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Apartment

Apartment

An apartment (or flat in Britain and other Commonwealth countries) is a self-contained housing unit that occupies only part of a building. Apartments may be owned (by an owner-occupier) or rented (by tenants). Some apartment-dwellers own their apartments, either as co-ops, in which the residents own shares of a corporation that owns the building or development; or in condominiums, whose residents own their apartments and share ownership of the public spaces. Most apartments are in buildings designed for the purpose, but large older houses are sometimes divided into apartments. The word apartment connotes a residential unit or section in a building. Apartment building owners, lessors, or managers often use the more general word units to refer to apartments. Units can be used to refer to rental business suites as well as residential apartments. When there is no tenant occupying an apartment, the lessor is said to have a vacancy. For apartment lessors, each vacancy represents a loss of income from rent-paying tenants for the time the apartment is vacant (i. e., unoccupied). Lessors' objectives are often to minimize the vacancy rate for their units. The owner of the apartment typically transfers possession to the occupant(s) by giving him/her the key to the apartment entrance door(s) and any other keys need to live there, such as a common key to the building or any other common areas, and an individual unit mailbox key. When the occupant(s) move out, these keys should typically be returned to the owner.

Apartment types and characteristics

Apartments can be classified into several types. Studio or efficiency apartments tend to be the smallest apartments with the cheapest rents in a given area. These kinds of apartment usually consist mainly of a large room which is the living, dining, and bedroom combined. There are usually kitchen facilities as part of this central room, but the bathroom is its own smaller separate room. Moving up from the efficiencies are one-bedroom apartments where one bedroom is a separate room from the rest of the apartment. Then there are two-bedroom, three-bedroom, etc. apartments. Small apartments often have only one entrance/exit. Large apartments often have two entrances/exits, perhaps a door in the front and another in the back. Depending on the building design, the entrance/exit doors may be directly to the outside or to a common area inside, such as a hallway. Depending on location, apartments may be available for rent furnished with furniture or unfurnished into which a tenant usually moves in with his own furniture. Permanent carpeting is often included in an apartment. Laundry facilities are usually kept in a separate area accessible to all the tenants in the building. Depending on when the building was built and the design of the building, utilities such as water, heating, and electric may be common for all the apartments in the building or separate for each apartment and billed separately to each tenant. Outlets for connection to telephones are typically included in apartments. Telephone service is optional and is practically always billed separately from the rent payments. Cable television and similar amenities are extra also. Parking space(s), air conditioner, and extra storage space may or may not be included with an apartment. Rental leases often limit the maximum number of people who can reside in each apartment. On or around the ground floor of the apartment building, a series of mailboxes are typically kept in a location accessible to the public and, thus, to the mailman too. Every unit typically gets its own mailbox with individual keys to it. Some very large apartment buildings with a full-time staff may take mail from the mailman and provide mail-sorting service. Near the mailboxes or some other location accessible by outsiders, there may be a buzzer (equivalent to a doorbell) for each individual unit. In smaller apartment buildings such as two- or three-flats, or even four-flats, garbage is often disposed of in trash containers similar to those used at houses. In larger buildings, garbage is often collected in a common trash bin or dumpster. For cleanliness or minimizing noise, many lessors will place restrictions on tenants regarding keeping pets in an apartment. In some parts of the world, the word apartment is used generally to refer to a new purpose-built self-contained residential unit in a building, whereas the word flat means a converted self-contained unit in an older building. An industrial, warehouse, or commercial space converted to an apartment is commonly called a loft. When part of a house is converted for the ostensible use of a landlord's family member, the unit may be known as an in-law apartment or granny flat, though these (sometimes illegally) created units are often occupied by ordinary renters rather than family members. Staying in privately owned apartments rather than in a hotel is quickly becoming popular with travellers.

Housing

:For other meanings of the word "house", see House (disambiguation). A house in its most general sense is a human-built dwelling with enclosing walls, a floor, and a roof. It provides shelter against precipitation, wind, heat, cold and intruding humans and animals. When occupied as a routine dwelling for humans, a house is called a home (though animals may often live in the house as well, both domestic pets and "unauthorised" animals such as mice living in the walls). People may be away from home most of the day for work and recreation, but typically are home at least for sleeping. A house generally has at least one entrance, usually in the form of a door or a portal,many houses have back doors that open into the back yard and may have any number of windows or none at all.

Types of house

window] :See also list of house types. There are three basic house types:
- houses standing on their own (detached houses)
- houses attached to one other house (semi-detached houses)
- houses attached to two other houses, possibly in a row (terraced (GB) or rowhouse (USA) houses). In Britain terraced or semi-detached houses are the most common type of accommodation, with 27% of all British people living in a terraced house and 32% in semi-detached houses (2002). In the USA in 2000, 61.4% of people lived in detached houses and 5.6% in semi-detached houses, the rest living in rowhouses or apartments, except 7% living in mobile homes. A treehouse is built in one or more trees; though its most common use is a fort or playhouse for children, this design is sometimes used as a house for adults.

Inside the house

adult.]] Houses consist of many specific designated rooms. Basic design consists of a living/eating area, a sleeping area, and (if indoor facilities are available) a washing/lavatory area. Often, in traditional agrarian societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock share part of the house with human beings. In the West, where plumbing is common and the standard of living fairly high, each house will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or kitchen area, and a living room. These rooms should be designed to meet the needs of the people who live in the house. This designing is known as interior design and it is a popular subject in universities. Feng shui, originally a Chinese method of situating houses according to such factors as sunlight and microclimates, has recently been expanded to include designing house interiors with the intention of giving harmonious effects to the people living inside the house.

Shelters

Forms of shelter simpler than a house include dugouts, yaodongs, tents (see also camp), campers, huts, roofs without walls, or a structure with roof and partial walls, such as often at a bus stop (see picture there), and a gazebo.

Construction

Popular modern house construction techniques include light-frame construction in areas with access to supplies of wood, and adobe or sometimes rammed-earth construction in arid regions with scarce wood resources. In some areas brick is used almost exclusively. Increasingly popular alternative construction methods include insulated concrete forms (foam forms filled with concrete), structural insulated panels (foam panels faced with oriented strand board or fiber cement), and light-gauge steel framing. These newer products provide labor savings, more consistent quality, and may accelerate the construction process. They are more consistently used than are the lesser used approaches described below. Lesser used construction methods which have recently gained (or regained) popularity in recent years. Examples of these are Cannabis hurd Cannabrick construction, cordwood construction, straw bale construction, and geodesic domes. These methods are not widely used and frequently are adopted by homeowners who may be actively involved in the construction process.

Animal houses

Humans often build houses for domestic or wild animals, often resembling smaller versions of human domiciles. Familiar animal houses built by humans include bird houses and dog houses, while domiciles for agricultural animals are more often called barns. However, human interest in building houses for animals does not stop at the domestic pet. People build bird houses, bat houses, nesting sites for wild ducks, and more.

Usage in language

As a verb, to house (pronounced "haʊz") is to provide a routine locale for an object, a person or an organization. Historic or artistic artifacts, for example, are said to be housed in museums. A business may be housed in a storefront, or a family may be housed in an apartment or a house. A collection of domiciles, either for persons, for organizations, for animals or for objects, is often called housing. An individual person or a single object might also find housing in an appropriate domicile. In English the word "house" on its own usually refers to a dwelling for one family, or for more than one family living together, sharing the house. In other languages the translation for "house" often covers other types of building such as tower blocks or commercial property: in German, for example, a "Haus" can also refer to a hotel or a block of flats. In English, the word "house" can be used in combination with other words to describe buildings other than residential dwellings, such as an opera house, a "monkey house" (a building for several cages) in a zoo, etc. A "madhouse" is a disparaging term for a mental hospital or insane asylum (also see House (disambiguation) for more.) The White House also has only a secondary use as a dwelling. A house is also called a home, but a house is not a home. Home has a more abstract and poetic meaning.

Heraldry

The house is an exceedingly rare charge in heraldry.

External link

- [http://y2u.co.uk/&002_Images/Downland_Museum%2001.htm Photos of rare houses at Singleton Wealdland and Downland Museum, Nr Chichester]
- [http://www.khov.com New Home Builder in North America]
- [http://www.pygmies.info/camps.html African Pygmies house] Category:Houses ja:家屋 simple:House

Owner

Ownership is the state or fact of exclusive possession or control of some thing, which may be an object or some kind of property. Some consider the term to be closely associated with the idea of private or public wealth. It is also claimed by some (principally among the political left), that the exclusivity of ownership underlies much social injustice, and facilitates tyranny and oppression on an individual and societal scale.

Some concepts

There are many consequences of the idea of ownership, both positive and negative; the 'moderate' view is that a degree of ownership is necessary for the proper operation of society, but that it can also lead to great injustice and doom if taken too far. There are also many people who disagree with this view. A simple example of an argument against strict ownership is the case where person A owns medicine which would cure an illness that person B suffers from, but person A demands an unjustifiably high price for that medicine, which person B cannot afford. Almost any known practice of morality or system of ethics would say that unless there are very exceptional circumstances, person A should give person B the medicine, or at least lower the price. But ownership allows person A to set any price he or she wishes, or even to flatly refuse to give out any drugs, despite the fact that such refusal would lead to many unnecessary deaths. Indeed, person A can have socially accepted physical force used by law enforcement officers in the event person B attempts to obtain the medicine without consent (see theft). Some political philosophers see this inherent ambivalence of the concept of ownership as a microcosm of an unequal world where many people are starving, and where others struggle with the problems of excess. See social justice for more on this class of concern. At a less extreme level, exclusive ownership tends to not reduce the utilisation of capital. For example, in a society favouring exclusive ownership, every house in a neighbourhood may own a lawn mower which they use once a week. In a society which promotes shared use, far fewer lawnmowers could do the same job. On the other hand, exclusive ownership tends not to mean that resources are not destroyed through overuse, and capital objects are not maintained, since the owner has an interest in their long-term future. (See Doom.)

Socialism and Communism

Socialism and Communism hold that individual ownership of the means of production is detrimental to the interest of the majority of individuals (particularly the working class, as well as most of what is usually called the middle class), and therefore they advocate some form of public ownership over the means of production. This may be manifested in a variety of ways, from worker-owned companies to nationalized companies under the control of a democratic state which purportedly represents the common good. Socialist ideas have influenced the economic systems of most industrialized countries, to varying degrees. In the majority of cases, this has taken the form of introducing a few limited socialist elements into an otherwise capitalist economy, for the purpose of promoting social justice, alleviating or even eliminating poverty, guaranteeing access to education and healthcare for all citizens, etc. Nationalizations have been limited to "the commanding heights" of the economy (e.g. heavy industry) and utilities (e.g. gas, electricity, and so on). The policy of combining a capitalist economy with extensive socialist aspects is known as social democracy. There have also been a number of countries, usually falling within the category of so-called "communist states", which have had fully nationalized economies. However, the issue of who actually owned the means of production in those countries remains controversial, because they did not have democratic governments. In the absence of democracy (i.e. when the people have no control over the government), it can be argued that the government forms an elitist oligarchy - and therefore, any means of production owned by such a government are the de facto private property of the oligarchs, not the public property of the people. For these reasons, as well as many others, a large number of communists (and the vast majority of socialists) usually disavow any connection between 20th century "communists states" (often referred to as "stalinist states") and the kind of socio-economic system they are trying to achieve.

Societies Without Ownership

Some societies, notably some Native American ones, appeared to exist without the concept of personal ownership. Members of a society would feel free to take any objects they had need of, and expect them to be taken by others. When these societies were encountered by European settlers they behaved in their usual way, which led to the Europeans regarding the natives as thieves. This can be seen as a complex irony, since the notion of "thief" is a European, property-related term, and of course European settlers were taking the land of the native Americans without discussion or consultation: the question naturally arises here of "Who was the real thief?" Thus, when the native Americans sold Manhattan to European settlers for an insignificant sum, the natives assumed everyone would continue to be allowed to use the land. They couldn't conceive of a European immigrant evicting a native. So the natives thought they were actually getting a good deal.

Ownership and Economics

Ownership is self-propagating: If an object is owned by someone, any additional goods produced by using that object will also be owned by the same person. Thus, the more a person can own or acquire through money, the more he or she will generate other things to be owned by him or her. Ownership is central to and facilitates the development of social systems such as capitalism. However, it remains a matter of dispute whether the effects of ownership - and our present capitalist system in general - are mostly positive or mostly negative. See the articles on capitalism and sustainable development for more on this.

Intellectual ownership

Ownership of ideas or plans or strictly sensory works is always a complicated issue. Use of patents and copyright laws in modern society has introduced ownership for non-material things usually on a temporary basis. This is a mixed blessing, providing reward to innovators, but also greatly restricting the free flow of ideas and information (a fact which, according to some critics, will hurt innovation in the long run). Contributors to open source projects agree to share ownership of their contribution through licensing, therefore allowing possibly thousands of other people to contribute to its improvement. See intellectual rights for a fuller discussion.

Corporate ownership

In business, corporate ownership is critical as it determines who controls the factors of production owned by that corporation and thus who owns the outputs: Companies or organisations usually own factories, or more generally, the capital, and the materials used to produce. They hire employees but they don't own employees - they do however control what is sometimes called human capital or have some exclusive right to individual capital (creativity, talent). Companies which issue stocks are officially owned by stockholders, CEOs are hired by them to run companies. CEOs themselves do not own the companies, even though they may have more control and involvement than the 'real' owners, the stockholders. Executives of small companies are often also stockholders. Whether they make major decisions like mergers, or whether they hold actual stock, line management makes daily decisions, and may not be directly answerable to the "real" owners - sometimes leading to cases of management usurpation of the powers normally attributed to owners. According to John Kenneth Galbraith and quite a few other economists back to Adam Smith, this obviates and reduces many of the benefits of tolerating a system of ownership in any society.

Land ownership

Land ownership presents special problems. Exclusive control of natural capital, right of way or migration routes of food animals, challenges most concepts of resource and rights sharing. It is often the divergence of views on ownership of land that creates what is called "class struggle" or what is called "colonialism", both of which refer to a power structure formed by a land ethic backed by some kind of brute force. In classical economics there is an ambiguous position taken with regard to land ownership. Many theorists seemed to consider it a necessary evil, and argued that it could not be defended if there was not some obligation to keep and improve the land. Marxist economics was founded on, and continues to argue for, land reform as a means of social justice. Also, both Marxist and anarchist theories of ownership agree on the idea that private ownership of land is illegitimate, since the land was not created by any human beings, and most property over land was originally established through the use of brute force. In the 20th century, the idea of ecological stewardship led to legal ways that land ownership could be rightfully restricted because of erosion, pollution, biodiversity and other concerns - which reduced the level of what came to be called nature's services to all in the locality. In addition, property tax increasingly was levied to pay for services offered by the state, which could not be refused (such as fire fighting). Geolibertarians do not believe that land can be owned by individuals.

Collective ownership

Emergency response, biotechnology, nanotechnology and terrorism presents serious challenges to the idea of exclusive control over resources or knowledge that may be required in some short period of time to avert some disaster, especially a synchronous failure which may be caused simply by timing problems. As such threats increase in depth and nature, it seems likely that (at least) ownership of natural capital and instructional capital will be increasingly held by communal, and not by private, bodies. For instance biopiracy of native plant varieties used in sustainable agriculture are increasingly recognized as "belonging to" cultures or even ecosystems from which they originated. Communalizing of intellectual rights and instructions is further evidenced by # the 2003 agreements to let developing nations access drugs to treat HIV, malaria and other conditions, for drastically lower prices than would apply if they were to pay full patent royalties # the patent pool by which China and MIT retain rights in instructions for the benefit of the institutions, not individuals, who produced them.

Information ownership

Infosocialists believe that individuals cannot "own" intellectual property.

Tenant

A leasehold estate is an ownership interest in land in which a lessee or a tenant holds real property by some form of title from a lessor or landlord.

History

The common law of landlord-tenant relations developed in the United Kingdom over hundreds of years, and still retains many archaic terms and principles derived from a time when relationships governing the use of land were centered on the promotion of a feudal agrarian society. See also Lord of the Manor. Various forms of leasehold estates exist, or have existed in the past. Ancient forms no longer used include socage and burgage. There are four modern leasehold estates — the tenancy for years, the periodic tenancy, the tenancy at will, and the tenancy at sufference.

Tenancy for years

A tenancy for years lasts for some fixed period of time. Despite the name, such a tenancy can last for any period of time — even a tenancy for one week would be called a tenancy for years. The duration need not be certain, but may be conditioned upon the happening of some event, (e.g. "until the crops are ready for harvest", "until the war is over"). In either case, the lease expires automatically upon the running of the specified time, or the occurrence of the specified event. If the lease is more than a year, the agreement to create it must generally be executed in writing, to satisfy the Statute of Frauds. If a lease is purported to be a tenancy for years of more than one year, and it is not put in writing, then it automatically becomes a periodic tenancy, with a rental period equal to the period between lease payments, but of no more than a year.

Termination of a tenancy for years

The landlord and tenant can agree to terminate the lease at any time, which is called a surrender of the lease. Like the lease itself, if the term remaining on the lease at the time of the surrender exceeds one year, then the surrender must be executed in writing. A tenancy for years can also be terminated by the tenant's breach of any leasehold covenants, including the failure to pay promised rent, or allowing the land to waste.

Periodic tenancy

A periodic tenancy, also known as a tenancy from year to year, month to month, or week to week, is an estate that exists for some period of time determined by the term of the payment of rent. An oral lease for a tenancy of years that violates the Statute of Frauds (by committing to a lease of more than a year without a writing) actually creates a periodic tenancy, the term being the term paid for in the first payment from tenant to landlord.

Termination of a periodic tenancy

The landlord may terminate the lease at any time by giving the tenant notice as required by statute. Typically, the landlord must give six months' notice to terminate a tenancy from year to year. Tenants of lesser durations must typically receive notice equal to the period of the tenancy - for example, the landlord must give a months' notice to terminate a tenancy from month to month. However, many jurisdictions have varied these required notice periods, and some have reduced them drastically. The notice must also state the effective date of termination, which must be on the last day of the payment period. In other words, if a month-to-month tenancy began on the 15th of the month, the termination can not be on the 20th of the following month, even though this would give the tenant more than the required one month's notice.

Tenancy at will

A tenancy at will describes any leasehold where either the landlord or the tenant may terminate the tenancy at any time on reasonable notice. It usually occurs in the absence of a lease, or where the tenancy is not for consideration. In modern common law tradition, tenancy at will is very rare, partly because it can only be created by an express agreement by the parties that the tenancy is at will, and not for rent. As in most residential tenancies for consideration, even in the absence of a written lease, the tenant may often not be removed except for cause. However, it is common where a family member is allowed to live in the home (even for payment of nominal consideration) without any formal arrangements. A lease that exists at the will of the landlord only will be implied by operation of law to grant a similar right to the tenant. However, a lease that exists at the will of the tenant (e.g. "for as long as the tenant desires to live on this land") does not create a similar right in the landlord; instead, such language may be interpreted as granting the tenant a life estate, or even a fee simple. A tenancy at will is broken, again by operation of law:
- if the tenant commits waste against the property
- if the tenant attempts to make an assignment of his tenancy
- if the landlord successfully transfers his interest in the property
- if the landlord leases the property to another person
- upon the death of either the tenant or the landlord

Tenancy at sufferance

A tenancy at sufferance (sometimes called a holdover tenancy) exists when a tenant remains in possession of property after the expiration of his lease, and until the landlord acts to eject the tenant from the property. Although the tenant is technically a trespasser at this point, and possession of this type is not a true estate in land, authorities recognize the condition in order to hold the tenant liable for rent. The landlord may evict such a tenant at any time, and without notice. The landlord may also impose a new lease on the holdover tenant. For a residential tenancy, this new tenancy is month to month. For a commercial tenancy of more than a year, the new tenancy is year to year; otherwise it is the same period as the period before the original lease expired. In either case, the landlord can raise the rent, so long as the landlord has told the tenant of the higher rent before the expiration of the original lease.

Duties of the landlord and the tenant

Duties of the landlord

The landlord has two common-law duties. The first is to give the tenant possession of the land; the second is to provide the premises in a habitable condition — there is an implied warranty of habitability. If landlord violates either, the tenant can break the lease and move out, or stay and sue the landlord for damages The lease also includes an implied covenant of quiet enjoyment — landlord will not interfere with tenant's quiet enjoyment. This can be breached in three ways. #Total eviction of the tenant through direct physical invasion by landlord. #Partial eviction — when the landlord keeps the tenant off part of the leased property (even locking a single room). Tenant can stay on the remaining property without paying any rent. #Partial eviction by someone other than landlord — where this occurs, rent is apportioned. If landlord claims to lease tenant an area of 1000 square metres but 400 square metres of the area belongs to another person, tenant only has to pay 60% of the rent.

Landlord's tort liability

Under the common law, the landlord had no duties to the tenant to protect the tenant or the tenant's licensees and invitees, except in the following situations: #Failure to disclose latent defects of which the landlord knows or has reason to know. Note that the landlord has no duty to repair, just to disclose. #For a short term lease (3 months or less) of a furnished dwelling, the tenants are treated as invitees, and the landlord is liable for defects even if the landlord neither knows nor should know of them. #Common areas under landlord's control (e.g. hallways in an apartment building), if the landlord failed to use reasonable care in maintaining them. #Injury resulting from landlord's negligent repairs — even if the landlord used all due care. #Public use, if the following three factors exist: ##Landlord knows or should know that the tenant makes public use of the land (e.g. the land is rented for use as a restaurant or a store); ##Landlord knows or should know that there is a defect; and ##Landlord knows or should know that the tenant will not fix the defect.

Duties of the tenant

Under the common law, the tenant has two duties to the landlord. These are to pay rent when it is due, and to avoid waste of the property. A tenant is liable to third party invitees for negligent failure to correct a dangerous condition on the premise — even if the landlord was contractually liable.

Effects of condemnation

If land under lease to a tenant is condemned under the government's power of eminent domain, the tenant may be able to earn either a reduction in rent or a portion of the condemnation award (the price paid by the government) to the owner, depending on the amount of land taken, and the value of the leasehold property. A partial taking of the land by the government does not release the tenant from paying full rent, but the tenant may collect a portion of condemnation award equal to the apportioned rent for property taken. For example, suppose a tenant leases land for 6 months for $1,000 per month, and that two months into the lease, and the government condemns 25% of the land. The tenant will then be entitled to take a portion of the condemnation award equal to 25% of the rent due for the remaining four months of the lease — $1,000, derived from $250 per month for four months. A full taking, however, extinguishes the lease, and excuses all rent from that point. However, the tenant will not be entitled to any portion of the condemnation award, unless the value of the lease was greater than the rent paid, in which case the tenant can recover the difference. Suppose in the above example that the market value of the land being leased was actually $1,200 a month, but the $1,000 per month rate represented a break given to the tenant by the landlord. Because the tenant is losing the ability to continue renting the land at this bargain rate (and probably must move to more expensive land), the tenant will be entitled to the difference between the lease rate and the market value — $200 per month for a total of $800.

External link

- [http://www.tenant.net/ Tenant Net] America's oldest and biggest tenant resource
- [http://www.ontariotenants.ca Ontario Tenants Rights] Canada's most popular tenant resource

Cooperative apartment

A cooperative (also co-operative or co-op) is an association of persons who join together to carry on an economic activity of mutual benefit. The term may be used loosely to signify its members' ideology (as in 'jazz coop') but a mainstream cooperative comprises a legal entity owned and democratically controlled by its members, with no passive shareholders, unless they hold non-voting shares. It thus combines the equal control characteristic of many partnerships with the legal personality conferred on corporations. Membership is open, meaning that anyone who satisfies certain non-discriminatory conditions may join. Unlike a union, in some jurisdictions a cooperative may assign different numbers of votes to different members. However most cooperatives are governed on a strict "one member, one vote" basis, to avoid the concentration of control in an elite. Economic benefits are distributed proportionally according to each member's level of economic interest in the cooperative, for instance by a dividend on sales or purchases. Cooperatives may be generally classified as either consumer or producer cooperatives, depending largely on their membership. Classification is also often based on their function or trade sector. In the United States most cooperatives are corporations or limited liability companies (LLCs) but other legal entities may also be used. Cooperatives may be for-profit or non-profit. In for-profit cooperatives any surplus may be returned to members by way of a rebate or bonus on their activity with the cooperative, or a dividend on their shareholding in the cooperative. In the United Kingdom the traditional corporate form taken by cooperatives is the 'bona fide co-operative' under the Industrial and Provident Societies Acts. Since the 1980s, however, many have incorporated under the Companies Acts, limited either by shares or by guarantee. In a bid for sustainability, many cooperatives adopt the principle of 'common ownership', and have a zero or nominal share capital, along with a clause stipulating altruistic dissolution. This means that the cooperative cannot be wound up and its assets distributed for personal profit (see: asset stripping). The facility to legally 'lock' a cooperative's assets in this way was brought into force in 2004. In the European Union, the European Cooperative Statute will come into force in October 2006, to provide a corporate form for cooperatives with individual or corporate members in at least two of the EU member states. Worldwide, some 800 million people are members of cooperatives, and it is estimated that cooperatives employ some 100 million people. The cooperative movement often has links and associations with Green politics or Socialist politics, with socially responsible investing, and with the social enterprise movement.

Types of cooperatives

Housing cooperative

A housing cooperative is a legal mechanism for ownership of housing where residents either own shares (share capital co-op) or have membership and occupancy rights in a not-for-profit continuing co-operative (non-share capital co-op).

Building cooperative

Members of a building cooperative - in Britain known as a self-build housing co-operative - pool resources to build housing, normally using a high proportion of their own labour. When the building is finished, each member is the sole owner of a homestead, and the co-operative may be dissolved. This collective effort was at the origin of many of Britain's building societies, which however developed into "permanent" mutual savings and loan organisations, a term which persists in some of their names (such as the Leeds Permanent). Nowadays such self-building may be financed using a step-by-step mortgage which is released in stages as the building is completed. The term also refers to workers' co-operatives in the building trade.

Retailers' cooperative

mortgage A retailers' cooperative (often known as a secondary or marketing co-operative in the UK) is an organization which employs economies of scale on behalf of its members to get discounts from manufacturers and to pool marketing. It is common for locally-owned grocery stores, hardware stores and pharmacies. In this case the members of the cooperative are businesses rather than individuals. The well-known Best Western hotel chain is actually a giant cooperative, although it now prefers to call itself a "nonprofit membership association." It gave up on the "cooperative" label after the courts kept insisting on calling it a franchisor despite its nonprofit status.

Utility cooperative

A utility cooperative is a public utility that is owned by its customers. It is a type of consumer cooperative). In the US, many such cooperatives were formed to provide rural electrical and telephone service as part of the New Deal. See Rural Utilities Service.

Worker cooperative

A worker cooperative is a cooperative that is wholly owned and democratically controlled by its "worker-owners". There are no outside, or consumer owners, in a worker's cooperative - only the workers own shares of the business. Membership is not compulsory for employees, and only employees can become members. Probably the best known example of worker co-operation is the Mondragón Cooperative Corporation (MCC) in the Basque Country. Unions are often unnecessary in worker cooperatives because the workers have direct control over the management and ownership of the business - they are negotiating with themselves. Some worker cooperatives still choose to become members of local unions to demonstrate their support for the labor movement and to working conditions that have resulted from years of struggle. Worker cooperatives that join unions often benefit from the trade that comes their way from the community of union members and those who support unions for political reasons. The United States Federation of Worker Cooperatives is the organization in the US representing worker cooperative interests nationally. There are local networks and federations throughout the US in the San Fransisco Bay area, the Twin Cities, Portland Oregon, and Boston. The 'new wave' of worker cooperatives that took off in Britain in the mid-70s created the Industrial Common Ownership Movement (ICOM) as their federation. The sector peaked at around 2,000 enterprises, and in 2001 ICOM merged with the Co-operative Union (which was the federal body for consumer cooperatives) to create Co-operatives UK, thus reunifying the cooperative sector. There are examples of "hybrid" co-ops in which workers and consumers both have membership in a co-op, but the types of membership are differentiated, sometimes into districts of the cooperative, often each district having a set amount of decision making power and profit distribution. Hybrid co-ops are also referred to as multi-stakeholder cooperatives.

Social cooperative

A particularly successful form of multi-stakeholder cooperative is the Italian "social cooperative", of which some 7,000 exist. A "type A" social cooperative brings together providers and beneficiaries of a social service as members. A "type B" social cooperative brings together permanent workers and previously unemployed people who wish to integrate into the labour market. Social co-operatives are legally defined as follows:
- the objective is the general benefit of the community and the social integration of citizens
- type A co-operatives provide health, social or educational services
- those of type B integrate disadvantaged people into the labour market. The categories of disadvantage they target may include physical and mental disability, drug and alcohol addiction, developmental disorders and problems with the law. They do not include other factors of disadvantage such as race, sexual orientation or abuse
- various categories of stakeholder may become members, including paid employees, beneficiaries, volunteers (up to 50% of members), financial investors and public institutions. In type B co-operatives at least 30% of the members must be from the disadvantaged target groups
- the co-operative has legal personality and limited liability
- voting is one person one vote
- no more than 80% of profits may be distributed, interest is limited to the bond rate and dissolution is altruistic (assets may not be distributed) A good estimate of the current size of the social co-operative sector in Italy is given by updating the official ISTAT figures from the end of 2001 by an annual growth rate of 10% (assumed by the Direzione Generale per gli Ente Cooperativi). This gives totals of 7,100 social co-operatives, with 267,000 members, 223,000 paid employees, 31,000 volunteers and 24,000 disadvantaged people undergoing integration. Combined turnover is around 5 billion euro. The co-operatives break into three types: 59% type A (social and health services), 33% type B (work integration) and 8% mixed. The average size is 30 workers. multi-stakeholder cooperatives.]]

Consumers' cooperative

The term cooperative also applies to businesses owned by their customers. Employees can also generally become members. Members vote on major decisions, and elect the board of directors from amongst their own number. A well known example in the US is the REI (Recreational Equipment Incorporated) co-op. One of the world's largest consumer co-operatives is the Co-operative Group in the United Kingdom, which has a variety of retail and financial services. In reality the Co-operative Group is actually something of a hybrid, having both corporate (other cooperative businesses) and individual members. Japan has a very large and well developed consumer co-operative movement with over 14 million members; retail co-ops alone had a combined turnover of 2.519 trillion Yen (21.184 billion U.S. Dollars [market exchange rates as of 11/15/2005]) in 2003/4. (Japanese Consumers' Co-operative Union., 2003). As well as retail co-ops there are medical, housing, insurance co-ops alongside institutional (workplace based) co-ops, co-ops for school teachers and university based co-ops. Around 1 in 5 of all Japanese households belongs to a local retail co-op and 90% of all co-op members are women. (Takamura, 1995). Nearly 6 million households belong to one of the 1,788,000 Han groups (Japanese Consumers' Co-operative Union., 2003). These consist of a group five to ten members in a neighbourhood who place a combined weekly order which is then delivered by truck the following week. A particular stength of Japanese consumer co-ops in recent years has been the growth of community supported agriculture where fresh produce is sent direct to consumers from producers without going through the market.

Agricultural cooperative

Han groups Agricultural cooperatives are widespread in rural areas. In the United States, there are both marketing and supply cooperatives. Agricultural marketing cooperatives, some of which are government-sponsored, promote and may actually distribute specific commodities. There are also agricultural supply cooperatives, which provide inputs into the agricultural process. In Europe, there are strong agricultural / agribusiness cooperatives, and agricultural cooperative banks. Most emerging countries are developing agricultural cooperatives. Where it is legal, medical marijuana is generally produced by cooperatives.

Cooperative banking (Credit unions and Cooperative savings banks)

Credit Unions provide a form of cooperative banking. In North America, the caisse populaire movement started by Alphonse Desjardins in Quebec, Canada pioneered credit unions. Desjardins wanted to bring desperately needed financial protection to working people. In 1900, from his home in Lévis, Quebec, he opened North America's first credit union, marking the beginning of the Mouvement Desjardins. While they have not taken root so deeply as in Ireland, credit unions are also established in the UK. The largest are work-based, but many are now offering services in the wider community. The Association of British Credit Unions Ltd - ABCUL - represents the majority of British Credit Unions. Important European banking cooperatives include the Crédit Agricole in France, Migros and Coop Bank in Switzerland and the Raiffeisen system in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Belgium. Spain, Italy and various European countries also have strong cooperative banks. They play an important part in mortgage credit and professional (i.e. farming) credit. Cooperative banking networks, which were nationalized in Eastern Europe, work now as real cooperative institutions. A remarkable development has taken place in Poland, where the [http://www.skok.pl SKOK] (spóldzielcze kasy oszczednosciowo-kredytowe) network has grown to serve over 1 million members via 13,000 branches, and is larger than the country’s largest conventional bank.

Car sharing

Car sharing is a process by which multiple households share vehicles, which are stored in convenient common locations. It may be thought of as a very short-term, locally-based car hire. It is most prevalent in Switzerland (where the Mobility Car-Sharing cooperative has some 50,000 clients), but is also common in Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands, and is growing in popularity in other European countries. Car sharing operations may be for-profit or non-profit organizations. Zipcar and Flexcar are examples. To reduce confusion with ride-sharing, some Britons prefer the term 'car clubs'.

History of the co-operative movement

Robert Owen (1771–1858) fathered the cooperative movement. A Welshman who made his fortune in the cotton trade, Owen believed in putting his workers in a good environment with access to education for themselves and their children. These ideas were put into effect successfully in the cotton mills of New Lanark, Scotland. It was here that the first co-operative store was opened. Spurred on by the success of this, he had the idea of forming "villages of co-operation" where workers would drag themselves out of poverty by growing their own food, making their own clothes and ultimately becoming self-governing. He tried to form such communities in Orbiston in Scotland and in New Harmony, Indiana in the United States of America, but both communities failed. Although Owen inspired the co-operative movement, others – such as Dr William King (1786–1865) – took his ideas and made them more workable and practical. King believed in starting small, and realized that the working classes would need to set up co-operatives for themselves, so he saw his role as one of instruction. He founded a monthly periodical called The Cooperator, the first edition of which appeared on May 1 1828. This gave a mixture of co-operative philosophy and practical advice about running a shop using cooperative principles. King advised people not to cut themselves off from society, but rather to form a society within a society, and to start with a shop because, "We must go to a shop every day to buy food and necessaries - why then should we not go to our own shop?" He proposed sensible rules, such as having a weekly account audit, having 3 trustees, and not having meetings in pubs (to avoid the temptation of drinking profits). A few poor weavers joined together to form the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society at the end of 1843. The Rochdale Pioneers, as they became known, set out the Rochdale Principles in 1844, which form the basis of the cooperative movement today. Co-operative communities are now widespread, with one of the largest and most successful examples being at Mondragón in the Basque country of Spain (see link below). Co-operatives were also successful in Yugoslavia under Tito where Workers Councils gained a significant role in management. In many European countries, cooperative institutions have a predominant market share in the retail banking and insurance businesses. insurance In the UK, co-operatives formed the Co-operative Party in the early 20th century to represent members of co-ops in Parliament. The Co-operative Party now has a permanent electoral pact with the Labour Party, and some Labour MPs are Co-operative Party members. UK co-operatives retain a significant market share in food retail, insurance, banking, funeral services, and the travel industry in many parts of the country.

References

External links

- [http://www.ica.coop/ International Co-operative Alliance]
- [http://www.ilo.org/coop The Cooperative Branch of the International Labour Organization]
- [http://www.desjardins.com Desjardins movement]
- [http://www.coopfed.com La Coop fédérée]
- [http://www.chfc.ca/eng/chf/home.htm Co-op Housing Federation of Canada]
- [http://www.cooplaw.com/ New York City Coop Apartment Law]
- [http://195.55.138.84/ing/index.asp Mondragon Co-operative in Spain]
- [http://www.cooperatives-uk.coop Co-operatives UK, the central organisation for all UK co-operative enterprises]
- [http://www.uk.coop The online database of UK Co-operatives]
- [http://www.co-op.co.uk/ The Co-operative Group, a UK consumer co-operative]
- [http://www.icos.ie/ ICOS, the Irish Co-operative Organisation Society]
- [http://www.usworkercoop.org/ United States Federation of Worker Cooperatives]
- [http://www.ncba.coop/ National Cooperative Business Association (USA)]
- [http://www.ica-group.org/ The ICA Group, technical advice for cooperative start-ups in the USA.]
- Co-operatives can register to use the .coop internet domain at the [http://www.cooperative.org/ dotCoop] web site.
- [http://www.co-op.or.jp/jccu/English_here/index.htm English website from the Japanese Consumer Co-operative Union.]
- [http://www.coopgalor.com A new approach to cooperative understanding]
- [http://www.nncc.org/Choose.Quality.Care/qual.sitter.coop.html Babysitting cooperatives]
- [http://www.nobawc.org/ Network of Bay Area Worker Cooperatives]
- [http://www.wisc.edu/uwcc/ University of Wisconsin Center for Cooperatives]
- [http://www.coopnetupdate.org/ Coopnet Update paper and event database]

Other meanings

- In biochemistry, a macromolecule that exhibits cooperative behavior has ligand binding characteristics that depend on the amount of ligand bound. See cooperative binding for more details. Category:Cooperatives Category:Business models ja:生活協同組合

Condominium (housing)

:This article refers to a form of housing. For information on the international law describing a territory in which two sovereign powers have equal rights, please see condominium (international law). A condominium is a form of housing tenure. It is the legal term used in the USA and in most provinces of Canada for a type of joint ownership of real property in which portions of the property are commonly owned and other portions are individually owned. In Australia and the Canadian province of British Columbia, the legal term for this is known as strata title. Often, it consists of units in a multi-unit dwelling (i.e., an apartment or a development) where the unit is individually owned and the common areas like hallways and recreational facilities are jointly owned by all the unit owners in the building. It is possible, however, for condominiums to consist of single family dwellings: so-called "detached condominiums" where homeowners do not maintain the exteriors of the dwellings, yards, etc. or "site condominiums" where the owner has more control over the exterior appearance. These structures are preferred by some planned neighborhoods and gated communities. A homeowners association consisting of all the members manage the common areas usually through a board of directors elected by the members. The same concept is also used in other countries with different names, such as "unit title", "commonhold" or tenant-owner's association. Another variation of this concept is the "time share". Condominiums may be found in both civil law and common law legal systems as it is purely a creation of statute. statute]]

United States

An alternative form of ownership popular in the United States in common law jurisdictions is the "cooperative" corporation, also known as "company share" or "co-op", in which the building has an associated legal company and ownership of shares gives the right to a lease for residence of a unit. Another form is leasehold or ground rent in which a single landlord retains ownership of the land on which the building is constructed in which the lease renews in perpetuity or over a very long term such as in a civil law emphyteutic lease. Another form of civil law joint property ownership is undivided co-ownership where the owners own a percentage of the entire property but have exclusive possession of a specific part of the property and joint possession of other parts of the property; distinguished from joint tenancy with right of survivorship or a tenancy in common of common law.

Canada - Ontario

In Ontario, condominiums are governed by the Condominium Act 1998 (revised 2001) - Ontario with each development establishing a corporation to deal with day-to-day functions (maintenance, repairs, etc...). A board is elected by units in the development on yearly basis and general meeting held yearly to deal with board elections, voting on changes to the corporation and other issues.

References

- [http://www.cbs.gov.on.ca/mcbs/english/270e_3ea.htm Condominium Act - Ontario]
- [http://www.cbs.gov.on.ca/mcbs/english/4VETDN.htm Condominium Living-- Tips for buyers and owners] Category:House types Category:Property law category:Real estate ja:マンション

Apartment building

An apartment building, block of flats or tenement is a multi-unit dwelling made up of several (generally four or more) apartments (US) or flats (UK). Where the building is a high-rise construction, it is termed a tower block in the UK and elsewhere. The term apartment building is used regardless of height in the US. A two-unit dwelling is known as a duplex (US) or maisonette (UK); a three-unit dwelling is known as a triplex.

United States and Canada

Apartment buildings are multi-story buildings where three or more residences are contained within one structure. These apartment buildings can be found in almost every city in the United States with the exception of the most rural areas. Apartment buildings in suburban areas are generally occupied with tenants who either hold low or minimum wage jobs, or families just starting out and not yet able to afford a house mortgage. In more urban areas, apartments close to the downtown area have the benefits of proximity to jobs and/or public transportation. However, prices per square foot are often much higher than in suburban areas. The distinction between rental apartments and condominiums is that while rental buildings are owned by a single entity and rented out to many, condominiums are owned individually, while their owners still pay a monthly or yearly fee for building upkeep. Condominums are often leased by their owner as rental apartments. A third alternative, the cooperative apartment building (or "co-op"), acts a corporation with all of the tenants as shareholders of the building. Tenants in cooperative buildings do not own their apartment, but instead own a proportional number of shares of the entire cooperative. As in condominiums, cooperators pay a monthly fee for building upkeep. Co-ops are common in cities such as New York, and have gained some popularity in other larger urban areas in the U.S. In the United States, Tenement is a label usually applied to the less expensive, more basic rental apartment buildings in older sections of large cities. Many of these apartment buildings are "walk-ups" without an elevator, and some have shared bathing facilities, though this is becoming less common. Apartments were popular in Canada, particularly in urban centres like Vancouver, Toronto and Montreal in the 1950s to 1970s. By the 1980s, apartments gave way to condominiums.

History of Tenements

The history of Tenements in the United States is rather complex. In the 1840s when heavy flows of immigrants arrived into the country, mostly German and Irish immigrants, the city of New York devised strageties on how to house the heavy flow of immigrants arriving nearly 200,000 a day. In 1839, the first tenement was built housing thousands of poor immigrants. More tenements followed suit after this. Near the 1860s, tenement squares were popping up quite frequently. Most of the immigrants despised their squalid rooms. One Irish immigrant remembers his experience living in a tenement in the early 1840s:

Nights and Days, we'd sit there sweating through our clothes and listening to the sounds of feet in the hallways, babies crying frantically and the roar of machinery in the area.
In the winter times, we froze to death. Five of us huddled in a bed to keep warm. We had no water. We constantly had to draw dirty water from the sewer and clean ourselves with it. We had no other alternative.

The tenements were breeding grounds for outlaws, juvenile delinquents and organized crime. Muckraker Jacob Riis writes in How the Other Half Lives:

The New York tough may be ready to kill where his London brother would do little more than scowl; yet, as a general thing he is less repulsively brutal in looks. Here again the reason may be the same: the breed is not so old. A few generations more in the slums, and all that will be changed .

Tenements were also known for their price gauging rent. How the Other Half Lives notes one tenement district:

Blind Man's Alley bears its name for a reason. Until little more than a year ago its dark burrows harbored a colony of blind beggars, tenants of a blind landlord, old Daniel Murphy, whom every child in the ward knows, if he never heard of the President of the United States. "Old Dan" made a big fortune--he told me once four hundred thousand dollars-- out of his alley and the surrounding tenements, only to grow blind himself in extreme old age, sharing in the end the chief hardship of the wretched beings whose lot he had stubbornly refused to better that he might increase his wealth. Even when the Board of Health at last compelled him to repair and clean up the worst of the old buildings, under threat of driving out the tenants and locking the doors behind them, the work was accomplished against the old man's angry protests. He appeared in person before the Board to argue his case, and his argument was characteristic. "I have made my will," he said. "My monument stands waiting for me in Calvary. I stand on the very brink of the grave, blind and helpless, and now (here the pathos of the appeal was swept under in a burst of angry indignation) do you want me to build and get skinned, skinned? These people are not fit to live in a nice house. Let them go where they can, and let my house stand." In spite of the genuine anguish of the appeal, it was downright amusing to find that his anger was provoked less by the anticipated waste of luxury on his tenants than by distrust of his own kind, the builder. He knew intuitively what to expect. The result showed that Mr. Murphy had gauged his tenants correctly.

What Has Been Done
Many reformers such as Upton Sinclair and Jacob Riis pushed for reforms in tenement dwellings. As a result in 1901, New York state passed a law called the New York State Tenement House Act to improve the conditions in tenements. More improvements followed. In 1949, President Harry S. Truman passed the Housing Act of 1949 to clean slums and reconstruct housing units for the poor.
Scotland
During the 19th century tenements became the predominant type of new housing in Scotland's industrial cities. (In Northern England, 'back-to-back' terraces were more common). Scottish tenements are usually three to five stories in height, with two, sometimes three, flats on each floor. They are sometimes still referred to as closes or closies (a reference to the passageway through which entry is gained). Stairs and landings are generally designated 'common areas', and residents traditionally took in turns to sweep clean the floors, but it is now more common for this to be contracted out through a 'factor'. Tenement flats are the most common form of accommodation for students who have moved out of University Halls (dorms). Some tenements in Glasgow were originally built with public houses on the ground floor, one for every 200 people. Many of these pubs have since been converted into housing. Many multi-storey tower blocks were built in the UK after the Second World War. These are gradually being demolished and replaced with low-rise buildings or housing estates, often modern interpretations of the tenement. In Scotland those that remain are usually called simply 'multis' or 'high flats'. In contrast to most other parts of the world where the designation "tenement" implies poverty and deprivation, Scotland's remaining tenements are mostly of high quality construction and are now much sought after. In Glasgow, where Scotland's highest concentration of tenement dwellings can be found, the urban renewal projects of the 1950s, 60s and 70s brought an end to the city's slums; slums that consisted of older tenements built in the early 19th century. They were replaced by high-rise blocks that, within a couple of decades, were riddled with crime and poverty. The tenement, it would seem, was more than just an architectural style, but a means to build and galvanise communities. Today's tenement dwellers are typically young professional people keen to live close to the city centres of Scotland. Most young people living in Scotland's cities will buy a tenement as their first step on the property ladder. Category:House types

Key

The word key has several uses:

Instrument or Tool

These keys are objects whose function is to help manipulate some other device.
- Some keys are button-like and permanently attached to the larger device:
- A key comprises a moving part of a musical instrument.
- A telegraph key serves to send Morse code.
- Typewriters and computer keyboards have buttons called keys used for the input of text or commands.
- Other keys are separate from the larger device, and can be removed from it for functional reasons:
- A key as a physical object (tool) used to manipulate a lock.
- A skate key functions as a tool in the adjusting of roller skates.
- A churchkey has a slot at the end of it, for grabbing and winding up a metal band on certain types of metal cans (especially for canned fish) in order to open them.
- Other
- A key plate in printing refers to the printing plate which impressed the artistic detail of an image.

Signifier

These keys are not physical objects, but a sort of information whose function is to help use some other information.
- A key (cryptography) consists of a piece of information, usually kept secret, used to customise ciphers.
- A key (art) features in painting and photography.
- A key (music) forms a property of a piece of music: see also key signature.
- In database design, keys refer to unique values in database rows. See primary key and related articles.
- A key is an input to a hash function.
- A key frame constitutes a frame or cell in animation which serves as a guide for the other frames, or inbetweens. Usually the key framer is a more prominent artist than inbetweeners.
- An identification key can help to identify species.

As a Verb

- Keying (graphics) involves compositing two or more frames in video editing.
- Keying (vandalism) involves using something metallic, such as a latch-key, in order to scratch something (often something of perceived value) such as a car, thereby vandalizing it.

Cartography

- A key (map) consists of the section of a map or other document that explains the symbols used elsewhere on the document.

Geography

- The word key or cay may refer to an island, especially in the Caribbean Sea
- The Florida Keys consist of a chain of islands off the coast of Florida.
- The House of Keys (also known as "The Keys") operates as part of the Tynwald - the parliament of the Isle of Man

Phonetics/Language

- The word "key" has a homophone: quay.

Names

- The word Key can refer to an English surname, as in Francis Scott Key.

Business Names

- Key (company), a Japanese firm, makes visual novels.
- KeyBank, a bank in the United States based in Ohio.

Sports

- In basketball, the key is another name for the free throw lane. See: basketball court.

Bathroom

A bathroom is a room that may have different functions depending on the cultural context it is used in.
- In its literal sense it means 'a room with a bath', but as bathtubs have partly made way for showers, the more general sense of 'a room where one bathes' makes more sense. There can be just a shower or just a bathtub or both, sometimes combined and sometimes separate (in which case the bathtub may have a second shower). Usually, it also contains a handbasin or sink and often also a toilet.
- In the USA, 'bathroom' commonly means 'a room containing a toilet' (in other countries this is usually called 'toilet' or alternatively 'water closet' (or 'WC'), or 'lavatory'). For this interpretation of the word see bathroom (American). If a bathroom facility is attached to a bedroom it is often known as an en-suite or if it's attached to a master bedroom it's known as a master bathroom. A half (1/2) bath contains a toilet and a handbasin (lavatory). A 3/4 bath contains a toilet, a handbasin (lavatory) and a shower. A full bath contains a toilet, a handbasin (lavatory) and a bathtub.

Design considerations

The design of a bathroom must account for the use of both hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the human body. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor and hot humid air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge. Ceiling, wall and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and readily and easily cleaned. The use of ceramic or glass, as well as smooth plastic materials, is common in bathrooms for their ease of cleaning. However, such surfaces are often cold to the touch and so water-resistant bath mats or even bathroom carpets may be used on the floor to make the room more comfortable. Alternatively, the floor may be heated, possibly by startegically placing heater conduits close to the surface. Electrical appliances, such as lights, heaters and heated towel rails generally need to be installed as fixtures, with permanent connections rather than plugs and sockets. This minimises the risk of electric shock. Ground-fault circuit interruptor electrical sockets can reduce the risk of electric shock, and are required for bathroom socket installation by electrical and building codes in the United States and Canada. In some countries, such as the UK, only special sockets suitable for electric shavers are permitted in bathrooms, and are labelled as such. Bathrooms can also be a source of decorative inspiration. One can easily decorate the bathroom by choosing shower curtains or cubicles to match a theme.

External links

- [http://www.goaskalice.columbia.edu/3277.html Go Ask Alice!: Concerned over co-ed bathrooms] Category:Rooms

Bedroom

A bedroom is a room used primarily for sleep, rest or sexual activities. It may or may not contain a bed. In some cultures, dedicated bedrooms form an important part of a home. In others, spaces used primarily for other activities by day become bedrooms at night.

Bedrooms in North America and Europe

home, Bavaria]] Many houses in North America and Europe have at least two bedrooms – usually a master bedroom (dedicated to the heads of the household, such as a husband and wife) and one or more bedrooms for either the children or guests. In buildings with multiple self-contained housing units (e.g., apartment), the number of bedrooms vary widely. While many such units have at least one bedroom – frequently, these units have at least two – some of these units may not have a specific room dedicated for use as a bedroom. Furniture and other items in bedrooms vary greatly, depending on taste and local tradition. For instance, a master bedroom may include a bed of a specific size (double, king or queen-sized); one or more dressers (or perhaps, a wardrobe armoire); a nightstand; one or more closets; and carpeting. Built-in closets are less common in Europe than in North America; thus there is greater use of freestanding wardrobes or armoires in Europe. Bedding used in northern Europe (especially in Scandinavia) is significantly different than that used in North America and other parts of Europe. Some bedrooms also include such items as a make-up desk, television, air conditioning and various accessories (such as lamps, telephone and an alarm clock). Sometimes, a master bedroom is connected to a dedicated bathroom. In addition to a bed (or, if shared by two or more children, a bunk bed), a child's bedroom may include the requisite closets and dressers, plus items such as a toy box, desk and other items.

Images

Category:Rooms

Carpet

:This article is about carpet, the floor covering. Carpet is also the name of a solitaire card game. A carpet is any loom-woven, felted textile or grass floor covering. The term was also used for table and wall coverings, as carpets were not commonly used on the floor in European interiors until the 18th century. The hand-knotted pile carpet probably originated in Mongolia or Turkestan between the 4th and 2nd millennium BC. Carpet-making was introduced to Spain in 10th century by the Moors. The Crusades brought Turkish carpets to all of Europe, where they were primarily hung on walls or used on tables. Only with the opening of trade routes in the 17th century were significant numbers of Persian rugs introduced to Western Europe. Some use the words carpet and rug interchangeably. Historically, however, some have distinguished between carpet and rug based on size (the former being larger) or use (carpets on floors, rugs on beds or on the hearth). For the sake of clarity, some textile scholars also differentiate between carpets and carpeting. In this usage, the latter are wall-to-wall and are often woven or tufted as "roll goods", most often in 12 foot widths but sometimes in up to 15 foot widths. In the real estate and home improvement industries a distinction is made between carpet (or carpeting) and rug. The former indicates a covering that is affixed to a floor and the latter a floor covering that is loose-laid, most often for decorative purposes. Persian rug

Carpet types

Persian rug A flatweave carpet is created by interlocking warp (vertical) and weft (horizontal) threads. Types of oriental flatwoven carpet include kilim, soumak, plain weave, and tapestry weave. Types of European flatwoven carpets include Venetian, Dutch, damask, list, haircloth, and ingrain (aka double cloth, two-ply, triple cloth, or three-ply). A hooked rug is a simple type of rug handmade by pulling strips of cloth such as wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric such as burlap. This type of rug is now generally made as a handicraft. On a knotted pile carpet (formally, a supplementary weft cut-loop pile carpet), the structural weft threads alternate with a supplementary weft that rises from the surface of the weave at a perpendicular angle. This supplementary weft is attached to the warp by one of three knot types (see below) to form the pile or nap of the carpet. In the late 19th century moquette came to mean wall-to-wall carpeting. However, its historical usage refers to supplementary warp cut or uncut loop pile made on a draw loom (aka Velour d'Utrecht, Brussels, Wilton, bouclé, and Frisé). These textiles have a low pile and are thinner than hand knotted pile carpets. This form of carpeting, made as early as the 16th century, is constructed on a mechanized loom like velvet: the supplementary warps loop under the weft and are attached without forming a knot. Because of the loom structure only five colors can be used to create the design. Moquette is woven in relatively narrow panels (usually 27" or 36"). Larger works are composed of several stripes sewn together. Moquette carpets have been used on floors, tables, as furniture upholstery, and wall coverings. Production was improved with the application of the Jacquard mechanism (see Jacquard loom) in 1812 in France and c. 1825 in England. The addition of steam power in the mid-19th century further improved manufacturing capabilities. Jacquard loom Unlike woven carpets, embroidery carpets are not formed on a loom. Their pattern is established by the application of stitches to a cloth (often linen) base. The tent stitch and the cross stitch are two of the most common. Embroidered carpets were traditionally made by royal and aristocratic women in the home, however, there has also been some commercial manufactory since the 16th century. That century saw a rise in production due to the introduction of steel needles (earlier needles were made of bone) and improvement in linen weaving. Mary Stewart Queen of Scots is known to have been an avid embroiderer. 16th century designs usually involve scrolling vines and regional flowers (for example, the Bradford carpet). They often incorporate animal heraldry and the coat of arms of the maker. Production continued through the 19th century. Victorian embroidered carpet compositions include highly illusionistic, 3-dimensional flowers. Patterns for tiled (composed of a series of squares) carpets, called Berlin wool work, were introduced in Germany in 1804. They became extremely popular in England in the 1830s. Several less expensive, machine-made carpet types were invented 19th-century in Great Britain. Tapestry brussels and tapestry velvet production began in 1832. These techniques minimized waste by printing different colors on the same thread eliminating the need to use different spools. In 1839 James Templeton developed a chenille technique. His carpets were called Patent Axminster in reference to the more expensive, hand-knotted Axminster rugs. Steam power was applied to these looms in 1884. Although production continued until the mid-20th century, chenille carpeting declined after the invention of Spool Axminster (1878) and Gripper Axminster (1890). These types were developed from the American Halcyon Skinner's 1860s invention called the "nipper".

Production of knotted pile carpet

Both flat and pile carpets are woven on a loom. Both vertical and horizontal looms have been used in the production of European and Oriental carpets. The warp threads are set up on the frame of the loom before weaving begins. A number of weavers may work together on the same carpet. A row of knots is completed and cut. The knots are secured with (usually 1 to 4) rows of weft. There are three main types of knot: symmetrical (also called: Turkish or Ghiordes), asymmetrical (also called: Persian or Senna), and single warp (also called: Spanish). loom Contemporary centers of oriental carpet production are: Pakistan, India, Turkey, Northern Africa, the Caucasus, Iran, Nepal, Turkmenistan, Tibet, and Pirot. The importance of carpets in the culture of Turkmenistan is such that the national flag features a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs). When buying a modern carpet from Asia, many consumers wish to ensure that it has not been made using child labour. A labelling scheme in throughout Europe and North America has been therefore created called Rugmark. Importers pay for the labels which pays for monitoring in the centres of production and for education of previously exploited children.

Early carpets

Rugmark The hand-knotted pile carpet probably originated in Mongolia or Turkestan between the 4th and 2nd millennium BC. The earliest surviving pile carpet in the world is called the "Pazyryk Carpet". It is usually dated to the 5th century BC. It was excavated by Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko in 1949 from a Siberian burial ground where it had been preserved in ice in the valley of Pazyryk. The origin of this carpet is debated. It has been proposed to be a product of either the Iranian Scythians or the Persian Achaemenids. This carpet is 200 x 183 cm (6'6" x 6'0") and has 360,000 knots/m². The earliest group of surviving knotted pile carpets were produced under Seljuk rule, in the first half of the 13th century, on the Anatolian peninsula. The eighteen extant works are often referred to as the Konya Carpets. The central field of these large carpets is an overall geometric repeat pattern. The borders are ornamented with a large-scale, stylized, angular calligraphy called Kufic, pseudo-Kufic, or Kufesque.

Persian and Anatolian carpets

See Persian rug

Oriental carpets in Europe

Oriental carpets began to appear in Europe after the Crusades in the 11th century. Until the mid-18th century they were mostly used on walls and tables. Except in royal or ecclesiastical settings they were considered too precious to cover the floor. Starting in the 13th century Oriental carpets begin to appear in paintings (notably from Italy, Flanders, England, France, and the Netherlands). Carpets of Indo-Persian design were introduced to Europe via the Dutch, British, and French East India Companies of the 17th and 18th century.

Spanish carpets

Although isolated instances of carpet production pre-date the Muslim invasion of Spain, the Hispano-Moresque examples are the earliest significant body of European-made carpets. Documentary evidence shows production beginning in Spain as early as the 10th century AD. The earliest extant Spanish carpet, the so-called Synagogue carpet, is a unique survival dated to the 14th century. The earliest group of Hispano-Moresque carpets, Admiral carpets (also know as armorial carpets), has an all-over geometric, repeat pattern punctuated by blazons of noble, Christian Spanish families. The variety of this design was analyzed most thoroughly by May Beattie. Many of the 15th-century, Spanish carpets rely heavily on designs originally developed on the Anatolian Peninsula. Carpet production continued after the Reconquest of Spain and eventual expulsion of the Muslim population in the 15th century. 16th-century Renaissance Spanish carpet design is a derivative of silk textile design. Two of the most popular motifs are wreaths and pomegranates.

French carpets

In 1608 Henry IV initiated the French production of "Turkish style" carpets under the direction of Pierre Dupont. This production was soon moved to the Savonnerie factory in Chaillot just west of Paris. The earliest, well-known group produced by the Savonnerie, then under the direction of Simon Lourdet, are the so-called Louis XIII carpets. This is a misnomer, however, as they were produced in the early years of Louis XIV's reign (circa 1743-1761). They are densely ornamented with flowers, sometimes in vases or baskets. The designs are based on Netherlandish and Flemish textiles and paintings. The most famous Savonnerie carpets are those made for the Grande Galerie and Galerie d'Apollon in the Louvre between c. 1665-1685. These 105 masterpieces, made under the artistic direction of Charles Le Brun, were never installed as Louis XIV moved to Versailles in 1678. Their design combines rich acanthus leaves, architectural-style framing, and mythological scenes (inspired by Cesare Ripa's Iconologie) with emblems of Louis XIV's royal power. Pierre-Josse Perrot is the most well-known of the mid-18th-century carpet designers. His many surviving works and drawings display graceful rococo s-scrolls, central rosettes, shells, acanthus leaves, and floral swags. The Savonnerie manufactory was moved to the Gobelins in Paris in 1826. The Beauvais manufactory, better known for their tapestry, made knotted pile carpets from 1780 to 1792. Carpet production in small, privately owned workshops in the town of Aubusson began in 1743. Carpets produced in France employ the symmetrical knot.

English carpets

Knotted pile carpet weaving technology probably came to England in the early 16th century with Flemish Calvinists fleeing religious persecution. Because many of these weavers settled in South-eastern England in Norwich the 14 extant 16th and 17th century carpets are sometimes referred to as "Norwich carpets." These works are either adaptations of Anatolian or Indo-Persian designs or employ Elizabethan-Jacobean scrolling vines and blossoms. All but one are dated or bear a coat of arms. Like the French, English weavers used the symmetrical knot. There are documented and surviving examples of carpets from three 18th-century manufactories: Exeter (1756-1761, owned by Claude Passavant, 3 extant carpets), Moorfields (1752-1806, owned by Thomas Moore, 5 extant carpets), and Axminster (1755-1835, owned by Thomas Whitty, numerous extant carpets). Exeter and Moorfields were both staffed with renegade weavers from the French Savonnerie and, therefore, employ the weaving structure of that factory and Perrot-inspired designs. Neoclassical designer Robert Adam supplied designs for both Moorfields and Axminster carpets based on Roman floor mosaics and coffered ceilings. Some of the most well-known rugs of his design were made for Syon House, Osterley Park House, Harewood House, Saltram House, and Newby Hall. Six of Axminster carpets are known as the "Lansdowne" group. These have a tripartite design with reeded circles and baskets of flowers in the central panel flanked by diamond lozenges in the side panels. Axminster Rococo designs often have a brown ground and include birds copied from popular, contemporary engravings. Carpets will forever be associated with the town of Kidderminster in Worcestshire, United Kingdom. This was the heart of the UK carpet industry throughout the industrial revolution. Even now, a large percentage of the 55,000 population town still seek employment in this industry.

Scandinavian carpets

The traditional Scandinvian carpet is the rya, made from hand-knotted wool. Dating from the 15th century, the first ryas were coarse, long-piled, heavy covers used by fishermen instead of furs. The rugs became lighter and more ornamental. By the 19th century they were often splendid festive tapestries. Now, the rya is a painting in textile, with individual artists identifiable by the colors, patterns and techniques.

Modern carpeting and installation

Carpeting is an attached floor covering made of a heavy, thick fabric, usually woven or felted, often wool, but also cotton, hemp, straw, or a synthetic counterpart. It is typically knotted or glued to a base weave. It is made in breadths to be cut, seamed with a Seaming Iron and seam tape, but formerly it was sewed together, and affixed to a floor over a cushion (pad) using nails, tack strips, or adhesives, thus distinguishing it from a rug or mat which are loose-laid floor coverings. Carpeting which covers an entire room area is loosely referred to as 'wall-to-wall,' but carpet can be installed over any portion thereof with use of appropriate transition moldings where the carpet meets other types of floor coverings. Carpeting is more than just a single item; it is, in fact, a system comprised of the carpet itself, the cushion, and a method of installation. 'Carpet tiles' are squares of carpet, typically 0.5m square, that can be used to cover a floor. They are usually only used in commercial settings and often are not affixed to a floor in order to allow access to the subfloor (in an office environment, for example) or to allow rearrangement in order to spread wear. Modern carpeting is often attached to the floor (or stairways) of a building and, when considered permanently attached, would be part of the real property which includes the building.

Care and use of carpet

Carpets in a house help to reduce noise levels and minimize heat loss through the floor. They are also more comfortable to lie on or to sit on than a hard wooden floor.

Carpet cleaning

Carpets are harder to clean than bare floors, spilled drinks may stain them, and they tend to collect fur from family pets. They should be vacuumed regularly to prevent the accumulation of dust. Carpeting can also be dry-cleaned or steam-cleaned to clean up stains or odors. Contrary to popular belief, shampooing your carpet will actually do more harm than good. While it may remove the stain, it also stands a high chance of removing the stain protection and allowing the next stain to permanently embed itself. You are also not able to remove as much shampoo as you put in, leaving it a magnet for dust and dirt to reaccumulate. It is equivalent to washing your hair in the shower and then rinsing it out half way, leaving it dirty, crusty and wierd for the rest of the day. A good method of getting out tiny particles in carpeting when vaacuming doesn't is to simply use a broom over the affected area. Dust mites can survive very well in carpets, which can be problematic for sufferers of asthma who are allergic to them. Carpets manufacturers have tried to make carpet cleaning easier over the years by adding stain protection during the manufacturing process. Popular types of protection include Stainmaster, Teflon, StainGuard, etc.

References

- Aslanapa, Oktay. One Thousand Years of Turkish Carpets. Translated and edited by William A. Edmonds. Istanbul: Eren 1988. :(The definitive word on Turkish)
- Day, Susan, ed. and trans. Great Carpets of the World. New York: The Vêndome Press, 1996. :(Good for the basic story - but simplifies)
- Dimand, Maurice Sven and Jean Mailey. Oriental Rugs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1973.
- Pope, Arthur Upham. A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times to the Present. Vol. XI, Carpets, Chapter 55. New York: Oxford University Press, 1938-9. :(Seminal, historical work - the basis of all, later Persian studies)
- Sherrill, Sarah B. Carpets and Rugs of Europe and America. New York: Abbeville Press, 1996. :(Incredibly thorough and detailed)
- Stone, Peter F. The Oriental Rug Lexicon. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997. :(Dictionary of terms - excellent for clarification)
- "The Carpet Primer" The Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI). Dalton, GA :(Definitive word on the fundamentals of carpet -- extraordinarily detailed information on how carpet is made, specified, i

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