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Archbishop

Archbishop

In Christianity, an archbishop is an elevated bishop heading a diocese of particular importance due to either its size, history, or both, called an archdiocese. An archbishop is equivalent to a bishop in sacred matters but simply has a higher precedence or degree of prestige. Thus, when someone who is already a bishop becomes an archbishop, that person does not receive Holy Orders again or any other sacrament; however, when a person who is not a bishop at all becomes an archbishop, they will need to be ordained a bishop. ordained Archbishops do not necessarily have more power than bishops, but they are in charge of more prestigious dioceses. However, many archbishops are also the metropolitans of the ecclesiastical province in which their archdiocese is located. In Western churches (Catholic and Anglican), this is almost always the case. However, there are exceptions in Latin rite Roman Catholicism, which has three types of non-metropolitan archbishops. The first (and most common) type are titular bishops of titular sees that were once archdioceses but now do not exist. The second type are leaders of archdioceses that are not metropolitical. Two examples are the Archbishop of Strasbourg, whose archdiocese is not in any ecclesiastical province and is immediately subject to the Holy See, and the Archbishop of Avignon, who is suffragan to the Archbishop of Marseille [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/davig.html]. The third kind of non-metropolitan archbishop are archbishops ad personam: honorary archbishops whose dioceses do not become archdioceses when they receive the title. None of these archbishops are entitled to wear the pallium, as they are not metropolitan bishops. An archbishop who retires is granted the title of Archbishop Emeritus of the last see he occupied before his retirement, in order to conserve titular sees for active auxiliary bishops. In the Eastern churches (Catholic and Orthodox) archbishops and metropolitans are distinct, although a metropolitan may be referred to as metropolitan archbishop. In the Greek Orthodox Church, archbishops outrank metropolitans, and have the same rights as Eastern Orthodox metropolitans. The Oriental Orthodox generally follow the pattern of the Slavic Orthodox with respect to the archbishop/metropolitan distinction. Etymology: From Greek archepiskopos: arche, first, and epi-skopos, over-seer or supervisor.

ChristianIty

Christianity

Bishop

A bishop is an ordained member of the Christian clergy who, in certain Christian churches, holds a position of authority.

Meaning of bishop

The etymology of the word bishop comes from the Greek word episkopos (επισκοπος), which can be generally translated as bishop, overseer, superintendent, supervisor, or foreman. From the word episkopos are derived the English words episcopacy, episcopate and episcopal.

Bishops in the New Testament

The New Testament uses the word episkopos five times.
- Acts of the Apostles 20:28
- Epistle to the Philippians 1:1
- First Epistle to Timothy 3:2
- Epistle to Titus 1:7
- First Epistle of Peter 2:25 Words related to episkopos are used in two other verses. Some English Bibles translate this word as bishop (KJV, RSV, NRSV, etc.), while others, attempting to distance themselves from certain types of church hierarchy, use a more neutral alternative, such as "overseers" (NIV, ESV, etc.). The ministry of these New Testament episkopoi was not directly commissioned by Jesus, but appears to be a natural, practical development of the church during the first and second centuries AD. The portions of the New Testament that mention episkopoi do not appear to be ordering a new type of ministry, but giving instructions for an already existent position within the early church. In places (particularly in the verses from the Epistle to Titus) it appears that the position of episkopos is similar or the same as that of presbyter (πρεσβυτερος), or elder, and, later, priest. The Epistle to Timothy mentions deacons (διακονοι) in a manner that suggests that the office of deacon differs from the office of the bishop, and is subordinate to it, though it carries similar qualifications. In the Acts of the Apostles, episkopoi are mentioned as being shepherds of the flock, imagery that is still in use today. The other passages from the New Testament describe them as stewards or administrators, and teachers. In 1 Timothy episkopoi are required to be 'the husband of but one wife'. It is unclear whether this forbids men who have married a second time in series, or polygamists. However, it is clear that the New Testament has no prohibition against bishops marrying and having children. It is interesting to note that in the second chapter of the 1 Peter, Jesus is described as 'the Shepherd and Episkopos of your souls' (τον ποιμενα και επισκοπον των ψυχων υμων).

Bishops in the Apostolic Fathers

At the turn of the first century AD, the church started to acquire a clear organisation. In the works of the Apostolic Fathers, and Ignatius of Antioch in particular, the role of the episkopos, or bishop, became more important.

"Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6:1.
"your godly bishop" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2:1.
"the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 6:1.
"Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7:1.
"Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13:2.
"In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3:1.
"follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8:1.
"He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9:1.

— Lightfoot translation.

It is clear that, by this period, a single bishop was expected to lead the church in each centre of Christian mission, supported by a council of presbyters (now a distinct and subordinate position) with a pool of deacons. As the church continued to expand, new churches in important cities gained their own bishop, but churches in the regions around an important city were served by presbyters and deacons from the bishop's city church. Thus, in time, the bishop changed from being the leader of a single church to being the leader of the churches of a given geographical area.

Bishops and civil government

The efficient infrastructure of the Roman Empire became the template for the organization of the church in the fourth century, particularly after the Edict of Milan. As the church moved from the shadows of privacy into the public forum it acquired land for churches, burials and clergy. In 391, Theodosius I decreed that any land that had been confiscated from the church by Roman authorities be returned. The most usual term for the geographical area of a bishop's authority and ministry, the diocese, began as part of the structure of the Roman Empire under Diocletian. As Roman authority began to fail in the western portion of the empire, the church took over much of the civil administration. This can be clearly seen in the ministry of two popes: Pope Leo I in the fifth century, and Pope Gregory I in the sixth century. Both of these men were statesmen and public administrators in addition to their role as Christian pastors, teachers and leaders. In the Eastern churches, latifundia entailed to a bishop's see were much less common, the state power did not collapse the way it did in the West, and thus the tendency of bishops acquiring secular power was much weaker than in the West. However, the role of Western bishops as civil authorities, often called prince bishops, continued throughout much of the Middle Ages.

Sovereign bishops

prince bishop The most important of these prince bishops was the Pope, who ruled as monarch of the Papal States by virtue of his title as Bishop of Rome. His claim to this fief rested on the forged Donation of Constantine, but in fact his authority over this kingdom in central Italy grew slowly after the collapse of Roman and Byzantine authority in the area. The Papal States were abolished when King Victor Emmanuel II took possession of Rome in 1870 and completed the reunification of Italy. This became a perennial source of tension between the Papacy and the government of Italy. In 1929, Pope Pius XI made a deal with the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini and became the independent sovereign of the Vatican, while giving up any rights to the rest of the former Papal States. He was recognised as an independent monarch by the Lateran Treaties, an authority the current Pope continues to hold. The only other bishop who is a head of state is the Bishop of Urgell, a Co-Prince of Andorra. Three senior bishops served as Electors in the Holy Roman Empire. By the terms of the Golden Bull of 1356, the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne were made permanent electors, who chose the next Holy Roman Emperor upon the death of his predecessor. The Archbishop of Mainz was President of the Electors and Archchancellor of Germany. Likewise, the Archbishop of Cologne was Archchancellor of Italy, and the Archbishop of Trier was Archchancellor of Burgundy. A number of other bishops within the Holy Roman Empire, although not being Electors, were sovereign prince-bishops in their own lands.

Bishops holding political office

As well as the Archchancellors of the Holy Roman Empire, bishops generally served as chancellors to mediaeval monarchs, serving as head of the justiciary and chief chaplain. The Lord Chancellor of England was almost always a bishop up until the dismissal of Thomas Cardinal Wolsey by Henry VIII. Likewise, the position of Kanclerz in the Polish kingdom was always a bishop until the sixteenth century. In France before the French Revolution, representatives of the clergy — in practice, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries — comprised the First Estate of the Estates-General, until their role was abolished during the French Revolution. The more senior bishops of the Church of England continue to sit in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, as representatives of the established church, and are known as Lords Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man, whose diocese lies outside of the United Kingdom, is ex officio a member of the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man. In the past, the Bishop of Durham, known as a prince bishop, had extensive viceregal powers within his northern diocese — the power to mint money, collect taxes and raise an army to defend against the Scots.

Episcopacy during the English Civil War

During the period of the English Civil War (or rather, Civil Wars), the role of bishops as wielders of political power and as upholders of the established church became a matter of heated political controversy. John Calvin formulated a doctrine of Presbyterianism, which held that in the New Testament the offices of presbyter and episkopos were identical; he rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession. Calvin's follower John Knox brought Presbyterianism to Scotland when the Scottish church was reformed in 1560. In practice, presbyterianism meant that committees of lay elders had a substantial voice in church government, as opposed to merely being subjects to a ruling hierarchy. This vision of at least partial democracy in ecclesiology paralleled the struggles between Parliament and the King. A body within the Puritan movement in the Church of England sought to abolish the office of bishop and remake the Church of England along Presbyterian lines. The Martin Marprelate tracts, applying the pejorative name of prelacy to the church hierarchy, attacked the office of bishop with satire that deeply offended Elizabeth I and her Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift. The vestments controversy also related to this movement, seeking further reductions in church ceremony, and labelling the use of elaborate vestments as "unedifying" and even idolatrous. King James I, reacting against the perceived contumacy of his Presbyterian Scottish subjects, adopted "No Bishop, no King" as a slogan; he tied the hierarchical authority of the bishop to the absolute authority he sought as king, and viewed attacks on the authority of the bishops as attacks on his own authority. Matters came to a head when King Charles I appointed William Laud as the Archbishop of Canterbury; Laud aggressively attacked the Presbyterian movement and sought to impose the full Anglican liturgy on each church. The controversy eventually lead to Laud's impeachment for treason by a bill of attainder in 1645, and subsequent execution. Charles also attempted to impose episcopacy on Scotland; the Scots' violent rejection of bishops and liturgical worship sparked the Bishops' Wars in 1639-1640. During the height of Puritan power in the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, episcopacy was abolished in the Church of England in 1649. The Church of England remained Presbyterian until the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.

Bishops in Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican churches

Although many Protestant churches have rejected the place of bishops in church leadership, churches rooted in tradition continue to ordain bishops to lead the church. Bishops form the leadership in the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Anglican Communion, and the Independent Catholic Churches. The traditional role of a bishop is as pastor of a diocese (also called a bishopric, eparchy or see). Dioceses vary considerably in their size of area and population. Some dioceses around the Mediterranean Sea which were Christianized early are rather compact; whereas dioceses in areas of rapid modern growth in Christian commitment, as in some parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, South America and the Far East, are much larger and more populous. Far East As well as traditional diocesan bishops, many churches have a well-developed structure of church leadership that involves a number of layers of authority and responsibility. ;Archbishop:An archbishop is the bishop of an archdiocese. This is usually a prestigious diocese with an important place in local church history. The title is purely honorific and carries no extra jurisdiction, though most archbishops are also metropolitan bishops. ;Metropolitan bishop:A metropolitan bishop is an archbishop in charge of an ecclesiastical province, or group of dioceses, and exercises some oversight over the other dioceses. Sometimes a metropolitan may also be the head of an autocephalous, sui juris, or autonomous church. ;Suffragan bishop:A suffragan bishop is a bishop subordinate to another. In the Roman Catholic Church this term is applied to all non-metropolitan bishops (diocesan and auxiliary bishops). In the Anglican Communion, the term applies to a bishop who is a full-time assistant to a diocesan bishop: the Bishop of Warwick is suffragan to the Bishop of Coventry (the diocesan), though both live in Coventry. Some Anglican suffragans are given the responsibility for a geographical area within the diocese (for example, the Bishop of Stepney is an area bishop within the Diocese of London). Diocese of London, Puerto Rico, is a Metropolitan Bishop. ]] ;Titular bishop:A titular bishop is a bishop without a diocese. Rather, the bishop is head of a titular see, which is usually an ancient city that used to have a bishop, but, for some reason or other, does not have one now. Titular bishops often serve as coadjutors or auxiliary bishops. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, bishops of modern diocese are often given a titular see alongside their modern one (for example, the Archbishop of Thyateira and Great Britain). ;Auxiliary bishop:An auxiliary bishop is a full-time assistant to a diocesan bishop (the Roman Catholic equivalent of an Anglican suffragan bishop). Auxiliaries are almost always titular bishops, and are often appointed as the vicar general of the diocese in which they serve. ;Coadjutor bishop:A coadjutor bishop is a bishop who is given automatic right to succeed the incumbent diocesan bishop. The appointment of coadjutors is often seen as a means of providing for continuity of church leadership. ;Honorary assistant bishop:This title is usually applied to retired bishops who are given a general license to minister as episcopal pastors under a diocesan's oversight. ;Primate:A primate is the bishop of the oldest church of a nation. Sometimes this carries jurisdiction over metropolitan bishops, but usually it is another honorific. An exarch is like a primate in the Eastern churches. The title Presiding or President Bishop is often used for the head of a national Anglican church, but this title is not usually associated with a particular episcopal see like a primate. The primate of the Scottish Episcopal Church is chosen from among the diocesan bishops, and, while retaining diocesan responsibility, is called Primus. ;Cardinal:A cardinal, although not until recently necessarily a bishop (e.g., Jesuit theologian Henri de Lubac), is usually a primate, patriarch or titular bishop within the Roman Catholic Church. Their primary duty is to elect the pope. ;Major archbishop:Major archbishops are the heads of some of the Eastern Rite churches in the Roman Catholic Church. Their authority within their sui juris church is equal to that of a patriarch, but they receive fewer ceremonial honors. ;Catholicos:Catholicoi are the heads of some of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, roughly similar to a Catholic major archbishop. ;Patriarch:Patriarchs are the heads of certain ancient autocephalous or sui juris churches. Some of these churches call their leaders Catholicos; the patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Egypt, is called Pope. While most patriarchs in the Roman Catholic Church have jurisdiction, all Latin Rite patriarchs, except for the Pope, are honorary. Pope]]Bishops in all of these communions are ordained by other bishops. Depending on the church, there need to be two or three bishops for validity or legality. Apart from the ordination, which is always done by other bishops, there are different methods in different churches as to the actual choosing of a candidate for ordination as bishop. In the Roman Catholic Church today, the Congregation for Bishops oversees the selection of new bishops with the approval of the Pope. Most Eastern Orthodox churches allow varying amounts of more or less formalized laity and/or lower clergy influence on the choice of bishops. More information on this topic is needed. Only a bishop can ordain a bishop, priest, or deacon. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and in the Eastern Rite liturgical tradition, a priest may celebrate the Divine Liturgy only with the blessing of a bishop. An antimension signed by the bishop is kept on the altar partly as a reminder of whose altar it is and under whose omophorion the priest at a local parish is serving. The Pope of Rome, in addition to being the Bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic Church, is the Patriarch of the Latin Catholic Church. Each bishop within the Latin Catholic Church is only answerable directly to the Pope and not any other bishop except to metropolitans in certain oversight instances. In the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches and the Anglican Communion, the cathedral of a diocese will have a special chair set aside for the exclusive use of the bishop. This is the bishop's cathedra, which is often called the bishop's throne. In some other Christian denominations, other churches besides the cathedral will maintain a chair for the use of a Bishop when he visits their parish. Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox Christian bishops claim to be part of a continuous sequence of ordained bishops since the days of the apostles, the apostolic succession. However, since a bull of Pope Leo XIII issued in 1896, the Roman Catholic church has insisted that Anglican orders are invalid, because of that church's changes in the ordination rites. The Roman Catholic church does however recognize as valid (though illegal) ordinations done by breakaway Roman Catholic bishops, and groups descended from them, so long as the people receiving the ordination conform to other canonical requirements; this gives rise to the phenomenon of episcopi vagantes. Roman Catholics also recognize the validity of ordinations of bishops, priests, and deacons in the Orthodox churches. Some provinces of the Anglican Communion have begun ordaining women as bishops in recent decades. The first was Barbara Clementine Harris, who was ordained to the epsicopate in 1989.

Bishops in other churches

Some other churches, such as Lutherans, Methodists and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ("LDS Church"; see also Mormon), also have bishops, but their roles differ significantly from the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican ones.

Evangelical Lutheran Church in America

In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States, and based largely on the Church of Sweden and United Danish Church, bishops are elected by synod councils, consisting of both lay members and clergy, for a term of 6 years, which can be renewed, depending upon the local synod's "constitution" (which usually mirrors that of the national ELCA constitution). Currently, they are responsible for, since going into ecumenical communion with the Episcopal Church of the United States, with the ordaining of all pastors, consecrating all diaconal ministers, giving approvals to "roster" all current pastors (pastors are called by local congregations, like that of the Episcopal Church), and upholding the teachings of Luther, the ELCA and synod constitutions. The Presiding Bishop of the ELCA, the national bishop, is elected for a single 6-year term, and handles all episcopal consecrations, as well as presiding at the General Assembly, which is held every 2 years. A similar structure exists with the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada (ELCC).

United Methodist Bishops

Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada In the United Methodist Church, bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected for life from among the clergy by vote of the delegates in regional (called Jurisdictional) conferences and, among their duties, are responsible for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church. The Juridictional Conferences, meeting every four years, are comprised of an equal number of clergy and lay delegates. In each Annual Conference, United Methodist bishops serve for four year terms, and may serve up to three terms before either retirement or appointment to a new Conference. United Methodist bishops may be male or female. John Wesley made Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury superintendents for the United States of America in 1784, where Methodism first became a separate denomination apart from the Church of England. Coke soon returned to England, but Asbury was the primary builder of the new church. He did not call himself bishop, but eventually submitted to the usage by the people. Notable bishops in United Methodist history include Coke, Asbury, Richard Whatcoat, Philip William Otterbein, Martin Boehm, Jacob Albright, John Seybert, Matthew Simpson, John Stamm, Marjorie Matthews, Ntambo Nkulu Ntanda, William Willimon, and Thomas Bickerton. Methodists in Great Britain acquired their own bishops early in the nineteenth century, after the Methodist movement in Britain formally parted company with the Church of England. The position no longer exists, however, in British Methodism.

Christian Methodist Episcopal Church

nineteenth century In the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected by "delegate" votes for as many years deemed until the age of 74, then he/she must retire. Among their duties, are responsibility for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church. The General Conference, a meeting every four years, are comprised of an equal number of clergy and lay delegates. In each Annual Conference, CME bishops serve for four year terms. CME Church bishops may be male or female.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Bishop is the leader of a local congregation, called a ward. As such, it is his duty to preside at sacrament meetings, assign local leaders, and participate in one-on-one interviews with his ward members for things such as temple recommends and confession. Bishop is an office of the Aaronic Priesthood; in addition to his ward responsibilities, it is a bishop's duty to preside over the priest's quorum. Responsible for the physical welfare of the ward, he collects tithing and fast offerings and distributes financial assistance where needed. A bishop is chosen from members of the local congregation by the stake presidency. After being called, he chooses his two counselors, and the three men together form a bishopric. Like almost all positions in the Church, bishops are not paid or reimbursed financially for their services and therefore have normal full-time jobs to provide for their families. A ward typically releases its bishop and calls a new one every five years or so; after being released, a bishop is usually still referred to by the title "Bishop" by the people he served.

New Apostolic Church

The New Apostolic Church (NAC) knows 3 classes of ministries: Diacons, Priests and Apostles. The Apostles, all conclused in the apostolate with the Chief Apostle as head, are the highest ministries. Of the several kinds of priest-ministries, the bishop is the highest one. Nearly all bishops are set in directly from the chief apostle. They support and help their superior apostle.

Others

In some smaller Protestant denominations and independent churches the term bishop is used in the same way as pastor, to refer to the leader of the local congregation who may be male or female. This usage is especially common in African American churches in the USA. In the Church of Scotland, which has a Presbyterian church structure, the word "bishop" refers to an ordained person, usually a normal parish minister, who has temporary oversight of a trainee minister.

References & Resources

Print

- Ignatius of Antioch, Epistles of to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallesians, and Smyrnans, Lightfoot, trans., Harmer, ed. (Kessinger, 1891/2003). ISBN 0766164985
- Mathews, James, Set Apart To Serve: The Role of the Episcopacy in the Wesleyan Tradition (Nashville: Abingdon, 1985).
- Moede, Gerald, The Office of Bishop in Methodism: Its History and Development (Nashville: Abingdon, 1965).

Online

- [http://biblestudytools.net/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=1+Timothy+3%3A1-7§ion=0&version=nrs&new=1&oq=&NavBook=1ti&NavGo=3&NavCurrentChapter=3 1 Timothy 3:1-7] (NRSV)
- [http://biblestudytools.net/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=Titus+1%3A7-9§ion=0&version=nrs&new=1&oq=&NavBook=tit&NavGo=1&NavCurrentChapter=1 Titus 1:7-9] (NRSV)
- [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/apostoli.htm Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession] by Gregory Neal
- [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/methepisc.htm Methodist Episcopacy: In Search of Holy Orders] by Gregory Neal
- Category:Christian group structuring Category:Roman Catholic Church offices Category:Methodism Category:Religious workers Category:Ecclesiastical titles ko:주교 ja:司教

Diocese

Stephen Alencastre as fifth Apostolic Vicar of the Hawaiian Islands in a Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace window. In Catholicism, the pope is the bishop of the diocese of Rome. He creates the other dioceses throughout the world and chooses their bishops.]] In some Christian churches, the diocese is an administrative territorial unit governed by a bishop, sometimes also referred to as a bishopric or episcopal see, though more often the term episcopal see means the office held by the bishop. In the Roman Catholic Church, an important diocese is called an archdiocese (usually due to size, historical significance, or both), which is governed by an Archbishop. As of 2003, there are approximately 569 Roman Catholic archdioceses and 2014 dioceses. Some Protestant churches, such as the Church of England, inherited this diocesan structure after the Protestant Reformation formally divided new Christian sects from the Roman Catholic Church. In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated in a larger unit, the diocese. (Latin dioecesis, from the Greek term διοίκησις meaning "administration"). The Catholic Church adopted the Roman diocesan structure of authority during the 5th and 6th centuries, as each bishop fully assumed the role of the former Roman praefectus. This transfer of authority from secular officials to ecclesiastical leaders was facilitated by the Christian practice of establishing areas of ecclesiastical administration that coincided with those of the Roman civil administration. In modern times, many an ancient diocese, though later divided among several dioceses, has preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division. See also: Bishops and civil government.

In the Roman Empire

The earliest use of 'diocese' as an administrative unit was in the Greek-speaking East. Three districts— Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada— were added to the province of Cilicia in the time of Cicero, who mentions the fact in his familiar letters (EB 1911). The word 'diocese', which at that time was equivalent to a tax-collecting district, came to be applied to the territory itself. The reorganization of the Empire, which began under the rule of Diocletian, divided the Empire's vast lands into twelve dioceses. The largest, Oriens, included sixteen provinces, and the smallest, Britain, was comprised of only four provinces. A list of Roman dioceses as they existed in 395 CE can be found at the entry for Roman provinces. Each diocese of the Empire was governed by a praetor vicarius who in turn served an imperioal praefectus. Between the 4th and 6th centuries, as the older administrative structure began to crumble, the role of the bishops in the western lands of the Empire enabled those lands and their peoples to maintain a semblance of civilisation as the authority of Rome vanished. The senatorial aristocracy, especially in the provinces, continued in many places to serve as sources of local authority to complement the authority assumed by the Church. At that time, ecclesiastical political power was often vested in the spiritual offices of the bishops in each region. It is, therefore, unsurprising that, as the Catholic, and later the Eastern Orthodox, churches began to define their respective administrative structures, they relied on the older Roman terminology and methods to describe administrative units and hierarchy, which caused the division between ecclesiastical and secular authority to often disappear. In the Eastern Empire, this became fundamental doctrine: see Caesaropapism.

Christian hierarchy

Modern Christian usage of 'diocese' tends to refer to the sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction. This became commonplace during the self-conscious "classicizing" structural evolution of the Carolingian empire in the 9th century, but this usage had itself been evolving from the much earlier parochia ("parish"), dating from the increasingly formalised Christian authority structure in the 4th century (see EB 1911). In English-speaking countries, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses the term ward, rather than parish, to refer to the jurisdiction of the bishop and his counselors. However, the ward is not equal in size to a Catholic diocese; rather, a stake is.

External links

- [http://5.1911encyclopedia.org/D/DI/DIOCESE.htm Encyclopedia Britannica 1911]
- [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ Virtually complete list of current and historical Catholic dioceses worldwide]
- [http://www.katolsk.no/utenriks/index_en.htm Another such list, in English and Norwegian]
- [http://anglican.org/domain/admin/bydiocese.html List of current Anglican/Episcopalian dioceses] Category:Christian group structuring

Holy Orders

Holy Orders in the modern Roman Catholic Church and in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, Assyrian, Old Catholic, and Independent Catholic Churches, includes three orders: bishop, priest, and deacon. These Churches regard ordination as a sacrament. Other Protestant denominations have varied conceptions of the church offices, but none of them considers ordination a sacrament, and some would not consider their ministries in terms of holy orders at all. The World Council of Churches undertook a major consultation amongst its members and with the Roman Catholic Church on [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/bem1.html Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry] (BEM) published in 1982. It attempted to express the convergences that had been found over the years and six volumes of responses compiled. As a result some churches have changed their liturgical practices, and some have entered into discussions which in turn led to further agreements and steps towards unity. There is also a major study on the church ([http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/nature1.html ecclesiology]) being on the question 'What it means to be a church, or the Church?' It focuses on ecclesiology and ethics looking at the churches/Church's 'prophetic witness and its service to those in need'. [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/eeintro.html]. Roman Catholic dogma counts Holy Orders among three sacraments that make an indelible mark called a sacramental character on the recipient's soul (the other two are baptism and confirmation). Some non-Catholics, perhaps especially Anglicans, also use the term episcopal character to refer to the status of a bishop. The Eastern Orthodox Church has two minor orders, those of reader and subdeacon. Candidates for ordination receive the clerical tonsure prior to being ordained by the laying on of hands to these minor orders. There is a distinction between the laying on of hands for minor orders (chirothesis) and that for major orders (chirotony). Those in these lesser orders are not considered clergy in the same sense as those in major orders. In former times, the Roman Catholic church also had four minor orders along with the major order of subdeacon, which were conferred on seminarians pro forma before they became deacons. The minor orders and the subdiaconate were not considered sacraments, and for simplicity were suppressed under Pope Paul VI after the Second Vatican Council. Such titles as Cardinal, Monsignor, Archbishop, etc., are not sacramental orders. These are simply offices; to receive one of those titles is not an instance of the sacrament of Holy Orders.

Definitions

The word "holy" simply means "set apart for some purpose." The word ordo (order, in Latin) designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ordinatio meant legal incorporation into an ordo. In context, therefore, a Holy Order is simply a group with a hierarchy that is set apart for ministry in the Church.

Episcopal concept of ordination

The episcopal (from the Greek episkopos, meaning "overseer" and from which we get the word "bishop") form of church government is followed by the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Churches, and the Anglican Churches and centers around the hierarchy of bishops.

Meaning of priesthood

The word "priest" either derives ultimately from the Greek presbuteros meaning "elder" or the Latin praepositus meaning "superintendent." The Catholic church sees the priesthood as both a reflection of the ancient Temple priesthood of the Jews and the person of Jesus. The liturgy of ordination recalls the Old Testament priesthood and the priesthood of Christ. In the words of Thomas Aquinas, "Christ is the source of all priesthood: the priest of the old law was a prefiguration of Christ, and the priest of the new law acts in the person of Christ" Summa Theologiae [http://www.newadvent.org/Summa/402204.htm III, 22, 4c]. See Presbyterorum Ordinis for the Second Vatican Council decree on the nature of the Catholic priesthood.

Process and sequence

The arrangement given above, "bishops, priests, and deacons" is in the reverse order of ordination. For Roman Catholics, it is typically in the last year of seminary training that a man will be ordained to the diaconate, called by Roman Catholics in recent times the "transitional diaconate" to distinguish men bound for priesthood from those who have entered the "permanent diaconate" and do not intend to seek further ordination. Deacons, whether transitional or permanent, are licensed to preach sermons, to perform baptisms, and to witness marriages, but to perform no other sacraments. They may assist at the Eucharist or the Mass, but are not the ministers of the Eucharist. Orthodox seminarians are typically tonsured as readers before entering seminary, and may later be made subdeacons or deacons; customs vary between seminaries and between Orthodox jurisdictions. After six months or more as a transitional deacon a man will be ordained to the priesthood. Priests are able to preach, perform baptisms, witness marriages, hear confessions and give absolutions, anoint the sick, and celebrate the Eucharist or the Mass. For Anglicans, a person is ordained a deacon once they have completed their training at a theological college. They then typically serve as a curate and are ordained as priest a year later. Deacons must be at least 23 years old, and priests 24. Anglican deacons can preach sermons, perform baptisms and conduct funerals, but, unlike priests, cannot conduct marriages or celebrate the Eucharist. In most branches of the Anglican church, women can be ordained as priests, and in some, can be ordained a bishop. Anglican priests have to be at least 30 before they can be chosen to become a bishop. Bishops are chosen from among the priests in churches that adhere to Roman Catholic usage. Among Eastern Rite Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, which permit married priests, bishops must either be unmarried or agree to abstain from contact with their wives. It is a common misconception that all such bishops come from religious orders; while this is generally true, it is not a rule. In the case of both Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, they are usually leaders of territorial units called dioceses. Only bishops can validly administer the sacrament of holy orders. In Latin-rite Catholic churches and Anglican churches, only bishops (and priests with authorisation by the bishop) may lawfully administer the sacrament of confirmation, but if an ordinary priest administers that sacrament illegally, it is nonetheless considered valid, so that the person confirmed cannot be confirmed again, by a bishop or otherwise. In Eastern-rite Catholic churches, confirmation is done by parish priests via the rite of chrismation, and is usually administered to both neonates and adults immediately after their baptism.

Recognition of other churches' orders

Roman Catholics recognize the validity of holy orders administered in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Old Catholic, and the Assyrian Church of the East Churches because they believe those churches have maintained the apostolic succession of bishops, i.e., their bishops claim to be in a line of succession dating back to the Apostles, just as Catholic bishops do. Consequently, if a priest of one of those eastern churches converts to Catholicism, he is automatically a Catholic priest. Eastern Orthodox bishops can, and frequently do, grant recognition to the holy orders of converts who were earlier ordained in the Roman Catholic church (though there is much debate in the Orthodox Church about this); that is part of the policy called church economy. Anglican churches, unlike most Protestant churches, maintain the succession, their bishops being successors of English bishops who converted to Protestantism in the 16th century. A controversy in the Catholic church over the question of whether Anglican holy orders are valid was settled by Pope Leo XIII in 1896, who wrote - in Apostolicae Curae - that Anglican orders lack validity because the rite by which priests were ordained was not correctly performed, thus causing a break of continuity. Eastern Orthodox bishops have, on occasion, granted "economy" when Anglican priests convert to Orthodoxy. Changes in the Anglican Ordinal since King Edward VI, and a fuller appreciation of the pre-Reformation ordinals suggest that the correctness of the dismissal of Anglican Orders may be questioned; however it remains Catholic teaching. More importantly, since 1896 many Anglican bishops have been consecrated by bishops of the Old Catholic Church whose holy orders were recognised by the Holy See, thus restoring the historic episcopate, if indeed it were in need of restoration. Roman Catholics do not recognize the ordination of ministers in Protestant churches that do not maintain the apostolic succession. Anglicans accept the ordination of most mainline denominations, however, only those denominations in full communion with the Anglican Communion such as some Lutheran denominations, may preside at services requiring a cleric.

Marriage and holy orders

The rules discussed in this section are not considered to be among the infallible dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church, but are mutable rules of discipline. See clerical celibacy for a more detailed discussion. Married men may be ordained to the diaconate as Permanent Deacons, but in the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church may not be ordained to the priesthood. In the Eastern Rites of the Roman Catholic Church and in the Eastern Orthodox Church married deacons may be ordained priests, but may not become bishops. Bishops in the Eastern Rites and the Eastern Orthodox churches are drawn only from among monks, who have taken a vow of celibacy. They may be widowers, though; it is not required of them to never have been married. There are cases of permanent deacons who, left widowed by the death of a wife, have been ordained to the priesthood. There have been some situations in which men previously married and ordained to the priesthood in an Anglican church have been ordained to the Catholic priesthood and allowed to function much as an Eastern Rite priest but in a Latin Rite setting; however, this may only happen with the approval of the priest's Bishop and the Pope. Anglican clergy may be married and may marry after ordination.

Chastity and celibacy

There is a difference between chastity and celibacy. Celibacy is the state of not being married, so a vow of celibacy is a promise not to enter into marriage but instead to consecrate one's life to service (in other words, "married to God"). Chastity, a virtue expected of all Christians, is the state of sexual purity; for a vowed celibate, or for the single person, chastity means the avoidance of sex. For the married person, chastity means the practice of sex only with the spouse, and can carry the expectation of intercourse with the spouse that is open to reproduction.

Other concepts of ordination

Ordination ritual and procedures vary by denomination. Different churches and denominations specify more or less rigorous requirements for entering into office, and while the process of ordination is likewise given more or less ceremonial pomp depending on the group. Many Protestants still communicate authority and ordain to office by having the existing overseers physically lay hands on the candidates for office and pray over them.

Methodist churches

The Methodist model is loosely based upon the Anglican model and was first devised under the leadership of Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury in the late 18th century. In this scheme, an elder is ordained to word (preaching and teaching), sacrament (administering baptism and the Lord's Supper), and order (ordaining others), and a deacon is someone who is ordained to word and service. In the United Methodist Church, for instance, seminary graduates are interviewed and approved by the Conference Board of Ordained Ministry and then the Clergy Session, at which time they are accepted as "probationary members of the conference" and then commissioned by the resident Bishop to full time ministry. (At one time, the graduate was ordained as a deacon at this point, a provisional role which has since been done away with; the Diaconal order is now a separate and distinct lay office in the United Methodist Church.) After serving the probationary period consisting of a minimum of three years, the probationer is then interviewed again and either continued on probation, discontinued altogether, or approved. Upon final approval by the Clergy Session of the Conference, the probationer becomes a full member of the Conference and is then ordained as an elder or deacon by the resident Bishop.

Presbyterian churches

Presbyterian churches, following their Scottish forebears, reject the traditions surrounding overseers and instead identify the offices of bishop (episkopos in Greek) and elder (presbuteros in Greek, from which the term "presbyterian" comes) because the two terms seem to be used interchangeably in the Bible (compare [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Titus+1.5-9 Titus 1.5-9] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Tim+3.2-7 I Tim. 3.2-7]). While there is an increasing authority with each level of gathering of elders ('Kirk Session' over a congregation, then presbytery, then possibly a synod, then the General Assembly), there is no hierarchy of elders, and each elder has an equal vote at the court on which they sit. Elders are usually chosen at their local level, either elected by the congregation and approved by the Kirk Session, or appointed directly by the Kirk Session. Some churches place limits on the term that the elders serve, while others ordain elders for life. Presbyterians also ordain (by laying on of hands) ministers of Word and Sacrament (sometimes known as 'teaching elders'). These ministers are regared simply as Presbyters ordained to a different function, but in practice provide the leadership for local Kirk Session. Some presbyterians identify those appointed (by the laying on of hands) to serve in practical ways ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=acts+6.1-7 Acts 6.1-7]) as deacons (diakonos in Greek, meaning "servant"). In many congregations, a group of men or women is thus set aside to deal with matters such as congregational fabric and finance, releasing elders for more 'spiritual' work. These persons may be known as 'deacons', 'board members' or 'managers', depending on the local tradition. Unlike elders and minister, they are not usually 'ordained', and are often elected by the congregation for a set period of time. Other presbyterians have used an 'order of deacons' as full-time servants of the wider Church - but who, unlke ministers, do not administer sacraments or routinely preach. The Church of Scotland has recently begun ordaining deacons to this role. Unlike the episcopalian schemes, but similar to the United Methodist scheme described above, the two presbyterian offices are different in kind rather than in degree since one need not be a deacon before becoming an elder. Since there is no hierarchy, the two offices do not make up an "order" in the technical sense, but the terminology of Holy Orders is sometimes still used.

Congregationalist churches

Congregationalist churches implement different schemes, but the officers usually have less authority than in the presbyterian or episcopalian forms. Some ordain only ministers and rotate members on an advisory board (sometimes called a board of elders or a board of deacons). Because the positions are by comparison less powerful, there is usually less rigor or fanfare in how officers are ordained.

Non-traditional organizations

The non-authoritarian religious denominations, such as Spiritual Humanism and the Universal Life Church, prefer to empower their clergy by minimizing the impediments to those that feel the calling to make a spiritual connection to the cosmos. Reducing the barriers to performing religious ceremonies these denominations encourage those who within the general population to realize spiritual experience. By enabling friends or relatives to perform ceremonies like marriages, organizations that offer online ordination demystify and integrate religious understanding into lives of the otherwise nonreligious public.

Ordination of women

:Main article: Ordination of women Many, but not all, denominations in Christendom allow the ordination of women. Notable denominations who ordain women in the USA include Episcopalians, Presbyterians (PCUSA), Lutherans (ELCA), the United Church of Christ, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and the United Methodist Church although there are others. Many of the same denominations ordain women throughout the world. For example, the majority of the Anglican Communion, in theory allows for the ordination of women. In the listed denominations, ordination to priest/minister, bishop, elder, or deacon is allowed. In other denominations, women can be ordained to be an elder or deacon. Some denominations allow for the ordination of women for certain religious orders. Many denominations have divided or united around the issue of ordination of women. Also, several of the denominations that openly ordain women have broadened their ordinations to include homosexuals.

Ordination of homosexuals

Judaism

The ordination of homosexuals as Rabbis is an issue being dealt with in nearly all sects of Judaism. Often this issue is dealt with by Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, although not exclusively. The most noted openly homosexual rabbi is Rabbi Steven Greenberg. [http://www.tremblingbeforeg-d.com/ Trembling Before G-D] is a documentary dealing with homosexuality and Orthodox Judaism.

Christianity

The Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches is the only American denomination with an official stance allowing homosexuals to be ordained. The United Church of Christ, because of its decentralized model, allows ordination out of default since there are no official denomination-wide stances on doctrine. Other denominations such as The Episcopal Church have openly ordained homosexuals despite official policies to the contrary. Some denominations allow for these ordained to be in union with their partners. Other denominations require a vow of celibacy. Most of the mainline protestant denominations are openly discussing the issue such as the Presbyterian Church USA, the Evangelical Lutheran Church (ELCA) and the Uniting Church in Australia. Recently the ordination of Gene Robinson to the order of bishop in the Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire, and the near ordination of Jeffrey John (was to be ordained Bishop of Reading) in the Church of England have caused a stir in the Anglican Communion, as not all provinces approve of such actions. The ordination of homosexuals is not a new thing, but the open ordination has come to light. Often those who were homosexual did not admit their sexuality, and were ordained. Upon the ordination of Gene Robinson, Episcopal Bishop J. Neil Alexander of the Diocese of Atlanta said he voted for the ordination because Gene was open about his sexuality and honest, whereas in the past known gay clergy were ordained to the episcopate only because they lied about it. In many churches this is a very volatile issue, as is the ordination of women in many churches. It is not likely that a resolution will be swift. Within mainline churches the Confessing Movement has been a vehicle for the opposition to the ordination of homosexuals.

Humanist

Humanist and other rationalist religious organizations recognize and affirm the right of celebrants who are consenting adults to enter into relationships with other consenting adults regardless of their sexual orientation or gender.

Print resources

- Campbell, Dennis. Yoke of Obedience, 1988. ISBN 0687466601
- Oden, Thomas. Pastoral Theology: Essentials of Ministry, 1983. ISBN 0060663537
- Willimon, William. Calling & Character: Virtues of the Ordained Life, 2000. ISBN 0687090334
- Willimon, William. Pastor: The Theology and Practice of Ordained Ministry, 2002. ISBN 0687045320

External links

- [http://www.fisheaters.com/holyorders.html The Sacrament of Holy Orders] the Sacrament as seen before Vatican II and by traditional Catholics today
- [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/HolyOrders.asp Priesthood - Catholic Sacrament of Holy Orders - Ordination]
- [http://www.spiritualhumanism.org Church of Spiritual Humanism]
- [http://www.firstpresby.org/womenelders.htm Women Elders]
- [http://www.gbhem.org/ResourceLibrary/stepord.pdf The Steps to Orders in The United Methodist Church] (PDF) Category:Roman Catholic Church offices Category:Seven sacraments Category:Christian leaders Category:Christianity Category:Sacraments Category:Christian theology

Sacrament

A sacrament is a Christian rite that mediates divine grace. Among many Protestants, the word mediates would mean only that it is a visible symbol, reminder or manifestation of invisible divine grace. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, the Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian Christians, members of the Anglican, United Methodist, and Old Catholic traditions, the Independent Catholic Churches and Lutherans hold that sacraments are not mere symbols, but rather, "signs or symbols which effect what they signify", that is, the sacraments in and of themselves, rightly administered, are used by God as a means to communicate grace to faithful recipients. Christian churches and sects are divided regarding the number and operation of the sacraments, but they are generally held to have been instituted by Jesus. Sacraments are usually administered by the clergy to a recipient or recipients, and are generally understood to involve visible and invisible components. The invisible component (manifested inwardly) is understood to be God's grace working in the sacrament's participants, while the visible (or outward) component entails the use of water, wine, or oil that is blessed or consecrated.

Etymology

The term sacrament is derived from the Latin sacramentum, meaning "a consecrated thing or act," i.e. "something holy"; '"to consecrate", which itself was a Church Latin translation of the Greek mysterion, meaning "mystery". The latter term is often used by Eastern Christians in preference to "sacrament."

Application

The seven sacraments traditionally recognized by Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism are (see also Catholic sacraments):
- Baptism
- The Eucharist (Communion)
- Matrimony
- Holy Orders
- Confirmation or Chrismation
- Penance and Reconciliation
- Anointing of the Sick In addition to these seven, some Christian groups (Anabaptist and Brethren groups, in particular) consider foot washing to be a sacrament (see Gospel of John 13:14). The seven sacraments accepted by Roman Catholicism are generally accepted by Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, as well, but the latter traditions do not limit the number of sacraments to these seven, holding that anything the Church does as Church is in some sense sacramental. The numeration, naming, and understanding of sacraments and the adoption of the remaining sacraments vary according to denomination. Most Protestants consider only the "evangelical," or "dominical," sacraments — baptism and Communion — to be sacraments per se, understanding these to be the only such practices directly instituted by Jesus, as reported in the Gospels. They hold that the other five rites are not made sacraments by the New Testament. So while almost all Protestant churches have marriage ceremonies, and many have ordained clergy and a ceremony conferring ordination, they consider these rites to be ordinances rather than sacraments. As is often the case, views within the churches of the Anglican Communion vary. The '39 Articles' from the 1662 Book of Common Prayer (the root expression of all Anglican theology) declares that Baptism and Communion are the only two sacraments recognised in the English Church. Anglo-Catholics have always counted the sacraments at seven. Many others do now as well, with the other five considered lesser sacraments. The catechism of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America states: "God does not limit himself to these rites; they are patterns of countless ways by which God uses material things to reach out to us." Roman Catholics also have sacramentals, acts of worship that differ from sacraments proper, but which are also means of grace. Items such as the rosary or the various scapulars and holy medals issued by some Roman Catholic groups are counted among these sacramentals. For the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Christian the term “Sacrament” is a Westernism that seeks to classify something that is rather difficult to classify. Preferably the term “Mystery” is used, the reason being that the “How it is possible” is unanswerable to human understanding. God touches us through material means such as water, wine, bread, oil, incense, candles, altars, icons, etc. How God does this is a Mystery. On a broad level, the Mysteries are an affirmation of the goodness of created matter, and are an emphatic declaration of what that matter was originally created to be. On a specific level, while not systematically enumerating Mysteries, the most profound Mystery is, without a doubt, the Eucharist, in which, by participation in the liturgy and receiving the consecrated bread and wine, understood to have become the body and blood of Christ itself, direct communion with God occurs. This perceived vagueness is considered by the Orthodox to be piety and respect for something profound and incomprehensible. Orthodox do not like to try to classify things to any great degree as this is seen to be a fruitless and unnecessary waste of time. This approach is characteristic of Orthodox theology in general, and is often called "apophatic," meaning that any and all positive statements about God and other theological matters must be balanced by negative statements. For example, while it is correct and appropriate to say that God exists, or even that God is the only Being which truly exists, such statements must be understood to also convey the idea that God transcends what is usually meant by the term "to exist." The Community of Christ, formerly known as the "Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints" practices eight official sacraments along with seeing other rites as sacramental in nature. The Salvation Army does not practice formal sacraments for a variety of reasons, including a belief that it is better to concentrate on the reality behind the symbols; however, it does not forbid its members from receiving sacraments in other denominations [http://www.salvationarmy.org.uk/uki/www_uki.nsf/vw-dynamic-arrays/C28E39B2CA06E8F98025708A003D9FAC?openDocument]. Quakers do not practice formal sacraments, believing that all activities should be considered holy.

References

Ecumenical

- Stookey, Laurence Hull. Baptism: Christ's Act in the Church. Nashville, Abingdon Press, 1982. ISBN 0687023645
- Stookey, Laurence Hull. Eucharist: Christ's Feast With the Church. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1993. ISBN 0687120179
- World Council of Churches. Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry. Faith and Order paper. Geneva: World Council of Churches,1982. ISBN 2825407097

Orthodox

- Coniaris, Anthony. These Are the Sacraments: The Life-Giving Mysteries of the Orthodox Church Minneapolis: Light & Life Publishing, 1981. ISBN 0937032220

Roman Catholic

- Martos, Joseph. Doors to the Sacred: A Historical Introduction to Sacraments in the Catholic Church. Revised Ed. Liguori, MO: Liguori Publications, 2001. ISBN 0764807188
- Power, David Noel. Sacrament: The Language of God's Giving. New York: Herder & Herder, 1999. ISBN 0824517989

Anglican

- MacQuarrie, John A Guide to the Sacraments'.' London: Continuum International Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0826410278
Protestant

- Neal, Gregory S. Grace Upon Grace Koinonia Press, 2000. ISBN 0967907403
- Stamm, Mark W. Sacraments & Discipleship: Understanding the Sacraments in a United Methodist Context. Discipleship Resources, 2001. ISBN 0881772852
- White, James F. The Sacraments in Protestant Practice and Faith. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1999. ISBN 0687034027
External links

- [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/bem1.html Baptism, Eucharist, & Ministry] (an ecumenical statement by the World Council of Churches)
- [http://www.fordham.edu/Academics/Programs_at_Fordham_/Theology/Graduate_Studies/CompsSysTheo_Sacrame_8356.html Sacramental Theology reading list]
- [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/sactheol.html The Sacraments as Means of Grace] by Gregory Neal Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services Category:Seven sacraments Category:Methodism Category:Christian theology ja:サクラメント

Metropolitan bishop

In hierarchical Christian churches, the rank of metropolitan bishop, or simply metropolitan, pertains to the bishop of a metropolis; that is, the chief city of an old Roman province, ecclesiastical province, or regional capital. In the Western patriarchate of the Roman Catholic Church, metropolitans have supervisory authority over the other bishops in their ecclesiastical province, called suffragan bishops. They also have authority over the dioceses in their province when there is a vacancy caused by the death or resignation of the suffragan bishop. Their insignia is the pallium, which they can wear in their diocese and the other suffragan dioceses in the province. All Latin rite metropolitan bishops are archbishops; however, some archbishops are not metropolitan bishops. See archbishop for the distinction. In the Eastern Rite Catholic churches, the term metropolitan is used in a similar way to the Eastern Orthodox churches. In the Anglican Communion, the metropolitan is generally the head of an ecclesiastical province (or cluster of dioceses) and ranks immediately under the Primate of the national church. In the Eastern Orthodox churches, the title is used variously. In the Hellenic Churches metropolitans are ranked below archbishops in precedence, and primates of local Churches below Patriarchal rank are generally designated archbishops. The reverse is true for the Slavic Churches, where metropolitans rank above archbishops and the title can be used for Primatial sees as well as important cities. In neither case do metropolitans have any special authority over other ruling bishops within their provinces. However, metropolitans (archbishops in the Greek Orthodox Church) are the chairmen of their respective synods of bishops.

Ecclesiastical province

An ecclesiastical province is a unit of religious government existing in certain Christian churches. It consists of a metropolitan archdiocese and a number of other particular churches, usually dioceses, known as suffragan sees. The archbishop of the metropolitan see is the metropolitan of the province. In the Roman Catholic Church, the authority of the metropolitan over the suffragan sees is very limited (for example, during a vacancy, a Roman Catholic metropolitan can name a temporary administrator if the College of Consultors fail to elect one within a set time and the Pope has not named an apostolic administrator). Thus, the metropolitan is not an ordinary with respect to the ecclesiastical province. In the United States Roman Catholic ecclesiastical provinces typically follow state lines, with less populous states being typically grouped into provinces and more populous states being a province by themselves. California and Texas are the only states with multiple provinces, with each state having two metropolitan archdioceses. In the Anglican Communion, national churches are often by themselves considered a "province", whether or not their head bears the title of Archbishop; the Church of England divides England into two provinces under the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and uses the term suffragan bishop in the sense that the Roman Catholic Church uses "auxiliary bishop". The Anglican Church of Australia, the Anglican Church of Canada, the Church of Ireland, the Church of Nigeria and the Episcopal Church in the United States of America are all also divided into two or more provinces. Category:Christianity Category:Canon law

Titular bishop

became a titular bishop of the ancient Egyptian city of Cusae.]] A titular bishop is the honorary title, that of a bishop of the Roman Catholic Church who is not the head of a functioning diocese (Code of Canon Law, Canon 376). Bishops belonging to this category include coadjutor bishops, auxiliary bishops, bishops emeriti, Cardinal Bishops of suburbicarian dioceses, vicars apostolic, nuncios, and some officials of the Roman Curia. Most titular bishops hold the title to a titular see. Assigning titular sees serves two purposes. Since part of being a bishop means being the head of a church, titular sees serve that purpose for bishops without a diocese. At the same time, the office of titular bishop memorializes ancient churches that fell into the hands of non-Christian conquerers, formerly in partibus infidelium, or that were absorbed into other dioceses. Prior to 1970, all titular bishops, with the exception of suburbicarian Cardinal Bishops, held a titular see. Since 1970, there are two more exceptions. Retired diocesan bishops are no longer transfered to a titular see. Instead, they take the title Bishop Emeritus of the former see. Also, coadjutors are no longer named to titular sees, instead taking the title Coadjutor Bishop of the see they will inherit. Auxiliary bishops and all other titular bishops still take a titular see. Here are two examples to illustrate the difference. When Bishop Francis Green [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bgreenf.html] was named coadjutor of Tucson, Arizona in 1960, his official title remained "Titular Bishop of Serra" until he succeeded the Bishop of Tucson later that same year. However, when Bishop Gerald Kicanas [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bkicanas.html] became Coadjutor Bishop of Tuscon in 2001, he ceased being Titular Bishop of Bela. He still remained a titular bishop until he succeeded the Bishop of Tuscon in 2003, but his official title changed from "Titular Bishop of Bela" to "Coadjutor Bishop of Tuscon." Cardinal Bishops of suburbicarian dioceses are also titular bishops, but they hold titles to existing dioceses. Suburbicarian cardinals hold the title to their suburbicarian see, but while they do not govern their see they are obliged to give it their patronage. Angelo Cardinal Sodano is Titular Bishop of Albano [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bsodano.html], while Bishop Marcello Vallini is its actual diocesan bishop [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bsemeraro.html]. Occasionally, the transfer of a diocesan bishop to a titular see has been used by the Holy See to strip of his responsibilities a bishop whose behavior it disapproved of. For instance, in 1995, Jacques Gaillot, known for his activism on Catholic-sensitive social and political topics (pro-contraception, abortion, etc...), was transferred from the see of Évreux in France to Partenia, a titular see in Algeria.

References

- Category:Episcopacy in Catholicism Category:Honorary titles

Titular see

became a titular bishop of the titular see of the ancient Egyptian city of Cusae.]] A titular see in the Roman Catholic Church is a diocese that now exists in title only. It is led by a ceremonial titular bishop, an honorary title granted on certain priests by the Pope. Bishops who do not have proper authority over an existing diocese are normally given a titular see by the Vatican. The Roman Curia maintains a regular position on titular sees. It states, "It is the custom of the apostolic see to confer on these bishops the title of one of those churches which in days past flourished with the splendor of virtue and the progress of religion, even though as a result of the changes and ravages of time they may now have lost their ancient resplendent glory." While the Vatican hopes that titular sees will one day become active dioceses once again, it realizes in most cases the chances of that happening are low. During the historical expansion of Christianity, the Roman Catholic Church expanded its realm. However, in some areas of the world where the religion once flourished, the presence of the Roman Catholic Church has now diminished or disappeared. Local churches split off from the larger Church while others were converted to Islam. The Roman Catholic Church adopted the practice of assigning bishops to titular sees as a way of remembering those dioceses. Until 1882, such titular sees were distinguished by the Latin phrase in partibus infidelium or more often simply in partibus.

External links

- [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/lt.html List of titular sees] Category:Episcopacy in Catholicism

Ecclesiastical province

Avignon

:For the Municipality in Quebec, see Avignon Regional County Municipality, Quebec. Avignon Regional County Municipality, Quebec Avignon Regional County Municipality, Quebec Avignon Regional County Municipality, Quebec Avignon Regional County Municipality, Quebec Avignon Regional County Municipality, Quebec.]] Avignon (pronounced in IPA, Provençal: Avignoun) is a commune in southern France with some 88,300 inhabitants in the city itself and 155,500 in the Greater Avignon area.

Location

Avignon is situated on the left bank of the Rhône, in the Vaucluse département, about 580 km (360 miles) south-south-east of Paris, and 85 km (55 miles ) north-north-west of Marseille. Its coordinates are .

Administration

Avignon is the préfecture (capital) of the Vaucluse département. It forms the core of the Grand Avignon metropolitan area (communauté d'agglomération), which comprises twelve communes on both sides of the river:
- Les Angles, Rochefort-du-Gard, Saze and Villeneuve-lès-Avignon in the Gard département;
- Avignon, Caumont-sur-Durance, Jonquerettes, Morières-lès-Avignon, Le Pontet, Saint-Saturnin-lès-Avignon, Vedène and Velleron in the Vaucluse département.

History

Early history

The site of Avignon was settled very early on; the rocky outcrop (le Rocher les Doms) at the north end of the town, overlooking the Rhône, may have been the site of a Celtic oppidum or hill fort. During the Roman Empire the city was a major center of Gallia Narbonensis, but very little from this period remains (a few fragments of the forum near Rue Molière). It was badly damaged by the barbarian invasions of the 5th century and was destroyed in 737 by the Franks under Charles Martel, after it had sided with the Arabs against him. Avignon passed successively to the kingdom of the Burgundians and the Kingdom of Arles. At the end of the 12th century, its commune declared itself an independent republic, but independence was crushed in 1226 when Avignon was taken and dismantled by forces of Louis VIII and its fortification demolished as punishment for its support of the Cathars. Avignon was given to the counts of Provence and then the counts of Toulouse. The town had significant religious status from ancient times. It was the seat of a bishop as early as the year 70 AD, and became an archbishopric in 1476. Several synods of minor importance were held there, and its university, founded by Pope Boniface VIII in 1303 and famed as a seat of legal studies, flourished until the French Revolution. In 1309 the city was chosen by Pope Clement V as his residence, and from that time till 1377 was the seat of the Papacy. In 1348 the city was sold by its owner, Joanna, countess of Provence, to Pope Clement VI and, though it was later the seat of more than one antipope Avignon belonged to the Papacy until the French Revolution.

Avignon under the Popes

Avignon became the residence of the Pope in 1309, at which time the town and the surrounding Comtat Venaissin was under the rule of the kings of Sicily (the house of Anjou). In 1348 Pope Clement VI bought it from Queen Joanna I of Sicily for 80,000 gold gulden, and it remained a papal possession until 1791, when, during the disorder of the French Revolution, it was reincorporated with France. Seven popes resided there:
- Pope Clement V
- Pope John XXII
- Pope Benedict XII
- Pope Clement VI
- Pope Innocent VI
- Pope Urban V
- Pope Gregory XI This period from 1309–1377 — the Avignon Papacy — was also called the Babylonian Captivity, in reference to the Israelites' enslavement in biblical times. The analogy fitted Avignon in another sense—the venality of the papal court caused the city to become infamously corrupt, much as Babylon had been accused of being. The poet Petrarch condemned the city's corruption, contributing to the papacy's return to Rome out of sheer embarrassment as much as anything else. The return to Rome prompted the Great Schism, during which the antipopes Clement VII and Benedict XIII continued to reside at Avignon. The former lived there during his entire pontificate (1378–1394), the latter until 1403, when he fled to Aragon. The walls built by the