the competitors by a headbutt, there are different rules: If the fight has not reached the end of round three, (in some places, round four), the fight is declared a technical draw or a no contest. If it has reached beyond the end of round three (or four), then the scorecards are read and whoever is ahead, wins by a technical decision.

Evolution of professional boxing

In 1891, the National Sporting Club (N.S.C.), a private club in London, began to promote professional glove fights at its own premises, and created nine of its own rules to augment the Queensberry Rules. These rules specified more accurately the role of the officials, and produced a system of scoring that enabled the referee to decide the result of a fight. The British Boxing Board of Control (B.B.B.C.) was first formed in 1919 with close links to the N.S.C., and was re-formed in 1929 after the N.S.C. closed. In 1909, the first of twenty-two belts were presented by the fifth Earl of Lonsdale to the winner of a British title fight held at the N.S.C. In 1929, the B.B.B.C. continued to award Lonsdale Belts to any British boxer who won three title fights in the same weight division. The "title fight" has always been the focal point in professional boxing. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, however, there were title fights at each weight. Promoters who could stage profitable title fights became influential in the sport, as did boxers' managers. The best promoters and managers have been instrumental in bringing boxing to new audiences and provoking media and public interest. The most famous of all three-way partnership (fighter-manager-promoter) was that of Jack Dempsey (Heavyweight Champion, 1919-1926), his manager Jack Kearns, and the promoter Tex Rickard. Together they grossed US$ 8.4 million in only five fights between 1921 and 1927 and ushered in a "golden age" of popularity for professional boxing in the 1920s. They were also responsible for the first live radio broadcast of a title fight (Dempsey v. Georges Carpentier, in 1921). In Britain, Jack Solomons' success as a fight promoter helped re-establish professional boxing after the Second World War and made Britain a popular place for title fights in the 1950s and 1960s. In the first part of the 20th century, the United States became the centre for professional boxing. It was generally accepted that the "world champions" were those listed by the Police Gazette. After 1920, the National Boxing Association (N.B.A.) began to sanction "title fights". Also during that time, Ring Magazine magazine was founded and it listed champions and awarded championship belts. The N.B.A. was renamed in 1962 and became the World Boxing Association (W.B.A.). The following year, a rival body, the World Boxing Council (W.B.C.), was formed. In 1983, another world body, the International Boxing Federation (I.B.F.) was formed. By the end of the 20th century, a boxer had to be recognized by the three separate bodies to be the "Undisputed Champion" of the World. Ring Magazine also continued listing the World Champion of each weight division, and its rankings continue being of the most appreciated by fans. Although women fought professionally in many countries, in Britain the B.B.B.C. refused to issue licences to women until 1998. By the end of the century, however, they had issued five such licenses. The first sanctioned bout between women was in November 1998 at Streatham in London, between Jane Couch and Simona Lukic.

Equipment

Boxing techniques utilize very forceful strikes with the hand. There are many bones in the hand, and striking surfaces without proper technique can cause serious hand injuries. Today, most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without handwraps and gloves. Handwraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Headgear, used in amateur boxing, protects against cuts, scrapes, and swelling, but does not protect very well against concussions. Headgear does not sufficiently protect the brain from the jarring that occurs when the head is struck with great force. Also, most boxers aim for the chin on opponents, and the chin is usually not padded. Thus, a powerpunch can do a lot of damage to a boxer, and even a jab that connects to the chin can cause damage, regardless of whether or not headgear is being utilized.

Length of bouts

For decades, from the 1920s to the 1980s, world championship matches in professional boxing were scheduled for fifteen rounds, but that changed with the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim, who died after a lightweight title fight with Ray Mancini in November of 1982. After Kim's death, the World Boxing Council reduced the number of their championship fights to twelve rounds. By 1988, to the displeasure of many boxing purists, all fights had been reduced to a maximum of 12 rounds only.

Technique

There are four basic punches in boxing: the Jab, Cross, Hook and Uppercut. If a boxer is right-handed, his lead hand be his left, and vice versa. A left-handed boxer is called a Southpaw.

Punches

- Jab - A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the stance position. The punch is accompanied by a quarter-rotation of the shoulders, while the fist rotates through 180 degrees so that it is horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder is brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. The jab is the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counterpunch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or a large shift in position to throw the punch. It is thus used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, and set up heavier, more powerful punches.
- Cross - Also called a "straight" or "right", the cross is a straight punch executed with the rear hand. The rear hand crosses the body, the shoulders rotate toward the target and the rear pivots along with the hips. A half-step forward can be maneuvered (just as a jab can be thrown with a step (step-jab) or without) although many prefer not to do this and do not coach it. The power in the cross comes from the rotation of the hips, the extension of the arm and the momentum this builds, as well as the weight behind the punch - a boxers weight transfers to his front foot so as to put the body behind the punch, however he/she should always be able to resume a guarded stance immediately after the punch is thrown and never be off-balance. The cross is the most powerful punch and is responsible for the majority of knockouts. It can be used to set up a hook, and it can be used as a counterpunch to a jab aimed at the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body). The cross can be thrown right after a jab, creating the classic "one-two combo."
- Hook - This punch is thrown in a side arc with a bent arm. It can be thrown with either hand but is typically a lead hand punch. The boxer rotates the hips and transfers weight towards the back while pivoting the feet in the same direction, causing the arm to swing with the body in a lead hand hook. The power in a hook comes from the explosive rotation of the legs, hips, and shoulders, allowing a large amount of power to be thrown behind the punch. The classic hook is thrown in a horizontal plane, but the punch can also be thrown at a 45 degree angle (a "Mexican hook" or "shovel hook" or "hook to the ribs"), blending into the uppercut, striking the ribs right under the guard. Hooks are not parried but rather bobbed/rolled or simply blocked with the boxers guard against the head. The punch is very useful when aimed for the ribs, solar plexus, or especially the head, as the force from the hook tends to travel through a blocked head better than a jab.
- Uppercut - This punch is thrown upwards with either hand (although a rear hand uppercut is marginally more common). The weight transfer for an uppercut is similar to that of the cross, except the arm is bent and extends outward from the boxer's guard instead of extending straight out from the chin. The uppercut travels horizontally towards the opponent's chest, and arcs up slightly to strike the chin. The power in the uppercut comes from the rotation of the legs and hips, like a cross. This can be a devastating power punch because even if it does not connect with the chin itself, it tends to lift up the chin of the opponent, which opens up a bigger target and causes the opponent to be off balance for a moment.
- Bolo punch - Occasionally seen in amateur boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuvuer, this punch is not taught, it is on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle.

Defense

- Guard - The guard is the protective barrier that the boxer's arms make. To create an effective guard, the boxer's elbows rest on the ribcagewhile the hands are held up to protect the head. The head is bent down slightly in order to tuck the chin to avoid painful strikes. The shoulders and arms are held without tension in order to allow quick movement. The guard is important because it is the last line of defense before a strike hits an unprotected face or body. When protecting against the body, the boxer rotates the hips in order to let the punches "roll off" the guard (a form of parrying with the forearms). When protecting against the face, the boxer tucks the head in more in order to be pretected better within the guard.
- Bob and Weave - This movement attempts to avoid an opponent's punch by bending the legs (and, often, the waist) in order to bring the head into a position under the opponent's extending arm. The legs and waist are then extended to bring the body back to its upright position. As the boxer rises, the body has moved either to the boxer's left or right in order to avoid the (presumably) still extended arm. To move to a position on the outside of the opponent's extended arm is sometimes called "bobbing to the outside" and is, generally, the preferred method of defense. "Bobbing to the inside", or moving the body to a position on inside of the opponent's extended arm, is considered defensively weak because the boxer is then vulnerable to punches from the opponent's opposite fist.
- Slip - The slip is a maneuver performed with the defending boxer's legs and hips in order to shift the position of the head. As a straight punch (such as a jab or straight/cross) comes toward the boxer's face, the defending boxer turns the hips and shoulders to one side which shifts the position of the chin sideways, allowing the punch to "slip" by. The less the boxer has to move his or her head or the vertical angle of the shoulders, the more skillful he or she is considered at this technique.
- Parry - The parry is performed most often against a straight punch. As the opponent's arm is extended, the defending boxer moves the fist (most often of the dominant arm) towards the oncoming punch, usually rotating the wrist and elbow so that the palm is facing the opponent. As the opponent's punch makes contact with the extended glove, it is directed away from its initial target.
- Clinch - The clinch, or grappling of the opponent while standing, is considered a defensive maneuver in modern boxing because it is most often employed to interfere with the opponent's offensive maneuvers. Since the distance between the fighters is closed, the majority of boxing's offensive techniques (which mostly rely on hip/torso rotation and arm extension) cannot be employed. Since the clinch is broken up by the referee immediately, the clinch is often seen as a method for the disadvantaged fighter to gain a short reprieve and perhaps interfere with the dominant fighter's concentration.

Stance and movement

- The modern boxing stance is a reflection of the current system of rules employed by professional boxing. It differs in many ways from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. It's been stated that Americans adopted a more upright vertical armed guard (as opposed to more horizontally held, knuckles facing the ground guard as seen when looking at early 20th century boxers such as Jack Johnson) due to the Americans' confrontations with the Filipino natives as a result of the Philippines Spanish-American war. When engaged in hand to hand combat, the Filipinos would slash the wrists of the American soldiers, the Americans adapted by changing the guarded stance and thus just one example of a boxing technicality evolving. The boxer must stand with the legs shoulder-width apart. The boxer places the lead foot (the left foot for a right-handed fighter, the right foot for a left-hander (southpaw) more forward than the back foot so the front foot's heel is in line with the back foots toes. The toes point straight forward, towards the opponent. The lead fist (the jabbing fist) is carried in front, half a dozen inches in front of the face at eye level (both arms should always be held straight and vertical - in line with the shoulders). The back fist is held against the chin and the arm lies in place against the body to protect the rib cage. Knockouts are usually scored with punches to the chin. Modern boxers can sometimes be seen "tapping" their cheeks or foreheads with their fist in order to remind themselves to kept their fists up in this defensive position (which becomes difficult during long bouts). The torso is kept straight and the chin is tucked into the lead shoulder (which is often kept tense to further protect the chin).
- Modern boxers are taught to "push off" with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.
- A rarely used technique is the Rope-a-dope method, most famously used by Mohammad Ali in the Rumble in the Jungle bout. This method involves laying on the ropes and concentrating on defence while conserving energy as the opponent is lured into striking repeatedly without interruption. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire and lower his defenses for the other boxer to exploit for effective attacks using his now superior reserves. However, this method is discouraged as it is physically punishing and few boxers have the endurance to attempt it while gambling that their opponent will not realize what they are doing.

Boxing legends

The boxing world has produced talented and world famous personalities in both the amateur and professional realms. Famous amateur boxers have usually been Olympic medallists. The Olympic games have long been considered a springboard for professional entry, though some Olympic champions prefer to retain their amateur status, including three-time gold medalist Teofilo Stevenson. It is the professional side of boxing, however, that has produced the celebrities whose activities the public has generally followed.

London Rules and pre-Queensberry Era

The bareknuckle era produced legends like John L. Sullivan, the first world heavyweight champion. Sullivan has been called the first great American sports hero.

Modern era

1900s to 1920s

It is the post-Queensberry (or Modern) era that has the greatest number of legendary boxers, such as world heavyweight champions Jim Jeffries (the first Great White Hope) and Jack Johnson (the first black world heavyweight champion), who fought each other in 1910 in the first "Fight of the Century".

1920s to 1940s

World heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey was one of the most important athletes of roaring twenties. Boxing in the 1930s, despite being hit by depression, saw one of the greatest boxers of all time: Joe Louis. From 1937, he dominated the heavyweight scene for 12 years before retiring as world champion in 1949. Shortly before the beginning of WW2, the battles between Louis and Max Schmeling were seen as battles between America and Nazi Germany.

1940s to 1950s

The 1950s had a boxer who would go down in history as the only undefeated world heavyweight champion: Rocky Marciano. The title of the movie Rocky was inspired by this legend. This era also had Sugar Ray Robinson, who most experts rate as the best pound-for-pound boxer of all time. Robinson held the world welterweight title from 1946 to 1951, and the world middleweight title a record five times from 1951 to 1960. Another great of this period was Archie Moore, who held the world light heavyweight title for ten years and scored more knockout victories than any other boxer in history.

1960s to 1970s

The decades of the 1960s & 1970s are best remembered by the dominance of a boxer once named Cassius Clay, who said he would "shock the world." He joined the Nation of Islam, changed his name to Muhammad Ali, and declared himself against war. Many sociologists, observers, and critics now view Ali as a reflection of the changing society of that time. Ali had tough opponents like Sonny Liston, Joe Frazier, Ken Norton, and George Foreman, but proved himself to be the best heavyweight of his era, if not of all time. Larry Holmes (a former sparring patrner of Ali) and the electric promoter Don King both gained prominence during this time.

1970s to 1980s

After the retirement of Ali, Sugar Ray Leonard became the biggest star in the sport. In the late 1970s and the 1980s, Leonard won world titles in five different weight divisions, and was the firt boxer to make 100 million dollars during his career.

1990s to present

If there was ever a bad boy of boxing, the title surely would go to a man who burst into professional boxing like a hurricane; Mike Tyson. Nicknamed "Iron Mike" because of his devastating punching power, took the world by storm. The most dominant figure on the heavyweight division in the mid-to-late 80s, he ran through his opponents like a wrecking ball, becoming the first undisputed champion in a decade. Both in and out of the ring, he was always in the news. He was jailed multiple times, barred from boxing for a year after biting a chunk out of Evander Holyfield's ear, and going into bankruptcy. When he fought his last title fight, against Lennox Lewis in 2002, he was beaten thoroughly and knocked out. Lewis, the only British heavyweight titleholder in the 20th century, retired as champion. Roy Jones, Jr. was the most dominant fighter of the 1990s and early 2000s. He won world titles in four different weight divisions, from middleweight to heavyweight. When he defeated John Ruiz to win the WBA heavyweight title, he was the first former middleweight champion to wim a heavyweight title since Bob Fitzsimmons accomplished the feat over one hundred years earlier. Oscar De La Hoya was possibly the most popular boxer of his era. He won titles from junior lightweight to middleweight. With good looks and charisma, along with plenty of boxing talent, he became the richest non-heavyweight in the history of boxing.

Legends of British boxing

Great Britain, the birth place of modern boxing, has produced numerous boxing legends. Among British amateur boxers, only those who won Olympic gold medals tended to achieve recognition beyond the limits of boxing enthusiasts. They included Harry Mallin (Middleweight), 1920 and 1924), Terry Spinks (Flyweight, 1956), Dick McTaggart (Lightweight, 1956) and Chris Finnegan (Middleweight, 1968). In 1908, at the Olympic Games in London, five weight divisions were contested, Bantamweight, Featherweight, Lightweight, Middleweight and Heavyweight. British boxers won them all, and four of the finals were all-British! It is the professional side of boxing, however, that has produced the celebrities whose activities the public have generally followed. In the period between bare-knuckle pugilism and post-Queensberry boxing, Jem Mace was important. He carried many of the traditions of the old London Prize-Ring, but promoted the use of gloves and helped to popularize the sport in the United States and Australia. In the post-Queensberry era, the first British fighter to achieve superstar status was Bob Fitzsimmons. He weighed less than 12 stone but won world titles at Middleweight (1892), Light Heavyweight (1903), and Heavyweight (1897). He fought his last bout at the age of fifty-two. Successful fighters have provoked fierce local pride. The best example was Jimmy Wilde, a Welsh flyweight who won the world Flyweight Championship in 1916 and held it until 1923. He once had a sequence of eighty-eight fights without defeat. Between 1911 and 1923, he won seventy-five of his fights by a knockout. He was idolized in Wales, where they commonly believed him to be the best boxer, pound-for-pound, that ever lived. He was described as the "Mighty Atom" and "the ghost with a hammer in his hand". The Scots had a similar pride in Benny Lynch, a flyweight from Glasgow, who held the world flyweight title in 1935 and again in 1937. Over the years, Scots have had great success at this weight; Jackie Paterson won the title in 1943 and Walter McGowan in 1966. Scots have also had success in the lightweight division. Ken Buchanan won the title in 1971 and Jim Watt in 1980. In Northern Ireland, Rinty Monahan held the flyweight title from 1947 to 1950, and Barry McGuigan won the W.B.A. featherweight title in 1985. England, too, had its successes at the lighter weights. Among the flyweights, Jackie Brown won the title in 1932, Peter Kane in 1938 and Terry Allen. The Welsh had their own featherweight legend Jim Driscoll. His nickname was "Peerless Jim". He was born in the one time Irish "slum" of Newtown. Jim was the first outright winner of the Lord Lonsdale Belt. Jim had prolific wins of the British, Empire and European titles. Jim is considered by many to be the best pound for pound fighter of all time. Britain has had other popular world champions. In the 1930s, Jackie Berg won the light welterweight title. In the 1940s, Freddie Mills won the light heavyweight title. In the 1950s and 1960s, Randy Turpin and Terry Downes won middleweight titles. and in the 1970s, John Conteh and John Stracey won the light heavyweight and welterweight titles respectively. With so many title-awarding bodies in the 1980s and 1990s, the public became unsure about who actually was the champion. Nevertheless, the successes of Nigel Benn, Chris Eubank, and Joe Calzaghe continued to bring extensive media coverage to boxing and sustained a considerable public following. The most popular boxers, howevers, have not always been the world title-holders. Just fighting for the world title in the heavyweight division can bestow celebrity status, as was shown by Henry Cooper, who twice unsuccessfully fought Muhammad Ali in the 1960s. Britain had to wait 100 years to have its first heavyweight champion since Bob Fitzsimmons lost his title in 1899. Lennox Lewis became undisputed champion in 1999, having first gained the W.B.C. title in 1993. Frank Bruno held the W.B.C. world heavyweight title from 1995 and 1996, after beating the man who beat Lewis, Oliver McCall. He lost it to Mike Tyson in a rematch of their 1989 title bout. Sue Atkins (alias Sue Catkins) helped to pioneer women's boxing in Britain in the 1980s, but without any official recognition. The first British woman to be issued with a license was Jane Couch from Fleetwood, who won the Women's International Boxing Federation (W.I.B.F.) welterweight title in 1996.

International Boxing Hall of Fame

For many years, the sport of boxing did not have a hall of fame. The inspiration for the boxing hall of fame evolved from a tribute the town of Canastota, New York held for two local heroes in 1982. The tribute was for Carmen Basilio, who was world welterweight and middleweight champion in the 1950s, and his nephew, Billy Backus, who was world welterweight champion in the early 1970s. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute, which was so success that some started to look into the idea of creating the sport's first hall of fame and museum. The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. In 1990, the first group of legends were inducted, which included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. The Hall of Fame holds it's induction ceremony every June as part of a four day event.

Medical concerns

In 1983, The Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any civilized society." Since the AMA called for abolition of boxing, the British, Canadian, and World Medical Associaiton have also called for the sport's abolition, as have the American Neurological Association and the American Academy of Neurology. Many who disagree with the AMA point out that boxing is far from being the most dangerous of sports. To put the risks in perspective, here are some US figures on sports fatalities: Fatality rates per 100,000 participants #Horse racing: 128 #Sky diving: 123 #Hang gliding: 56 #Mountaineering: 51 #Scuba diving: 11 #Motorcycle racing: 7 #College football: 3 #Boxing: 1.3 (This table was compiled by R.J. McCunney and P.K. Russo, authors of an article entitled Brain Injuries in Boxing, which was published in 1984.) In response to such statistics, Lundberg has said, "It's not the deaths but the chronic brain damage that is so frequent." the AMA says about three out of four boxers who have twenty or more professional fights show some brain deterioration.

Impact of boxing on the English language

Numerous metaphors common to everyday speech derive from the sport of boxing. Some of these include:
- not up to scratch -- subpar, not able to do the task at hand (in the old days of boxing, boxers started the round by stepping over a scratch made in the ring, but if a boxer could not do this to keep the round going, he/she was said to be "not up to scratch")
- he was rocked by that one -- a fighter was hit by a punch with enough force to be dazed
- saved by the bell -- rescued from defeat by dint of time running out, an unexpected turn of events, etc.
- on the ropes -- on the verge of being defeated
- throw in the towel -- to quit, give up
- come out swinging -- to throw oneself into an activity or competition
- in one's corner -- on someone's side, to help or cheer him on
- down for the count -- knocked out, defeated
- sucker punch -- hitting an opponent who is off his guard, unfairly taking advantage of a vulnerability
- hitting below the belt -- a grossly unfair attack (in everyday life, usually of a verbal nature)
- punch drunk -- dazed or incoherent (originally, from being repeatedly struck, can refer to dazes generally)
- pull one's punches -- to hold back, withhold full force or attack
- in the arena -- to be participating, engaged
- keep your guard up -- to remain alert, on the defensive
- like a bull out of a cage -- to come out at the start of a round "throwing" punches

Boxing in popular culture

- Battling Butler (1926 film) Starring Buster Keaton
- Two-Fisted (1935 film) Comedy
- Kid Galahad (1937 film) Starring Edward G. Robinson
- Golden Boy (1937 stageplay) written by Clifford Odets
- Golden Boy (1939 film) Starring William Holden and Barbara Stanwyck
- Gentleman Jim (1942 film) Starring Errol Flynn
- Body and Soul (1947 film) Starring John Garfield
- Champion (1949 film) Starring Kirk Douglas
- The Set-Up (1949 film) Starring Robert Ryan
- Day of the Fight (1951 short subject) first film directed by Stanley Kubrick
- On the Waterfront (1954 film) Starring Marlon Brando
- The Harder They Fall (1956 film) Starring Humphrey Bogart
- Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956 film) Starring Paul Newman
- Requiem for a Heavyweight (1956 TV play) Starring Jack Palance, written by Rod Serling
- Requiem for a Heavyweight (1962 film) Starring Anthony Quinn, Jackie Gleason and Mickey Rooney
- Kid Galahad (1962 film) Musical starring Elvis Presley
- Golden Boy (1964 musical stageplay)
- The Great White Hope (1970 film) starring James Earl Jones and Jane Alexander.
- Fat City (1972 film) Starring Stacey Keach and Jeff Bridges
- Rocky Oscar winning movie in 1976 and its sequels
- The Main Event (1979 film) Starring Barbara Streisand and Ryan O'Neal
- Raging Bull (1980 film) A classic boxing movie
- Spike of Bensonhurst (1988 film)
- The Great White Hype (1996 film) Starring Samuel L Jackson and Jeff Goldblum
- When We Were Kings (1997 film) The story of Muhammad Ali and George Foreman and The Rumble in the Jungle
- 24 7: Twenty Four Seven (1997 film) Starring Bob Hoskins
- Don King: Only in America (TV movie) Starring Ving Rhames
- The Hurricane (1999 film) Starring Denzel Washington as middleweight Rubin Carter
- Girlfight (2000 film)
- Ali (2001 film) Starring Will Smith
- Champion (2002 film) South Korean film about Duk Koo Kim, a South Korean boxer who died after a bout against Ray Mancini
- Undefeated (2003 TV movie) Starring John Leguizamo
- Million Dollar Baby (2004 film) Multiple Oscar winner about a female boxer directed by Clint Eastwood
- Against the Ropes (2004 film) Starring Meg Ryan as Jackie Kallen famous female boxing promoter
- Black Cloud Directed by and starring Rick Schroder
- The Calcium Kid (2004 film)
- Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson (2004 film) Documentary directed by Ken Burns
- Cinderella Man (2005 film) Based on the true story of Jim Braddock starring Russell Crowe.
- The Contender 2005 Reality TV series
- Hajime no Ippo A manga/anime about a young featherweight boxer
- Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!! A Nintendo game. Later adapted to SNES as Super Punch-Out!!
- EA Sports Fight Night (formerly Knockout Kings).

Resources

- [http://ahfaa.org/1747.htm Godfrey, John "Boxing" from Treatise Upon the Useful Science of Defense, 1747]
- [http://www.geocities.com/cinaet/price.html Price, Edmund The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867]

References

- Patrick Myler (1997). A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). ISBN 1-861-05258-8. # "Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni" (July/August 2005). Illinois Alumni, 18(1), 47.

External links

- [http://www.boxrec.com The Boxing Record Archive]
- [http://www.secondsout.com/World/champions.cfm Current World Champions]
- [http://thering-online.com/ Ring Magazine]
- [http://fightnews.com/ Fightnews.com]
- [http://www.thesweetscience.com/ The Sweet Science]
- [http://www.boxingreport.net The Boxing Report]
- [http://www.aiba.net The International Amateur Boxing Association]
- [http://www.wbaonline.com The World Boxing Association]
- [http://www.wbcboxing.com The World Boxing Council]
- [http://www.ibf-usba-boxing.com The International Boxing Federation]
- [http://kronkgym.com Knock Boxing International]
- [http://www.boxingsearch.com The Boxing Search Engine]
- [http://www.boxing-memorabilia.com/forgery.htm Tips On Collecting Boxing Memorabilia]
- [http://www.phelios.com/pc/boxinggame.html boxing game]
- [http://www.anymartialart.org/09_Martial_Arts_Info/index.php?MArtID=7 AnyMartialArt.org] Boxing overview
- Category:Combat sports Category:European martial arts Category:Olympic sports Category:Individual sports ja:ボクシング

Boxing (disambiguation)

Boxing may refer to:
- The sport of Boxing
- Boxing in computer science
- Kickboxing, generic term for a sporting martial art that, while similar to boxing, uses feet as well as hands for fighting.
- Boxing Day, public holiday observed in many Commonwealth countries on 26 December.

Boxer (disambiguation)

Boxer may refer to:
- A boxing competitor
- Boxer shorts, a style of undergarment based on those worn by boxers.
- Boxer (dog), a breed of dog
- Boxer Rebellion, a Chinese uprising in the late 19th century
- HMS Boxer, nine Royal navy ships
- USS Boxer, six US Navy ships
- A flat engine, informally "boxer engine"
- "The Boxer", a 1968 song by Simon & Garfunkel
- Boxer MRAV, a European military utility vehicle
- Boxer TV Access, a Swedish digital TV-provider
- Barbara Boxer, United States senator
- Lim Yo-Hwan, the pseudonym of the professional StarCraft player
- Boxer (text editor), for DOS and Microsoft Windows
- Boxer (Turkish magazine), a magazine printed in Turkey ja:ボクサー

Rome

Rome (Italian and Latin: Roma) is the capital of Italy and of its Latium region. It is located on the Tiber and Aniene rivers, near the Mediterranean Sea, at . The Vatican City, a sovereign enclave within Rome, is the seat of the Roman Catholic Church and the home of the Pope. Rome is the largest city and comune in Italy; the comune or municipality is one of the largest in Europe with an area of 1290 square kilometers. Within the city limits, the population is 2,823,807 (2004); almost 4 million live in the general area of Rome as represented by the province of Rome. The current mayor of Rome is Walter Veltroni. With a GDP of €75 billion (higher than New Zealand's and equivalent to Singapore's — all three have roughly the same population of around 4 million), in the year 2001 the comune of Rome produced 6.5% of Italy's total GDP, the highest rate among all of Italy's cities. The city's history extends nearly 2,800 years, during which time it has been the seat of ancient Rome (the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, Roman Empire), and later the Papal States, Kingdom of Italy and Italian Republic.

History

Demographics

Throughout its long history Rome has been a centre of learning, trade and commerce. The native Italian population have shared their city throughout the ages with migrants from across Europe and the wider world. In ancient times a large proportion of the population were foreign merchants, slaves, officials and their descendants who came from across the wide empire which bore the city's name. Today the population is very diverse with immigrants thought to make up as much as 20% of the population of the city.

Economy

Today Rome has a dynamic and diverse economy concentrating on innovation, technologies, communications and the service sector. They produce 6.5% of the national GDP (more than any other city in the Italy) and continues to grow at a higher rate than those in the rest of the country. Tourism is inevitably one of Rome's chief industries. The city is also a centre for banking, publishing, insurance, fashion, high-tech industries, housing, cinema (particularly at the famous Cinecittà studios, dubbed the "Hollywood on the Tiber"), and the aerospace industries. Many international headquarters, government ministries, conference centres, sports venues and museums are located in Rome's principal business districts: the E.U.R. (Esposizione Universale Roma); the Torrino (further south from the E.U.R.); the Magliana; the Parco de' Medici-Laurentina and the so-called Tiburtina-valley along the ancient Via Tiburtina.

Transportation

Esposizione Universale Roma district.]] Esposizione Universale Roma) from the park around the artificial lake. Rome, EUR district.]] Rome has an intercontinental airport named Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport - FCO, but more commonly known as Fiumicino, which also is Italy's chief airport, and the Giovan-Battista Pastine international airport (commonly referred to as Ciampino Airport), a joint civilian and military airport southeast of the city-center, along the Via Appia, which handles mainly charter flights and regional European flights including some low-cost airlines. A third airport, called Aeroporto dell'Urbe, is located in the north of the city along the ancient Via Salaria and handles mainly helicopters and private flights. A fourth airport, called Aeroporto di Centocelle, in the eastern part of Rome between the Via Prenestina and the Via Casilina, has been abandoned for some years now, but is currently being redeveloped as one of the largest public parks in Rome. A subway system operates in Rome called the "Metropolitana" or Rome Metro which was opened in 1955. There are 2 lines (A & B), a third (C) and a new branch of the B-line (B1) are under construction, while a fourth line (D) has been planned. The frequent archaeological findings delay underground work. Today's (2005) total length is 38 km. The two existing lines, A & B, only intersect at one point, Termini Station, the main train station in Rome (which also is the largest train station in Europe, underneath and around which exists now a lively shopping center known as the "Forum Termini" with more than 100 shops of various types). Other stations includes: Tiburtina (second-largest, which is currently being redeveloped and enlarged to become the main high-speed train hub in the city), Ostiense, Trastevere, Tuscolana, S. Pietro, Casilina, Torricola. The Rome Metro is part of an extensive transport network made of a tramway network, several suburban and urban lines in and around the city of Rome, plus an "express line" to Fiumicino Airport. Whereas most FS-Regionale lines (Regional State Railways) do provide mostly a suburban service with more than 20 stations scattered throughout the city, the Roma-Lido (starting at Ostiense station), the Roma-Pantano (starting nearby Termini) and the Roma-Nord (starting at Flaminio station) lines offer a metro-like service. Rome also has a comprehensive bus system. The web site (translated in english) of the [http://www.atac.roma.it/index.asp?lng=2 public transportation company (ATAC)] allows a route to be calculated using the buses and subways. [http://www.atac.roma.it/biglietti/index.asp?COD=320&LNG=2 Metrebus integrated fare system] allows holders of tickets and integrated passes to travel on all companies vehicles, within the validity time of the ticket purchased. Chronic congestion caused by cars during the 1970s and 1980s led to the banning of unauthorized traffic from the central part of city during workdays from 6.00 a.m to 6 p.m. (this area is officially called Zona a Traffico Limitato, Z.T.L. in short). Heavy traffic due to night-life crowds during week-ends led in recent years to the creation of other Z.T.L.s in the Trastevere and S. Lorenzo districts during the night, and to the experimentation of a new night Z.T.L. also in the city center (plans to create a night Z.T.L. in the Testaccio district as well are underway). In recent years, parking-spaces along the streets in wide areas of the city have been converted to pay-parkings, as new underground parkings spread throughout the city. In spite of all these measures, traffic remains an unsolved problem, as in the rest of the world's cities.

Education

Z.T.L. Rome continues to be the major education and research center of Italy, with many major universities that offer degrees in all fields. Among the prestigious educational establishments in Rome is the University of Rome La Sapienza (founded 1303), which is Europe’s biggest university with almost 150,000 students. The city is also home to three other public universities: Università degli studi di Roma “Tor Vergata”, more commonly called Roma 2, University of Roma Tre and the Istituto Universitario di Scienze Motorie. Undisputed as the greatest repository of western art of the last 3,000 years of human history, Rome is home to many foreign academic institutions, as well, such as The American Academy, The British School, The French Institute, The German Archaeological Institute, The Swedish Institute, and The Finnish Institute, The Japan Foundation. Several private universities are as well located in Rome, as:
- LUISS University (Libera università internazionale degli studi sociali), probably the most prestigious private university in Rome;
- Università Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore, a renowned university in Italy;
- John Cabot University, a private American University;
- LUMSA University (Libera Universita Maria SS. Assunta);
- University of Malta, an International University;
- Libera Università di Roma "Leonardo da Vinci";
- Libera Università Degli Studi "S. Pio V";
- UPTER University;
- I.S.S.A.S. University. Still located in Rome are the Accademia di Santa Cecilia - the world's oldest academy of music (founded 1584), St. John's University's Rome campus which is located at the Pontificio Oratorio San Pietro, several academies of fine arts, colleges of the church, medical and Health research instituts.

Monuments and sights

- See Wikipedia's category "Monuments and sights of Rome"

Houses of worship

Churches

Rome is home to over 900 churches.

Basilicas

Patriarchal basilicas

- San Giovanni in Laterano (St. John in Lateran)
- San Pietro in Vaticano (St. Peter's)
- San Paolo fuori le Mura (St. Paul outside the Walls)
- Santa Maria Maggiore (St. Mary Major)
- San Lorenzo fuori le Mura (St. Lawrence outside the Walls)

Other basilicas

- Sant'Agnese fuori le mura (St. Agnes outside the Walls)
- Sant'Andrea delle Fratte
- Santi Apostoli (Holy Apostles)
- San Bernardo alle Terme
- San Clemente (St. Clement)
- Santi Cosma e Damiano (SS. Cosmas and Damian)
- Santa Croce in Gerusalemme
- San Lorenzo in Lucina
- San Marco (St. Mark)
- Santa Maria degli Angeli
- Santa Maria in Aracoeli
- Santa Maria sopra Minerva
- San Martino ai Monti
- San Pietro in Vincoli (St. Peter in Chains)
- Santa Prassede (St. Praxedis)
- San Saba
- Santa Sabina
- San Sebastiano fuori le mura
- Santi Quattro Coronati
- Santa Maria in Trastevere

Other important churches

The following do not yet have Wikipedia articles, but are important nonetheless:
- San Giorgio al Velabro;
- San Giovanni dei Fiorentini;
- San Lorenzo in Miranda (temple of Antoninus and Faustina)
- Santi Marcellino e Pietro;
- Santa Maria della Pace;
- Santa Maria dei Monti;
- Santo Stefano Rotondo;

Non-Christian places of worship

- Great Synagogue of Rome
- Great Mosque of Rome and Islamic Cultural Center Image:Sicht vom petersdom roma.jpg|View over Rome from St. Peter's Basilica. Image:RomeSinagogue.jpg|Rome's main Synagogue in the old Jewish Ghetto district, on the banks of the Tiber river.

Administrative subdivision of Rome

The Administrative subdivision of Rome consists in the division of the large territory of Rome into 19 Districts.

Province of Rome

Rome is the capital of a province, with an area of 5,352 sq. km, and a total population of 3,700,424 (2001) in 120 comuni. The province can be viewed as the extended metropolitan area of the town of Rome, although in its more peripheral portions, especially to the north, it comprises towns surrounded by firmly rural landscape, just as towns elsewhere thruout Italy.

Markets and shopping areas

Porta Portese

Street market on Sunday mornings, from very early to around 1pm, on the left bank of the Tiber, between Porto Portese and Stazione Trastevere, centred on Via Portuense. The wares are mainly clothes, both old and new. The second-hand clothing stalls are by far the more popular, with the clothes sorted by type (leathers and furs, jeans, coats, children’s clothes, etc) and piled on large tables with everything at the same (low) price. Tables start at 50c, and range up to 20 euro for high-quality leather and fur.

Campo de' Fiori

Campo de' Fiori is one of the oldest markets in Rome, where food and flowers are most frequently found. Though the name literally means "field of flowers," there are no fields in sight; it's in the middle of downtown Rome, off of the Corso Vittorio Emanuele II. The market is open every morning of the week except Sunday. Campo de' Fiori, surrounded by many bars and restaurants, is also a popular destination at night for locals and foreigners alike.

Symbols and trivia

Rome is commonly identified by several proper symbols, including the Colosseum, the she-wolf (Lupa capitolina), the imperial eagle, and the symbols of Christianity. The famous acronym SPQR recalls the ancient age and the unity between Roman Senate and Roman people. Rome is called "L'Urbe" (The City), "Caput mundi" (head of the world), "Città Eterna" (eternal city), and "Limen Apostolorum" (the threshold of the apostles). The town's colors are golden yellow and red (garnet): they stand, respectively, for christian and imperial dignities. Rome has two holidays of its own: April 21 (the founding of Rome), and June 29 (the feast of its patron saints, Peter and Paul). Other locally important dates are December 8 (the Immaculate Conception) and January 6 (Epiphany). The Grande Raccordo Anulare (commonly shortened "Il GRA" or "Il Raccordo"), which is more than 80 km long, once encircled the city. Rome has since grown past this round motorway, with new districts well beyond it. Some proverbs about the Eternal City:
- When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
- All roads lead to Rome.
- Rome wasn't built in a day. During its long history, Rome has always had a scarcity of native inhabitants, so by tradition a "true" Roman is one whose family has lived in Rome for no less than 7 generations: this is the original "Romano de Roma" (in Romanesco, the local dialect of Italian). For the autonomistic party Lega Nord, Rome is the symbol of the allegedly parasytical Italian central government, crystalized in their slogan Roma ladrona ("Thief Rome"). Image:Roma01.jpg|Senatus PopulusQue Romanus. Great Seal of Rome's municipality Image:polizia-roma.gif|Seal of Rome's City Police, with the seal and the she-wolf.

Events

Roma Europa Festival, September Annual appointment for modern art and theatre, music and dance, with artists from of all Europe. Festival Romics, October Comics and Cartoon Festival: exhibitions, cartoon film showings of designers and publishing companies. Roma Jazz Festival, October Festival of jazz music since of 1876. Italian and international artists. Roman Summers, from June to September Various events from music to theater, literary meetings and cinema. Events that take place in the most characteristic places in Rome that attract the participation of thousands of artists from all over the world.

Cultural Events

White Night

Series of events at venues throughout Rome on September: concerts, special outdoor performances, churches and monuments open to the public during, museums open all night with free entrance, shops open all nights. ([http://www.lanottebianca.it/index.asp?lang=en&destinazione=cosa_])

External links

- [http://www.comune.roma.it/cultura/ Official Site of the City of Rome]
- [http://www.romasotterranea.it/ Roma Sotterranea/Subterranean Rome]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/home.html Bill Thayer's Gazetteer of Rome]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Arc/5319/eng.htm Andrea Pollett's Virtual Roma]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/9259/roma_ant.htm Roma Antica e Roma Moderna], in Italian
- [http://www.forbeginners.info/rome/ Rome for Beginners]
- [http://www.alberghi-a.roma.it/info.htm Informations and useful numbers about Rome]

Ancient Rome

- [http://www.romeartlover.it/Rome.htm Rome in the footsteps of an XVIIIth Century traveller]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/ Encyclopædia Romana, by James Grout]
- [http://www.maquettes-historiques.net/page4.html La maquette de Rome]
- [http://intranet.grundel.nl/thinkquest/introduction.html "Forum Romanum", a ThinkQuest site]
- [http://www.vroma.org/~forum/ "Forum Romanum" Project at VRoma]

Christian Rome

- See Wikipedia's category "Churches of Rome"

Galleries

- [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov:81/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15316 Satellite image of Rome] at NASA's Earth Observatory
- [http://myweb.lmu.edu/fjust/Rome.htm Ancient Rome, Images and Pictures]
- [http://map.cs.telespazio.it/fontane/index.html Fontanelle di Roma], including the aqueducts
- [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/roma/movie.htm A virtual travel of Rome] pictures and virtual reality movies
- [http://www.rome.info/pictures/ Free Rome Pictures]
- [http://sabin.ro/gallery/album412 Rome Photo Gallery]
- [http://digilander.libero.it/fotogian/roma.html Photos of Rome]
- [http://www.photoroma.com/ PhotoRoma]
- [http://www2.siba.fi/~kkoskim/rooma/pages/MAIN.HTM Vedute di Roma]
- [http://www.secretrome.com Pictures of Rome]
- [http://rome.arounder.com/fullscreen.html Arounder.Com] (QTVR panoramas)

Maps

- [http://www.italy-weather-and-maps.com/maps/italy/lazio.gif Rome and environs (Lazio)]
- [http://www.statravel.co.uk/images/off/short_breaks/map/map_rom.gif downtown Rome]
- [http://www.walkingrome.com/links/Pianta-di-Roma-Web.jpg downtown Rome (WalkingRome)]
- [http://www.activitaly.it/infobase/index.php?lang=en Interactive map (Activitaly)]
- [http://www.duke.edu/~rkl7/Images/Rome%20City%20map.jpg Map of Ancient Rome]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=rome&spn=0.039455,0.126549&t=k&hl=en Google Maps satellite images of Rome]

Travel guides

- Category:Capitals in Europe Category:Holy cities Category:Roman sites of the Lazio
- Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games Category:World Heritage Sites in Italy Category:Christianity als:Rom ko:로마 ja:ローマ simple:Rome

Augustus

:"Augustus" redirects here. For the honorific title see Augustus (honorific) Caesar Augustus (Latin:IMP·CAESAR·DIVI·F·AVGVSTVS) ¹ (23 September 63 BC; 19 August AD 14), known to modern historians as Octavian for the period of his life prior to 27 BC, is considered the first and one of the most important Roman Emperors, though he downplayed his own position by preferring the traditional Republic title of princeps, usually translated as "first citizen". Although he preserved the outward form of the Roman Republic, he ruled as an autocrat for more than 40 years. He ended a century of civil wars and gave Rome an era of peace, prosperity, and imperial greatness.

Early life

Augustus was born in Rome with the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus. His father, also Gaius Octavius, came from a respectable but undistinguished family of the equestrian order and was governor of Macedonia. More importantly, his mother, Atia Balba Caesonia, was the niece of Rome's greatest general and de facto ruler, Julius Caesar. He spent his early years in his grandfather's house near Veletrae (modern Velletri). In 58 BC, when he was four, his father died. He spent most of his childhood in the house of his stepfather, Lucius Marcius Philippus. In 51 BC, aged eleven, he delivered the funeral oration for his great-aunt Julia Caesaris. He put on the toga virilis at fifteen, and was elected to the College of Pontiffs. Caesar requested that Octavius join his staff for his campaign in Africa, but Atia protested that he was too young. The following year, 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania, but he fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he made it across hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably. Caesar and Octavius returned home in the same carriage, and Caesar secretly changed his will.

Rise to power

When Caesar was assassinated in March 44 BC, Octavius was with the army at Apollonia, in what is now Albania. When Caesar's will was read it revealed that, having no legitimate children, he had adopted his great-nephew as his son and main heir. By virtue of his adoption, Octavius assumed the name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman tradition dictated that he also append the surname Octavianus to indicate his biological family, from which historians derive the name Octavian; however, no evidence exists that he ever used the name Octavianus. Mark Antony later charged that he had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as political slander. Octavian, as he is now conventionally called, crossed over to Italy and recruited an army from among Caesar's veterans, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. Only eighteen years old, he was consistently underestimated by his rivals for power. In Rome, he found Caesar's republican assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius, in control. After a tense standoff, he formed an uneasy alliance with Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Caesar's principal colleagues. The three formed a junta called the Second Triumvirate, an explicit grant of special powers lasting five years and supported by law, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which three hundred senators and two thousand equites were deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives, going beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins, and probably motivated by a need to raise money to pay their troops. Antony and Octavian then marched against Brutus and Cassius, who had fled to the east. At Philippi in Macedonia, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide (42 BC). While Octavian returned to Rome, Antony went to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra, the ex-lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, Caesarion. While in Egypt, Antony had an affair with Cleopatra that resulted in the birth of three children, Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene, and Ptolemy Philadelphus. Antony later left Cleopatra to make a strategic marriage with Octavian's sister Octavia in 40 BC. During their marriage Octavia gave birth to two daughters, both named Antonia. In 37 BC Antony deserted Octavia and went back to Egypt to be with Cleopatra. The Roman dominions were then divided between Octavian in the west and Antony in the east. Antony occupied himself with military campaigns in the east and a romantic affair with Cleopatra; Octavian built a network of allies in Rome, consolidated his power, and spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because of his preoccupation with Egyptian affairs and traditions. The situation grew more and more tense, and finally, in 32 BC, Octavian declared war. It was quickly decided: in the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece, after Antony's men began deserting, the fleets met in a great battle in which many ships burned and thousands on both sides lost their lives. Octavian defeated his rivals who then fled to Egypt. He pursued them, and after another defeat, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra also committed suicide after her upcoming role in Octavian's triumph was "carefully explained to her" and Caesarion, the supposed son of Julius Caesar by Cleopatra, was "butchered without compunction". (It is said that Cleopatra possibly used a snake to kill herself.) Caesarion

Octavian becomes Augustus: the creation of the Principate

The Western half of the Empire had sworn allegiance to Octavian prior to Actium in 30 BC, and after Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, the Eastern half of the Empire followed suit, placing Octavian in the position of ruler of the entire Empire. Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near-lawlessness, but Rome was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot; however, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amoungst the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the provinces. Disbanding his personal forces, Octavian held elections and took up the position of consul; as such, though he had given up his personal armies, he was now legally in command of the legions of Rome.

The First Settlement

In 27 BC he officially returned power to the Senate of Rome, and offered to relinquish his own military supremacy over Egypt. Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian stepping down as consul lead to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and Octavian's supporters, known as the First Settlement. Octavian was given proconsular authority over the Western half of the empire and Syria — the provinces that, combined, contained almost 70% of the Roman legions. The Senate also gave him the titles Augustus and Princeps. Augustus was a title of religious rather than political authority. In the mindset of contemporary religious beliefs, it would have cleverly symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. Additionally, after the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, that the change in name would also serve to separate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. Princeps translates to "first-citizen" or "first-leader". It had been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well; for example, Gnaeus Pompey had held the title. Additionally, and perhaps the most dangerous innovation, Augustus was granted the right to wear the Civic Crown of laurel and oak. This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a Triumph, with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat, "Remember, thou art mortal," to the triumphant general. The fact that not only was Augustus awarded this crown but awarded the right to actually wear it upon his head is perhaps the clearest indication of the creation of a monarchy. However, it must be noted that none of these titles, or the Civic Crown, granted Octavian any additional powers or authority; for all intents and purposes the new Augustus was simply a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship. These actions were highly abnormal from the Roman Senate, but this was not the same body of patricians that had murdered Caesar. Both Antony and Octavian had purged the Senate of suspect elements and planted it with their loyal partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in these transactions, and what backroom deals were made, remain unknown.

The Second Settlement

In 23 BC Augustus renounced the consulship, but retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the power of a tribune (tribunicia potestas), though not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. No Tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the Tribune and the Censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate. In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself: all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the Praefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius, or "imperium over all the proconsuls", which translated to the right to interfere in any province in the Roman Empire and override the decisions of any governor. With maius imperium, Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was obstensibly the head of every Roman army. Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class. When in 22 BC Augustus failed to stand for election as consul, fears arose once again that Augustus, seen as the great "defender of the people", was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 20 BC the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, obstensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus. Finally in 19 BC the Senate voted to allow Augustus to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate. This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people. With these powers in mind, it must be understood that all forms of permanent and legal power within Rome officially lay with the Senate and the people; Augustus was given extraordinary powers, but only as a pronconsul and magistrate under the authority of the Senate. Augustus never presented himself as a king or autocrat, once again only allowing himself to be addressed by the title Princeps. After the death of Lepidus in 13 BC he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus. Later Roman Emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often, in order to display humility, newly appointed Emperors would often decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus. Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had actually been granted by the Senate. The Civic Crown, consular insignia, and later the purple robes of a Triumphant general (toga picta) became the imperial insignia well into the Byzantine era, and were even adopted by many Germanic tribes invading the former Western empire as insignia of their right to rule.

Reign

Having gained power by means of great audacity, Augustus ruled with great prudence. In exchange for near absolute power, he gave Rome 40 years of civic peace and increasing prosperity, celebrated in history as the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. He created Rome's first permanent army and navy and stationed the legions along the Empire's borders, where they could not meddle in politics. A special unit, the Praetorian Guard, garrisoned Rome and protected the Emperor's person. He also reformed Rome's finance and tax systems. Augustus waged no major wars. A war in the mountains of northern Hispania from 26 BC to 19 BC finally resulted in that territory's conquest. After Gallic raids, the Alpine territories were conquered. Rome's borders were advanced to the natural frontier of the Danube, and the province of Galatia was occupied. Further west, an attempt to advance into Germany ended with the defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. Thereafter Augustus and his successors accepted the Rhine as the Empire's permanent border. In the east, he satisfied himself with establishing Roman control over Armenia and the Transcaucasus. He left the Parthian Empire alone maintaining generally good relations with them. In domestic matters, Augustus channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the Empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments, and keeping the citizens of Rome happy by beautifying the capital and staging magnificent games. He famously boasted that he "found Rome brick and left it marble". He built the Senate a new home, the Curia, and built temples to Apollo and the Divine Julius. He also built a shrine near the Circus Maximus. The Capitoline Temple and the Theater of Pompey are recorded as projects of Augustus, whose name was deliberately uncredited. He founded a ministry of transport that built an extensive network of roads — enabling improved communication, trade, and mail. Augustus also founded the world's first fire brigade, and created a regular police force for Rome. police Roman rulers understood little about economics, and Augustus was no exception. Like all the Emperors, he overtaxed agriculture and spent the revenue on armies, temples, and games. Once the Empire stopped expanding, and had no more loot coming in from conquests, its economy began to stagnate and eventually decline. The reign of Augustus is thus seen in some ways as the high point of Rome's power and prosperity. Augustus settled retired soldiers on the land in an effort to revive agriculture, but the capital remained dependent on grain imports from Egypt. Augustus also strongly supported worship of Roman gods, especially Apollo, and depicted Roman defeat of Egypt as Roman gods defeating Egypt's. He sponsored Virgil's Aeneid in the hopes that it would increase pride in Roman heritage. Augustus also launched a morality crusade, promoting marriage, family, and childbirth while discouraging luxury, unrestrained sex (including prostitution and homosexuality), and adultery. It was largely unsuccessful (indeed, his own daughter was banished due to it.) As a patron of the arts, Augustus showered favors on poets, artists, sculptors, and architects. His reign is considered the Golden Age of Roman literature. Horace, Livy, Ovid, and Virgil flourished under his protection, but in return, they had to pay tribute to his genius and adhere to his standards. (Ovid was banished from Rome for violating Augustus's morality codes.) He eventually won over most of the Roman intellectual class, although many still pined in private for the Republic. His use of games and special events to celebrate himself and his family cemented his popularity. By the time Augustus died, a return to the old system was unimaginable. The only question was who would succeed him as sole ruler.

Succession

Augustus' control of power throughout the Empire was so absolute that it allowed him to name his successor, a custom that had been abandoned and derided in Rome since the foundation of the Republic. At first, indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been married to Augustus' daughter Julia Caesaris. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Reports of later historians that this poisoning, and other later deaths, were caused by Augustus' wife Livia Drusilla are inconclusive at best. After the death of Marcellus, Augustus married his daughter to his right hand man, Marcus Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Augustus' intent to make the first two children his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children. Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus and Tiberius Claudius, after they had conquered a large portion of Germany. After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Livia's son Tiberius divorced his own wife and married Agrippa's widow. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter went into retirement. After the early deaths of both Gaius and Lucius in AD 4 and AD 2 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome, where he was adopted by Augustus. On August 19, AD 14, Augustus died. Postumus Agrippa and Tiberius had been named co-heirs. However, Postumus had been banished, and was put to death around the same time. Who ordered his death is unknown, but the way was clear for Tiberius to assume the same powers that his stepfather had.

Augustus's legacy

AD 14 Augustus was deified soon after his death, and both his borrowed surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of Rome for the next 400 years, and were still in use at Constantinople fourteen centuries after his death. The derived titles Kaiser and Tsar would be used until the early part of the 20th century. The cult of the Divine Augustus continued until the State Religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in the 4th century. Consequently, we have many excellent statues and busts of the first, and in some ways the greatest, of the Emperors. Augustus' mausoleum also originally contained bronze pillars inscribed with a record of his life, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti. Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the empire's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta. He was handsome, intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar or Marc Antony; as a result, Augustus is not as renowned as either man, and is often confused with Julius Caesar. Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The month of August (Latin Augustus) is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (the sixth month of the Roman calendar). In looking back on the reign of Augustus and its legacy to the Roman world, its longevity should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. People were born and reached middle age without knowing any form of government other than the Principate. Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters may have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor, and although every emperor adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, only a handful earned genuine comparison with him (Trajan). His reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted for 250 years. Augustus was ranked #18 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history.

Notes

# Suetonius, Augustus [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus
- .html#68 68], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus
- .html#71 71] # From the Gracchi to Nero: HH Scullard p163 # From the Gracchi to Nero: HH Scullard p164 # Alexander to Actium: Peter Green pp 697

External links

Primary sources

- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html The Res Gestae Divi Augusti] (The Deeds of Augustus, his own account: complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation)
- [http://www.usask.ca/antharch/cnea/DeptTransls/ResGest.html Selections from the Res Gestae] (in a different English translation)
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus
- .html Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html#45 Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45‑56, English translation]
- [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Life of Augustus] by Nicolaus of Damascus

Secondary material

- [http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] (A good detailed biography)
- [http://janusquirinus.org/Octavian/OctavianHome.html Octavian / Augustus]
- [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/augustus.htm Augustus and the Roman army – Mutual Loyalty and Rewards] Augustus, Caesar Augustus, Caesar Augustus, Caesar Augustus, Caesar Augustus, Caesar Augustus, Caesar Augustus, Caesar Augustus, Caesar ko:아우구스투스 ja:アウグストゥス simple:Caesar Augustus

James Figg

James Figg (1695-1734) was a British bare-knuckle boxer. In 1719, he became the first English bare-knuckle champion. Figg was also a great fencer. After his rise to fame, he started his own school and taught boxing and fencing.

London Prize Ring rules

The London Prize Ring rules was a list of 29 rules drafted by Britain's Jack Broughton in 1743, governing the conduct of prizefighting/boxing for over 100 years. The rules were expanded in detail in 1838 and 1853. Fights under these rules were typically held using bare knuckles. The rules also allowed for a broad range of fighting including holds and throws of the opponent. Spiked shoes, within limits, were also allowed. Also included were provisions dealing with how wagers would be resolved if various events such as interference by the law, darkness, or cancellations occurred. In contrast with modern boxing rules based upon the Marquis of Queensberry rules, a round ended with a man downed by punch or throw, whereupon he was given 30 seconds to rest and eight additional seconds to "come to scratch" or return to the center of the ring where a "scratch line" was drawn and square off with his opponent once more. Consequently, there were no round limits to fights. When a man could not come to scratch, he would be declared loser and the fight would be brought to a halt, unless broken up beforehand by crowd riot, police interference or chicanery. Fights could also end if both men were willing to accept that the contest was a draw. While fights could have enormous numbers of rounds, the rounds in practice could be sometimes be quite short with fighters pretending to go down from minor blows to take advantage of the 30-second rest period. Famous fighters of prize ring include William "Bendigo" Thompson, Jack Broughton, James "Deaf" Burke, "Professor" Mike Donovan, Tom Allen, Samuel "Dutch Sam" Elias, John "Gentleman" Jackson, the "Benicia Boy" John Carmel Heenan, Daniel Men

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London Prize Ring rules