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Animal

Animal

:For the Muppet Show character, see Animal (Muppet). For the professional wrestler, see Joseph Laurinaitis.

    - Porifera (sponges)
    - Ctenophora (comb jellies)
    - Cnidaria (coral, jellyfish, anenomes)
    - Placozoa (trichoplax)
- Subregnum Bilateria (bilateral symmetry)
    - Acoelomorpha (basal)
    - Orthonectida (flatworms, echinoderms, etc.)
  - Rhombozoa (dicyemids)
  - Myxozoa (slime animals)
  - Superphylum Deuterostomia (blastopore becomes anus)
    - Chordata (vertebrates, etc.)
    - Hemichordata (acorn worms)
    - Echinodermata (starfish, urchins)
    - Chaetognatha (arrow worms)
  - Superphylum Ecdysozoa (shed exoskeleton)
    - Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)
    - Loricifera
    - Priapulida (priapulid worms)
    - Nematoda (roundworms)
    - Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)
    - Onychophora (velvet worms)
    - Tardigrada (water bears)
    - Arthropoda (insects, etc.)
  - Superphylum Platyzoa
    - Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
    - Gastrotricha (gastrotrichs)
    - Rotifera (rotifers)
    - Acanthocephala (acanthocephalans)
    - Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)
    - Micrognathozoa (limnognathia)
    - Cycliophora (pandora)
  - Superphylum Lophotrochozoa (trochophore larvae / lophophores)
    - Sipuncula (peanut worms)
    - Nemertea (ribbon worms)
    - Phoronida (horseshoe worms)
    - Ectoprocta (moss animals)
    - Entoprocta (goblet worms)
    - Brachiopoda (brachipods)
    - Mollusca (mollusks)
    - Annelida (segmented worms) Animals are a major group of organisms, classified as the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. In general they are multicellular, capable of locomotion and responsive to their environment, and feed by consuming other organisms. Their body plan becomes fixed as they develop, usually early on in their development as embryos, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on. Along with sponges, gastropods, emus, dolphins and all other animals, Homo sapiens sapiens meet all the criteria above for membership in the group of organisms known as animals and they do not meet the criteria of the other groups. Some humans often consider themselves separate from animals, not on the grounds of biology, but through the use of "other contexts". Whilst self-delusion may be a unique characteristic of the human species it is not cause for exclusion from the Kingdom Animalia. The name animal comes from the Latin word animal, of which animalia is the plural, and ultimately from anima, meaning vital breath or soul.

Characteristics

Aristotle divided the living world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carolus Linnaeus in the first hierarchical classification. Since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have been restricted somewhat. For instance, microscopic protozoa were originally considered animals because they move, but are now treated separately. Kingdom Animalia has several characteristics that set it apart from other living things. First, animals are eukaryotic. This separates them from the Kingdom Monera. Second, animals are multicellular, which separates them from Kingdom Protista. Third, they are heterotrophic, setting them apart from Kingdom Plantae and several plant-like protists. Finally, Kingdom Animalia consists of organisms without cell walls, which makes it unique compared to Kingdom Plantae, algae, and Kingdom Fungi.

Structure

With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges (Phylum Porifera), animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and a nervous system, which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general. All animals have eukaryotic cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules. During development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.

Reproduction and development

Nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction. Adults are diploid or occasionally polyploid. They have a few specialized reproductive cells, which undergo meiosis to produce smaller motile spermatozoa or larger non-motile ova. These fuse to form zygotes, which develop into new individuals. Many animals are also capable of asexual reproduction. This may take place through parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, or in some cases through fragmentation. A zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a blastula, which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber, and two separate germ layers - an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs. Animals grow by indirectly using the energy of sunlight. Plants use this energy to turn air into simple sugars using a process known as photosynthesis. These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow. When animals eat these plants (or eat other animals which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion. This process is known as glycolysis.

Origin and fossil record

Animals are generally considered to have evolved from flagellate protozoa. Their closest living relatives are the choanoflagellates, collared flagellates that have the same structure as certain sponge cells do. Molecular studies place them in a supergroup called the opisthokonts, which also include the fungi and a few small parasitic protists. The name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells, such as most animal sperm, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella. The first fossils that might represent animals appear towards the end of the Precambrian, around 600 million years ago, and are known as the Vendian biota. These are difficult to relate to later fossils, however. Some may represent precursors of modern phyla, but they may be separate groups, and it is possible they are not really animals at all. Aside from them, most animal phyla with known phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the Cambrian period, about 570 million years ago. It is still disputed whether this event, called the Cambrian explosion, represents a rapid divergence between different groups or a change in conditions that made fossilization possible.

Groups of animals

The sponges (Porifera) diverged from other animals early. As mentioned, they lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges are sessile and typically feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules. The extinct Archaeocyatha, which have fused skeletons, may represent sponges or a separate phylum. Among the eumetazoan phyla, two are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. These are the Cnidaria, which include anemones, corals, and jellyfish, and the Ctenophora or comb jellies. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into organs. There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, these animals are sometimes called diploblastic. The tiny phylum Placozoa is similar, but individuals do not have a permanent digestive chamber. The remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the Bilateria. For the most part, they are bilaterally symmetric, and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs. The body is triploblastic, i.e. all three germ layers are well-developed, and tissues form distinct organs. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom. There are exceptions to each of these characteristics, however - for instance adult echinoderms are radially symmetric, and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures. Genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to four major lineages: # Deuterostomes # Ecdysozoa # Platyzoa # Lophotrochozoa In addition to these, there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged before these major groups. These include the Acoelomorpha, Rhombozoa, and Orthonectida. The Myxozoa, single-celled parasites that were originally considered Protozoa, are now believed to have developed from the Bilateria as well.

Deuterostomes

Deuterostomes differ from the other Bilateria, called protostomes, in several ways. In both cases there is a complete digestive tract. However, in protostomes the initial opening (the archenteron) develops into the mouth, and an anus forms separately. In deuterostomes this is reversed. In most protostomes cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm, called schizocoelous development, but in deuterostomes it forms through evagination of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching. Deuterostomes also have a dorsal, rather than a ventral, nerve chord and their embryos undergo different cleavage. All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages. The main phyla of deuterostomes are the Echinodermata and Chordata. The former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, such as sea stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. The latter are dominated by the vertebrates, animals with backbones. These include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. In addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the Hemichordata or acorn worms. Although they are not especially prominent today, the important fossil graptolites may belong to this group. The Chaetognatha or arrow worms may also be deuterostomes, but this is less certain.

Ecdysozoa

The Ecdysozoa are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth by moulting or ecdysis. The largest animal phylum belongs here, the Arthropoda, including insects, spiders, crabs, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. Two smaller phyla, the Onychophora and Tardigrada, are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits. The ecdysozoans also include the Nematoda or roundworms, the second largest animal phylum. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water. A number are important parasites. Smaller phyla related to them are the Nematomorpha or horsehair worms, which are visible to the unaided eye, and the Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, and Loricifera, which are all microscopic. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom. The remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the Spiralia, since in both embryos develop with spiral cleavage.

Platyzoa

The Platyzoa include the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. These were originally considered some of the most primitive Bilateria, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors. A number of parasites are included in this group, such as the flukes and tapeworms. Flatworms lack a coelom, as do their closest relatives, the microscopic Gastrotricha. The other platyzoan phyla are microscopic and pseudocoelomate. The most prominent are the Rotifera or rotifers, which are common in aqueous environments. They also include the Acanthocephala or spiny-headed worms, the Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, and possibly the Cycliophora. These groups share the presence of complex jaws, from which they are called the Gnathifera.

Lophotrochozoa

The Lophotrochozoa include two of the most successful animal phyla, the Mollusca and Annelida. The former includes animals such as snails, clams, and squids, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of trochophore larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods, because they are both segmented. Now this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla. The Lophotrochozoa also include the Nemertea or ribbon worms, the Sipuncula, and several phyla that have a fan of cilia around the mouth, called a lophophore. These were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates, but it now appears they are paraphyletic, some closer to the Nemertea and some to the Mollusca and Annelida. They include the Brachiopoda or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil record, the Entoprocta, the Phoronida, and possibly the Ectoprocta or moss animals.

History of classification

In Linnaeus' original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the Chordata, whereas the various other forms have been separated out. The above lists represent our current understanding of the group, though there is some variation from source to source.

Usage of the word animal

In everyday usage animal refers to any member of the animal kingdom that is not a human being, and sometimes excludes insects (although including such arthropods as crabs). This confusion stems primarily from the familiarity with zoo animals, farm animals and pets, not from an analytical distinction between insects, humans and the rest of the animal kingdom.

Examples

Some well-known types of animals, listed by their common names:
- alpaca, ant, antelope, badger, bat, bear, bee, beetle, bird, bison, butterfly, cat, chicken, cockroach, coral, cow, deer, dinosaur, dog, dolphin, earthworm, elephant, elk, fish, fly, fox, frog, giraffe, goat, gorilla, hippopotamus, horse, human, iguana, jellyfish, kangaroo, lion, lizard, llama, lynx, monkey, mouse, nightingale, octopus, owl, ox, parrot, penguin, pig, quail, rabbit, rat, rhinoceros, salamander, scorpion, seahorse, shark, sheep, sloth, snake, spider, squid, starfish, tiger, turtle, urial, vole, whale, wolf, yak, zebra

See also


- Altruism in animals
- Amphibian
- Animal intelligence
- Animal locomotion
- Animal rights
- Biblical terms
  - Clean animals
  - Unclean animals
- Biology
- Biota
- Bird
- Fish
- Insect
- Mammal
- Macrofossil
- Prehistoric life
- Reptile
- Zoology
- Zoo

References

External links


- [http://www.animool.com/animals/index.jsp Animals Search Engine]
- [http://www.wikianimals.com wikianimals.com] - Documenting the animal kingdom
- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Animals&contgroup=Eukaryotes Tree of Life]
- [http://www.arkive.org A Multimedia Database of Various UK or Endangered Species]
- [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~wakefield/animals.html Animals and Birds Names] - Large table of words: animal, collective, male, female, young, & home
- [http://www273.pair.com/med/words/animal_adjectives.htm English Animal Adjectives]
- [http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/ballc/animals/animals.html Sounds of the World's Animals] - animal sounds in many languages
- [http://www.findsounds.com/ FindSounds - Search the Web for Sounds] - sound files including animal sound files
- [http://www.australianfauna.com/ Australian Animals]
- [http://www.animalreviews.com AnimalReviews] - animals reviewed and evaluated
- [http://animals.timduru.org/ The animal photo archive] - Photos of animals
- [http://www.wildlife-photo.org Photo gallery of animals pictures from the entire world.]
- [http://www.wildlife-photo.org/birds_list.htm Birds Name Check List in Latin, English, Russian and Hebrew.]
- [http://www.wildanimalsonline.com Wild Animals Online] - an online encyclopedia of wild animals - facts, photos Category:Animals zh-min-nan:Tōng-bu̍t ko:동물 ms:Haiwan ja:動物 simple:Animal th:สัตว์

Muppet Show

The Muppet Show is a television program featuring a cast of Muppets (diverse hand operated puppets, typically with huge eyes and large moving mouths) produced by Jim Henson and his team from 1976 to 1981. The show could be considered a spin-off from Sesame Street as it features one the Sesame's main Muppet characters, Kermit the Frog (performed by Henson) in a side of his character not seen on Sesame Street. Whereas he was a happy, perky and almost grandfather-like character there, here he is trying to keep control of the varied, outrageous, kinetic Muppet characters (and his temper), as well as keep the human guest stars happy and secure. The television show depicted a vaudeville or music hall style song–and–dance variety show, as well as the backstage antics involved in putting the show on. The show was well known for outrageous, highly physical (slapstick), sometimes absurdist comedy, and particularly for using its puppet characters to create uniquely humorous parodies. Many major celebrities were eager to perform with the Muppets on television and in film. Each show featured a human guest star. The diverse roster of guests included Twiggy, Julie Andrews, Steve Martin, characters from Star Wars, Mummenschanz, and Alice Cooper. Though they appear in various earlier forms (see Jim Henson), the Muppets gained widespread popularity on the landmark PBS live–action/puppet series Sesame Street. The Muppet Show became the cornerstone of Jim Henson's enormously popular ongoing productions. Other Henson Muppet creations were featured in the films The Dark Crystal, Labyrinth, and the Sesame Street–based Follow That Bird, as well as in a large variety of films, made–for–TV movies, direct–to–video children's releases, and television specials. Major show writers included Jerry Juhl and Jack Burns. Muppet performers over the course of the show include:
- Jim Henson
- Frank Oz
- Jerry Nelson
- Richard Hunt
- Dave Goelz
- Steve Whitmire
- Louise Gold
- Kathy Mullen
- Eren Ozker
- John Lovelady John Lovelady on The Muppet Show, performing the series' most celebrated number, "Turn The World Around"]]

History

Since 1969, Sesame Street had given Jim Henson's creations invaluable exposure; however, Henson began to perceive that he was being pigeonholed as a children's entertainer. He sought to create a program that could be enjoyed by young and old alike. Two specials were produced and aired that are considered pilots for The Muppet Show. Neither led to the sale of a prime-time network series. However, the prime-time access rule had just been enacted, which took the 7:30 to 8pm ET time slot from the networks and turned it over to their affiliates. CBS suggested it would be interested in Henson's proposal as a syndicated series it could purchase for its owned-and-operated stations, to run one night a week in that time slot. Enter Lew Grade, head of ATV. Grade offered a deal to Henson that would see his show produced at the ATV studios in England. ATV would network the show to other ITV stations in the United Kingdom, and its syndication arm, ITC Entertainment, would sell the show in the United States and around the world. Henson put aside his misgivings about syndication and accepted.

List of Muppet Show characters


- Kermit the Frog, director and host
- Miss Piggy, a glamorous diva pig
- Fozzie Bear, a (questionably talented) stand–up comic bear
- Scooter, the gofer (not a real gopher, a backstage "go–for"), nephew of the theatre's owner
- Gonzo aka The Great Gonzo, Gonzo the Great, stuntman, daredevil, performance artist
- The Swedish Chef, a Swedish Chef
- Rowlf the dog, piano player
- Dr. Julius Strangepork the science officer in Pigs in Space
- Dr. Bunsen Honeydew, scientist and inventor, and his capable guinea pig/assistant, Beaker
- Camilla, a chicken (Gonzo's love)
- Sam the (American) Eagle, American patriot
- Dr. Teeth, band leader and keyboard player for Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem
- Zoot, saxophone player in the Electric Mayhem and the Muppet Show's orchestra
- Janice, guitarist
- Animal, the drummer
- Sgt. Floyd Pepper, bass guitarist
- Lips, trumpet player
- Lew Zealand, boomerang fish thrower, and obsessed with fish generally
- Statler & Waldorf, two old men who come to every show and heckle the performances
- Annie Sue, Miss Piggy's rival
- The Muppet newscaster
- Foo-Foo, Miss Piggy's dog
- Sweetums, 9–foot–tall monster
- Link Hogthrob, star of Pigs in Space, Captain of the USS Swinetrek. Also stars in "Bear Patrol"
- Beauregard, the stagehand
- Crazy Harry, pyrotechnician, enjoys his job far too much
- Robin, Kermit's nephew
- Uncle Deadly, sinister and a little scary
- Flying Zucchini Brothers, acrobats with a disastrous finish
- Pops, the door greeter
- Marvin Suggs, the Muppaphone man
- George, the janitor
- Mildred Huxtetter, George's dancing partner
- Mahna Mahna, the singer of the song by the same name, and the Snowths, the 2 pink creatures that sing Doo-doo-de-do-do! See also [http://www.kermitage.com/html/characterindex/tms/ Kermitage: Character Guide]

Recurring skits


- At the Dance – Laugh-In style one liners from the characters as they ballroom dance
- Muppet Labs – the latest invention from Dr. Bunsen Honeydew with his assistant, Beaker, getting the worst of its inevitable malfunction.
- Muppet News Flash – a news announcer gives a newsbrief only to typically have some disaster befall him (usually the same disaster he was just describing)
- Pigs In Space – parody of science fiction shows like Star Trek, but also old 40's sci–fi serials. The space craft is called USS Swinetrek and the title VO is a parody of main ST competitor "Lost in Space".
- Swedish Chef – Cooking show parody
- Vend–a–face – A vending machine that offers unique services that usually mean agonizing contortions of the muppets dumb enough to feed the machine.
- Veterinarian's Hospital – parody of soap opera General Hospital and other medical dramas which consists of Dr. Bob (Rowlf) cracking jokes in the operating room with Nurses Piggy and Janice; each installment ends with Dr. Bob and his nurses looking around in puzzlement as a disembodied voice tells viewers to tune in next time.
- Wayne and Wanda – Every song this duo attempted ends in disaster
- Bear on Patrol – Fozzie is a unlucky police officer and Link Hogthrob is his stupid superior who always get into the silliest situations with the criminals brought in.

List of guest stars

No guest star ever appeared twice on the Muppet Show.
- List of episodes of The Muppet Show

Home video

Select episodes can be currently be found on VHS and DVD. Buena Vista Home Entertainment, a division of The Walt Disney Company, released the first season on DVD in August 2005. Bits of the show also pop up in movies sometimes (An American Werewolf in London and Rocky III). The rights to the episodes and characters used in The Muppet Show, and subsequent film outings, were bought in February 2004 by The Walt Disney Company. However, several songs have been cut from the Season 1 DVD release due to music licensing issues. There have also been some cuts in the intro sequence, and backstage scenes leading up to these songs. :
- "Stormy Weather" (Joel Grey Episode) Sung by Wayne and Wanda; :
- "Gone With The Wind" (Jim Nabors Episode) Sung by Jim Nabors; :
- "The Danceros" (Jim Nabors Episode) Sung by The Danceros; :
- "All Of Me" (Paul Williams Episode) Sung by Two Monsters; :
- "Old Fashioned Way" (Charles Aznavour episode) Sung by Charles Aznavour with Mildred; Charles Aznavour :
- "You’ve Got A Friend" (Vincent Price Episode) Sung by Vincent Price, Uncle Deadly and a chorus of Muppet Monsters;

Spin-offs

The Muppet Show characters went on to star in The Muppet Movie, which was the first film to feature puppets interacting with humans in real–world locations, and later films such as The Great Muppet Caper and The Muppets Take Manhattan. The Jim Henson Hour featured many of the same characters, plus new and boldly different content. The format was later revived as Muppets Tonight in 1996. The first 10 episodes aired on ABC while the rest aired on The Disney Channel. There is talk of a new revival of the format, with FOX being the initial serious contender. Disney is using the America's Next Muppet mini-series to test the viability of a full-fledged series.

See also


- The Muppets
- Muppet Babies
- Le Bébête Show
- List of television programs
- "Mahna Mahna"
- Adult puppeteering
- Sam Pottle Muppet Show, The Muppet Show, The Muppet Show, The Muppet Show, The Muppet Show, The Muppet Show, The Muppet Show, The Muppet Show, The Category:Disney Channel shows Category:Disney television series

Professional wrestling

:For the Nintendo Entertainment System video game by Nintendo, see Pro Wrestling (video game). Pro Wrestling (video game).]] Professional wrestling is a form of performance art where the participants engage in simulated sporting matches. Originating in the days of travelling carnival shows, professional wrestling's humbler beginnings include strongman feats, hook wrestling, and other acrobatic performances. It should be noted that in the earlier parts of the 20th Century, "professional wrestling" was at times, just that, a professional contest of amateur style wrestlers competeing for a purse with similar league structure to professional boxing. However, these contests disappeared from the sports world with the advent of television, due to their extreme length and lack of drama. It was found over the years to be much more profitable when contests were arranged for both length and dramatic effect. For over a century, professional wrestling promoters and performers claimed that the competition was completely real and vehemently defended secrets of the trade (a situation known as kayfabe). Any pretense of sporting competition was dropped in the late 1990s, when Vince McMahon's World Wrestling Federation began to frequently describe its events as "sports entertainment," along with a formal change of moniker to World Wrestling Entertainment. (Although the name change was in response to a lawsuit from the World Wildlife Fund against the World Wrestling Federation over the rights to the initials "WWF" in the United Kingdom, the increasing use of the term "entertainment" leading up to the suit's resolution seemed to explain McMahon's willingness to change the name.)

Reality and fantasy

Professional wrestling is "simulated" in the sense that the outcomes are predetermined, the maneuvers rehearsed and executed cooperatively, and their effects upon the opponent exaggerated. Some treat the performance as a form of entertainment or drama, and would not use the term "fake" in describing it. Various pro-wrestling moves cause genuine pain and can cause serious injury if performed incorrectly. The moves may involve knowledge and skill in gymnastic sports such as weight lifting and tumbling; these can be seen as a form of stunt work performed live and without benefit of backup safety devices such as those used in filmmaking. The vast majority of the matches have pre-determined results and are said to be "worked". The results are determined by "bookers" to maximize "heel heat" for the bad guy and "(baby)face heat" for the good guy, often in the context of a long-running "feud" or storyline. Typically the wrestlers will work out some signature "spots" marking key moments in the match in advance. During the match, the move sequences and transitions are improvised with the participants "calling spots" to each other to inform them of their next up-coming move. The referee is also often involved in executing the match to schedule and dealing with unforeseen circumstances. The vast majority of bleeding incidents in wrestling are "real", and are typically induced by using hidden razor blades to cut oneself on the forehead; the act of cutting is known in the business and among fans as "blading", and bleeding is known as "juicing". If a wrestler bleeds without being cut, such as due to an accidental broken nose, he is said to be "juicing hardway". If a wrestler hits another wrestler harder than he should on purpose, that is called "stiff," "being stiff," a "potato" or "potato shot." Besides the somewhat real violence however, there have constantly been times where the division between reality and fantasy has been blurred, especially when it comes to who should win the matches. See the Clique as an example of this. On occasion, although increasingly rarely in recent decades, a wrestler will shoot, or ignore the script and attempt to win legitimately. This is also known as "going into business for yourself." In the past, promotions' World Champions were often intentionally-chosen "hookers" such as Lou Thesz who could defend themselves if the fight became real.

Rules

Lou Thesz] The simulated nature of professional wrestling is only one of the many differences it has with traditional wrestling. Other differences can be found by looking at the supposed rules of pro wrestling. The referee has ultimate control in any match, and has so much authority that a decision reversal can only be made by the referee involved in the match; even the promotion owner has no influence over this decision. Of course, even this "rule" is subject to modification, depending on current storylines within the promotion. A common means of this is a promotion owner or other high official modifying the stipulations of a match to invalidate a referee's decision. A "motto" in the pro-wrestling world used to describe the interpretation of the rules (actually more like loose guidelines) is: "You can't call what you don't see", implying that anything is justified as long as the referee doesn't see. This is often used as a plot twist to drastically change the momentum in a match. One of the better-known occurrences has a referee getting "accidentally" knocked senseless or thrown outside of the ring. While he's stunned, one wrestler, usually a Face, will suddenly have the match won, only to then have it robbed from them via outside interference, a foreign object, or some other unfair means. The referee, unaware of what happened, will recover just in time to notice a pin that reflects the new situation, and make an effortful three-count. In addition to pinfall, a match can be won by submission, count-out, disqualification, or failure to answer a ten count. Punching is permitted as long as the wrestler's fist is open (this is known as a "chop"). You may only kick with the flat part of the foot, and "low blow" only refers to actually striking the crotch. If either wrestler is in contact with the ropes or if any part of the wrestler is underneath the ropes, all contact between the wrestlers must be broken before the count of five. This strategy is used very often in order to escape from a submission hold, and also, more seldom, a wrestler can place his foot on the ropes to avoid losing by pinfall.

Pinfall

In order to win by pinfall, a wrestler must pin both his opponent's shoulders against the mat while the referee slaps the mat three times. This is the most common form of defeat. Since the 1990s, however, the "both shoulders on the mat" condition has been overlooked, if not outright ignored. It is, most often, illegal to use the ropes to secure oneself or gain leverage while pinning, and is therefore a popular cheating method for heels.

Submission

To win by submission, the wrestler must make his opponent give up, usually, but not necessarily, by putting him in a submission hold (i.e. leg-lock, arm-lock, etc.). Passing out in a submission hold constitutes a loss by knockout. To determine if a wrestler has passed out, the referee usually picks up and drops his hand. If it drops three consecutive times without the wrestler having the strength to stop it from falling, the wrestler is considered to have passed out. This has been largely ignored since around 1995, although it is still used when an "old-school" wrestler is working a match. Today, a wrestler can indicate a submission by "tapping out", that is, tapping a free hand against the mat. The tapout is not a traditional part of professional wrestling; it was introduced during the mid-1990s in response to the increased popularity of mixed martial arts competitions, where the tapout has always been accepted. Rarely, some promotions have used the option of a verbal submission, in case of the wrestler's arms being inactive due to the submission manouever.

Count-out

A count-out happens when a wrestler is out of the ring long enough for the referee to count to 10 (in some promotions it can be a 20 count). If both wrestlers are outside the ring, the count is broken if either one re-enters the ring. If not both wresters will be disqualified, aiso known as an "double count-out" or "impossible draw". If both of the wrestlers are lying on the mat and not moving, the referee may issue a ten count. One wrestler reaching his knees will break the count. If neither wrestler reaches his or her knees or feet, it is considered a draw, also known as an "in ring count-out." It should be noted that the count out rule indicates that a wrestler cannot win a match while any part of his opponents body is not in the ring. This allows pinfalls and submissions holds to be escaped by grabbing hold of one of the ring ropes, thus indicating to the referee that they are partially out of the ring and forcing him to break the hold or stop the count. This is also why the referee will start a count once a wrestler has reached the top rope, he is out of the ring area.

Disqualification

Offenses punishable by disqualification include:
- Performing any illegal holds or maneuvers, such as refusing to break a hold when an opponent is in the ropes, choking or biting an opponent, staying on the top turnbuckle, and repeatedly punching with a closed fist, for more than a referee-administered five count.
- Any outside interference involving a person not involved in the match striking or holding a wrestler. If someone attempts to interfere but is ejected from the ring by a wrestler or referee before this occurs, there is usually no disqualification.
- Striking an opponent with a foreign object (unless the rules of the match specifically allow this).
- A direct low-blow to the groin.
- Laying hands on the referee. In practice, the "rules" of the fight are often violated without disqualification due to the referee being "distracted" and not seeing the offense, or the referee seeing the offense but allowing the match to continue. Almost always, a referee must see the violation with his own eyes to rule that the match end in a disqualification and the referee's ruling is almost always final. Indeed, it is not uncommon for the referees themselves to get "knocked out" during a match. While the referee remains "unconscious," rules are often violated at will.

Title matches

Unless specifically noted, a wrestler cannot win a championship title from his opponent by defeating him by count-out or disqualification; in the event of a count-out or a disqualification, the champion retains his title even if he loses the match. A wrestler must pin his opponent or force him to submit in order to win a championship.

Variations

The rules for a one-on-one pro wrestling match have not always been the same. For instance, the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) had a rule that your opponent couldn't be thrown over the top rope. The now-defunct WCW or World Championship Wrestling, an offshoot of the NWA, formerly had a rule stating you could not jump off the top rope onto a prone opponent. Both instances would have caused a disqualification. The World Wrestling Federation (now World Wrestling Entertainment) once disqualified wrestlers for pulling their opponent's ringwear or tights while covering for a pin. The move is still illegal in most promotions, but only breaks the hold or pin.

Pro wrestling as entertainment

See Commedia dell'arte for an artistic predecessor to this style of entertainment. The commedia dell'arte influence can be seen in a number of non-match related elements of professional wrestling. Some examples of these include storylines, gimmicks, interviews, and angles. These "non-wrestling" elements – used to build excitement and interest in professional wrestling matches – have been referred to as "sports entertainment". While professional wrestling moved increasingly to fixed matches during the late-1800s and early 1900s, for most of the 20th century professional wrestling was promoted as a legitimate sport. It is from this tension between performance and athletic reality that the concept of "kayfabe" originated. As the 20th century progressed, promoters spent less time focusing on believable sports action, and more time presenting it as a "sports entertainment" spectacle. For a brief time, comedian Andy Kaufman began wrestling women during his act and was the self-proclaimed "Inter-gender Wrestling Champion of the World". Another major step in this direction was taken when Vince McMahon took control of the WWF, now known as WWE. Besides taking his federation into the territory boundries of the NWA, marking the first truly national pro wrestling promotion, and his national WrestleMania pay-per-view shows, McMahon also came up with the "Rock and Wrestling" concept. In fact, a key distinction between McMahon and competitors like Jim Crockett Promotions (the forerunner to WCW) and the American Wrestling Association was the carnival atmosphere created by the promoter's gimmicks and angles. Indeed, if the term "sports entertainment" was not invented by McMahon, WWE has certainly popularized its use. A popular myth within professional wrestling fandom suggests McMahon adopted the term because staged entertainment insurance premiums are lower than for those for live sporting events. Another suggested reason is to give his business a sense of "legitimacy" in the business community as a form of entertainment, rather than as a "fake" sport. Similarly, McMahon "educated" his fan base, through the 1980s, that they weren't witnessing an improvised sporting contest, and instead that they should tune in for the sports-entertainment aspect; in other words, at least implying that the event was bettered, not diminished, by the very fact that it was being "worked." This was a cunning move, especially given that his competitors were still often presenting themselves as being legitimate sports (WCW commentator Tony Schiavone continued to use the phrase "Greatest moment in the history of our sport" well into the 1990s). The WWF's "Rock and Wrestling" era has been derided by critics, and professional wrestling "purists", as presenting "cartoonish" characters, interviews, and slapstick skits as opposed to "real" wrestling. Others, however, point out that—aside from cable television and video—McMahon's focus on entertainment was key to pro wrestling's 1980s revival in popularity. This debate is still ongoing within pro wrestling fandom, especially within the "smark" community. Since then, Extreme Championship Wrestling, WCW's nWo gimmick, and the WWF / WWE's "Attitude" era further progressed the development of the non-wrestling aspects of professional wrestling.

Promotions

The organizations that schedule and produce professional wrestling performances and known as wrestling promotions. Currently, the only major wrestling organisations left in North America are the United States promotions of World Wrestling Entertainment and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, a former NWA member that is still loosely linked to that organization; and the Mexican lucha libre promotions Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre and Asistencia Asesoría y Administración. Of these, WWE is by far the largest and most influential throughout the world. While these organizations are the most prominent and popular, there are many other smaller, regional promotions known as indies, many of which are, like TNA, official territories of the NWA. Other major independent promotions include Ring of Honor and Combat Zone Wrestling. Outside North America, there are other federations throughout Europe and also in Japan, Puerto Rico and the rest of the Caribbean. See also: List of wrestling promotions

See also

Terminology


- Professional wrestling aerial techniques (e.g. Shooting Star Press, Moonsault)
- Professional wrestling attacks
- Professional wrestling double-team maneuvers
- Professional wrestling finishers
- Professional wrestling holds (e.g. Boston crab)
- Professional wrestling match types
- Professional wrestling schools
- Professional wrestling slang
- Professional wrestling throws (e.g. Suplex, Powerbomb, Piledriver, DDT, Backbreaker, Neckbreaker, Brainbuster)

Professional wrestling worldwide


- Professional wrestling in Japan
- Professional wrestling in Mexico
- Professional wrestling in United Kingdom

Lists of wrestlers


- List of professional wrestlers
- List of professional wrestling stables

Types of professional wrestling


- List of professional wrestling styles
- Real Pro Wrestling

External links


- [http://dmoz.org/Sports/Wrestling/Professional/ DMOZ]
- [http://www.wrestlingblog.com/ Wrestling Blog: submit your own Wrestling Blog]
- [http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com ProWrestlingHistory.com]
- [http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/home/index.html Obsessed with wrestling - biographies, results, title histories, etc]
- [http://www.wrestlepower.com WrestlePower News and information pertaining to WWE and TNA]
- [http://www.geocities.com/wisereborn The Wrestling Follower]
- [http://www.mediaman.com.au/profiles/wrestling.html Media Man Wrestling Directory]
- [http://www.wrestling-dungeon.net Warned.net - Wrestling News and Articles]
- [http://www.wrestling-caricatures.com Wrestling Caricatures] Information, rumors, and trivia
- ja:プロレス th:มวยปล้ำอาชีพ

Sponge

:This article is about the animal. For other uses, see Sponge (disambiguation).
Calcarea
Hexactinellida
Demospongiae
Sclerospongiae The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus "pore" and ferre "to bear") are animals of the phylum Porifera. They are primitive, sessile, mostly marine, waterdwelling filter feeders that pump water through their matrix to filter out particulates of food matter. Sponges are among the simplest of animals, with partially differentiated tissues but without muscles, nerves, or internal organs. In some ways they are closer to being cell colonies than multicellular organisms. There are over 5,000 modern species of sponges known, and they can be found attached to surfaces anywhere from the intertidal zone to as deep as 8,500 m (29,000 feet) or further. Though the fossil record of sponges dates back to the Precambrian era, new species are still commonly discovered. The structure of a sponge is simple: it is shaped like a tube, with one end stuck to a rock or other object and an open end, the osculum, open to the environment. The spongocoel, or interior of the sponge, is composed of walls perforated with microscopic pores that allow water to flow through the spongocoel.

Biology

Sponges comprise only four types of cells:
- Choanocytes (also known as "collar cells"), which line the spongocoel and function as the sponge's digestive system, are remarkably similar to the protistan choanoflagellates.
- Porocytes are tubular cells that make up the pores.
- Flat epidermal cells line the outside of the sponge and form its skin.
- Amoebocytes live between the choanocytes and the epidermis. They carry out many of the sponge's functions, such as transport of nutrients, secretion of the spicules, and production of gametes. Sponges have only three body types: asconoid, syconoid, and leuconoid. Asconoid and syconoid are both vase-like, while leuconoid take a lumpy shape much like a rock. right Although they are animals, sponges may also be considered multi-cellular colonies. A sponge can be placed in a blender and any remaining living cells will reform themselves into another sponge. If multiple sponges are blended together, each species will recombine independently (contrast animal chimera such as the geep). It is thought that the earliest multicellular life on Earth was a sponge-like creature. The earliest known multicelled animal fossils are sponges from China that are roughly 600,000,000 years old. Sponges have not been as extensively studied as some other phyla and there may be some surprises still to be found. For example, it has recently been shown that some sponges are not sessile and can move to more favorable locations as rapidly as few centimeters a day. Another sponge, the Venus Flower Basket, has some newly discovered uses involving fiber optics. fiber optics

Taxonomy

Sponges are divided into classes based on the type of spicules in their skeleton. The four kinds of sponges are bony (Calcarea), glass (Hexactenellida), spongin (Demospongiae), and a fourth kind made up of a mixture of types (the Sclerospongiae). Although 90% of modern sponges are demosponges, fossilized remains of this type are less common than those of other types because their skeletons are composed of relatively soft spongin that does not fossilize well. The fossil Archaeocyantha may also belong here, though their skeletons are solid rather than separated into spicules. It has been suggested that the sponges are paraphyletic to the other animals. Otherwise they are sometimes treated as their own subkingdom, the Parazoa. Similar fossil animals known as Chancelloria are no longer regarded as sponges.

Reproduction

Sponges are able to reproduce sexually or asexually. In sexual reproduction, sperm is released from a sponge and floats through the water, where it is taken into a sponge with eggs and internal fertilization occurs. This produces a motile larval stage of sponge. Asexual reproduction of sponges is through budding, where a small piece of sponge falls off of the main sponge and grows into a new one. When a sponge is in a hostile environment, sponges can also form small structures known as gemmules. These are similar to a bacterium's endospore. Gemmules are made up of amoebocytes surrounded by a layer of spicules and can survive conditions that would kill adult sponges. When the environment becomes less hostile, the gemmule resumes growing. spicule

Ecology

Modern sponges are predominantly marine, with some species adapted to freshwater environments, ranging from the inter-tidal zone to depths of 6,000 metres (19,680 feet). Certain types of sponges are limited in the range of depths at which they are found. Sponges are worldwide in their distribution, and range from waters of the polar regions to the tropical regions. Sponges are most abundant in both numbers of individuals and species in warmer waters. Their bodies are porous and they feed by filtering micro-organisms from the water. They lack any internal organs, a nervous system, or circulatory and digestive systems, such as are found in the higher invertebrate animals. Adult sponges live in an attached position, and tend to lack any means of locomotion. The greatest numbers of sponges are usually to be found where a firm means of fastening is provided, such as on a rocky bottom. Some kinds of sponges are able to attach themselves to soft sediment by means of a root-like base. Sponges also live in quiet clear waters, because if the sediment is agitated by wave action or by currents, it tends to block the pores of the animal.

Skeleton as absorbent

spicule In common usage, the term sponge is usually applied to the skeletons of these creatures alone, from which the animal matter has been removed by maceration and washing. The material of which these sponges are composed is spongin. Calcareous and siliceous sponges are too harsh for similar use. Commercial sponges are derived from various species and come in many grades, from fine soft "lamb's wool" sponges to the coarse grades used for washing cars. The loofah or luffa sponge, commonly sold for use in the kitchen or the shower, is not related to any animal sponge but is derived instead from a vegetable. Marine sponges come from fisheries in the Mediterranean and West Indies. The manufacture of rubber, plastic and cellulose based synthetic sponges has significantly reduced the commercial sponge fishing industry over recent years.

Geological history

fishing The fossil record of sponges is not abundant, except in a few scattered localities. Some fossil sponges have worldwide distribution, while others are restricted to certain areas. Sponge fossils such as Hydnoceras and Prismodictya are found in the Devonian rocks of New York state. In Europe the Jurassic limestone of the Swabian Alps are composed largely of sponge remains, some of which are well preserved. Many sponges are found in the Cretaceous Lower Greensand and Chalk Formations of England, and in rocks from the upper part of the Cretaceous period in France. A famous locality for fossil sponges is the Cretaceous Farringdon Sponge Gravels in Farringdon, Oxfordshire in England. Fossil sponges vary in size from 1 cm (0.4 inches) to more than 1 metre (3.3 feet). They vary greatly in shape, being commonly vase-shapes (such as Ventriculites), spherical (such as Porosphaera), pear-shaped (such as Siphonia), leaf-shaped (such as Elasmostoma), branching (such as Doryderma), irregular or encrusting. Detailed identification of many fossil sponges relies on the study of thin sections. Category:Porifera ja:海綿 th:ฟองน้ำ

Ctenophora


Tentaculata
Nuda Ctenophores are jellyfish-like animals commonly called "comb jellies", "sea gooseberries", "sea walnuts", or "Venus' girdles." Comb jellies are voracious marine predators, feeding mostly on plankton. The word ctenophore (pronounced ) comes from Greek, kteno-, kteis, "comb" and -phore, meaning "comb-bearers". It comes via the New Latin ctenophorus in the 19th century. Ctenophores are mainly composed of inert mesoglea, which causes them to have a low rate of metabolism. Many species are bioluminescent. The name comb jelly comes from eight "comb rows" of fused cilia, called ctenes, which are arranged laterally along the sides of the animal and used primarily for locomotion. The ctenes of the ctenophores gives rise to a rainbow-like effect that is caused by scattering of light due to the beating of cilia, not because of bioluminescence. The ctenophores are hermaphroditic, and some species can reproduce asexually. Most ctenophores have two long tentacles, but some lack tentacles completely. The tentacles have adhesive structures called colloblasts, or lasso cells. These cells burst open when prey comes in contact with the tentacle. Sticky threads released from each of the colloblasts will then capture the food. Some species have their entire body surface covered with sticky mucus that captures prey. There are about 100 modern species of these marine animals. One of the most familiar genera of ctenophore is Mnemiopsis. Due to their soft and fragile bodies, the fossil record for comb jellies is poor. One possible ctenophore is known from the Middle Cambrian period.

External links


- [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/ctenophora.html Introduction to Ctenophora] Category:Ctenophora ja:有櫛動物

Trichoplax


Trichoplax adhaerens is a simple balloon-like marine animal with a body cavity filled with pressurized fluid. It is given its own phylum, called Placozoa; the only other species, Treptoplax reptans, was described in 1896 and has not been seen since, leading to doubts about its existence. Indiviual Trichoplax are soft-bodied, about 0.5 mm across, and somewhat resemble a large amoeba. The name T. adhaerens was given because it tends to stick to its substrate, including glass pipettes and microscope slides. Its evolutionary relationships are still being investigated, but it may be allied with the cnidarians and ctenophores. Trichoplax lacks organs and most tissues, including the nervous system, although evidence suggests that they evolved from species with nerves. It is comprised of a few thousand cells or four types in three distinct layers: monciliated dorsal and ventral epithelia cells, ventral gland cells and the syncytial fiber cells. The outermost layer (the monociliated cells) have a single cilium, which allow the adult to move. The epithelia of Trichoplax lack a basal membrane and the cells are connected by belt desmonsomes. Lipid inclusions, called 'shiny spheres', are regularly distributed over the dorsal epithelia. It feeds by absorption and has been observed to form temporary bulges to trap food. It climbs atop its food and uses the ventral surface as a temporary extraorganismal gastric cavity. Digestion is both extracellular and by phagocytosis. When not feeding Trichoplax is actively motile with movement effected by ventral ciliation and by the fiber cell layer and lacks any polarity in its movement. The haploid number of chromosomes is six. It has the smallest amount of DNA yet measured for any animal with only 50 megabases (80 nanograms per cell). Eggs and sperm are produced but there are no sexual organs. Asexual reproduction by binary fission also occurs. Their native habitat is unknown: they were discovered on the walls of a marine aquarium in the 1880s, and have rarely been seen outside the laboratory environment. A proposal has been submitted for sequencing of its genome but this has yet to be approved. Page 2

References

# A Trichoplax adhaerens subtidal collection site in Japan: full text online article .

External links


- [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artoct98/tricho.html A Weird Wee Beastie: Trichoplax adhaerens]
- [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/placozoa/placozoa.html Information page from the University of California at Berkeley] Category:Animals
- Mitochondrial DNA and 16S rRNA analysis and phylogeny of Trichoplax adhaerens: full text online article . ja:センモウヒラムシ

Acoelomorpha


The Acoelomorpha are a phylum of animals formerly considered flatworms, but now known to be a separate group, basal among the Bilateria.

External links

[http://devbio.umesci.maine.edu/styler/globalworming/pintro.html Phylogeny of Lower Worms of the Meiofauna (Acoelomorpha)] Category:Animals

Rhombozoa


Rhombozoa, or Dicyemida, is a phylum of tiny parasites that live in the renal appendages of cephalopods. Although the name Dicyemida precedes Rhombozoa in usage, and is preferred by most contemporary authors, Rhombozoa still enjoys much popular support. Traditionally, dicyemids have been grouped with the Orthonectida in the Mesozoa; however, molecular phylogenies indicate that dicyemids may be more closely related to the Platyhelminthes (flatworms). Adult dicyemids range in length from 0.1-9.0 mm, and they can be easily viewed through a light microscope. Dicyemids display eutely, a condition in which each adult individual of a given species has the same number of cells, making cell number a useful identifying character. The organism's structure is simple: a single axial cell is surrounded by a jacket of ciliated cells. The anterior region of the organism is termed a "calotte" and functions to attach the dicyemid to folds on the surface of its host's renal appendages. Dicyemids exist in both asexual and sexual forms. The former predominate in juvenile and immature hosts, and the latter in mature hosts. The asexual stage is termed a nematogen; it produces vermiform larvae which mature through direct development to form more nematogens. Nematogens proliferate in young cephalopods, filling the kidneys. As the infection ages, perhaps as the nematogens reach a certain density, vermiform larvae mature to form rhombogens, the sexual life stage, rather than more nematogens. This sort of density-responsive reproductive cycle is reminiscent of the asexual reproduction of sporocysts or rediae in larval trematode infections of snails. As with the trematode asexual stages, a few nematogens can usually be found in older hosts. Their function may be to increase the population of the parasite to keep up with the growth of the host. Rhombogens contain hermaphroditic infusorigens which produce infusoriform larvae. These larvae possess a very distinctive morphology, swimming about with ciliated rings that resemble headlights. It has long been assumed that this sexually produced infusoriform, which is released when the host eliminates urine from the kidneys, is both the dispersal and the infectious stage. The mechanism of infection, however, remains unknown, as are the effects, if any, of dicyemids on their hosts. Some part of the dicyemid life cycle may be tied to temperate benthic environments, where they occur in greatest abundance. While dicyemids have occasionally been found in the tropics, the infection rates are typically quite low, and many potential host species are not infected. Dicyemids have never been reported from truly oceanic cephalopods, who instead host a parasitic ciliate fauna. Most dicyemid species are recovered from only one or two host species. While not strictly host specific, most dicyemids are only found in a few closely related hosts. Dicyemids are divided into two families, Conocyemidae and Dicyemidae.

References


- Furuya, H. & K. Tsuneki. 2003. Biology of Dicyemid Mesozoans. Zoological Science 20: 519-532.
- Furuya, H., F. G. Hochberg, & K. Tsuneki. 2003. Reproductive traits in dicyemids. Marine Biology 143: 693-706.
- Hochberg, F.G. 1982. The "kidneys" of cephalopods: a unique habitat for parasites. Malacologia 23: 121-134.
- McConnaughey, B.H. 1951. The life cycle of the dicyemid Mesozoa. University of California Publications in Zoology 55: 295-336.
- Pawlowski, J.I. et al. 1996. Origin of the Mesozoa inferred from 18S rRNA gene sequences. Molecular Biology and Evolution 13: 1128-1132. Category:Animals

Deuterostome



- Echinodermata
- Hemichordata
- Chordata
- Chaetognatha Deuterostomes (taxonomic term: Deuterostomia; from the Greek: "other mouth") are a superphylum of animals. They are a subtaxon of the subregnum Bilateria, and are opposed to the protostomes. Deuterostomes are distinguished by their embryonic development; in deuterostomes, the first opening (the blastopore) becomes the anus, while in protostomes it becomes the mouth. There are three phyla of deuterostomes:
- Phylum Chordata (vertebrates and their kin)
- Phylum Echinodermata (starfishes, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc.)
- Phylum Hemichordata (acorn worms) The phylum Chaetognatha (arrow worms) and the isolated genus Xenoturbella may also belong here. Extinct groups may include the phylum Vetulicolia. In both deuterostomes and protostomes, a zygote first develops into a hollow ball of cells, called a blastula. In deuterostomes, the early divisions occur parallel or perpendicular to the polar axis. This is called radial cleavage, and also occurs in certain protostomes, such as the lophophorates. Cleavage is indeterminate - the cells' fates are not determined early on. Thus if the first four cells are separated, each cell is capable of forming a complete small larva, and if a cell is removed from the blastula the other cells will compensate. In deuterostomes the mesoderm forms as evaginations of the developed gut that pinch off, forming the coelom. This is called enterocoely.

External links


- [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/deuterostomia.html UCMP-Deuterostomes] Category:Animals

Chordate



- Subphylum Urochordata - Tunicatas
  - Ascidiacea
  - Thaliacea
  - Larvacea
- Subphylum Cephalochordata - Lancelets
- Subphylum Myxini - Hagfishes
- Subphylum Vertebrata - Vertebrates
  - Petromyzontida - Lampreys
  - Placodermi (extinct)
  - Chondrichthyes - Cartilaginous fishes
  - Acanthodii (extinct)
  - Actinopterygii - Ray-finned fishes
  - Actinistia - Coelacanths
  - Dipnoi - Lungfishes
  - Amphibia - Amphibians
  - Reptilia - Reptiles
  - Aves - Birds
  - Mammalia - Mammals Chordates (phylum Chordata) include the vertebrates, together with several closely related invertebrates. They are united by having, at some stage in their life, a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, a dorsal hollow neural tube, and a muscular tail extending past the anus. Some scientists argue, however, that the true qualifier should be pharyngeal pouches rather than slits. The phylum Chordata is broken down into three subphyla: Urochordata, Cephalochordata, and Vertebrata. Urochordate larvae have a notochord and a nerve cord but they are lost in adulthood. Cephalochordates have a notochord and a nerve cord but no vertebrae. In vertebrates, the notochord has been replaced by a bony vertebral column. The extant groups of chordates are related as shown in the phylogenetic tree, below. They do not match up very well with the traditional groups, and as a result vertebrate classification is in a state of flux, although their relationships are very well understood. Chordata
- Urochordata (tunicates)
- Cephalochordata (lancelets)
- Craniata (animals with skulls)
  - Myxini or Hyperotreti (hagfish)
  - Vertebrata (animals with backbones)
    - Cephalaspidomorphi (lampreys)
    - Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
      - Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
      - Teleostomi (bony fish, ~ Osteichthyes)
      -
- Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
      -
- Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish)
      -
  - Actinistia (coelacanths)
      -
  - Dipnoi (lungfishes)
      -
    - Tetrapoda (four-legged vertebrates)
      -
      - Amphibia (amphibians)
      -
      - Amniotes (amniotic egg)
      -
      -
- Synapsida
      -
      -
  - Mammalia (mammals)
      -
      -
- Anapsida
      -
      - Testudines (turtles)
      -
      -
- Diapsida
      -
      -
  - Reptilia (most modern reptiles)
      -
      -
    - Lepidosauria (lizards, snakes, tuatara)
      -
      -
  - Archosauria
      -
      -
    - Crocodilia (crocodiles, alligators, caimans, gharials)
      -
      -
    - Dinosauria
      -
      -
      - Aves (birds) Chordates ko:척색동물 ja:脊索動物 th:สัตว์มีแกนสันหลัง

Hemichordata



- Enterepneusta
- Pterobranchia
- Planctosphaeroidea Hemichordata is a phylum of worm-shaped marine deuterostome animals, generally considered the sister group of our own, the chordates. They date back to the Lower or Middle Cambrian and include an important class of fossils called graptolites, most of which became extinct in the Carboniferous. Hemichordata are divided into two classes: the Enteropneusta, commonly called acorn worms, and the Pterobranchia, which may include the graptolites. The phylum contains about 100 living species. The exact taxonomic position of hemichordata and whether the group is monophyletic is currently under debate.

References


- [http://cluster3.biosci.utexas.edu/faculty/cameronc/Hemichordate.Species.html Cameron, C. B. Classification of the extant hemichordata]
- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Hemichordata&contgroup=Deuterostomia At the Tree of Life] Category:Animals ja:半索動物

Echinoderm



- Asteroidea
- Blastoidea (extinct)
- Concentricycloidea
- Crinoidea
- Echinoidea
- Holothuroidea
- Ophiuroidea Echinoderms (Echinodermata) is a phylum of marine animals found in the ocean at all depths. This phylum dates back to the lower Cambrian period and represents about 7000 living species and 13000 extinct ones. 6 classes made it to the Modern Era:
- Asteroidea (asteroids / starfish or sea stars): 1,500 species that capture prey for their own food.
- Concentricycloidea (sea daisies), have a unique water vascular system.
- Crinoidea (crinoids / feather stars or sea lilies): 600 species that are suspension feeders.
- Echinoidea (echinoids / sea urchins and sand dollars): 1,000 species; members of that class have movable spines.
- Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers): 1,000 species, elongated animals resembling slugs.
- Ophuiroidea (brittle stars and basket stars), the largest class of echinoderms. Fossil forms included Blastoids, Edrioasteroids and several peculiar Early Cambrian animals such as Helicoplacus, Carpoids, Homalozoa and possibly Machaerids. They evolved from bilaterally symmetric creatures. Later forms were lopsided. Echinoderms' larvae are ciliated free-swimming organisms that organize in a bilaterally symmetric fashion that makes them look like embryonic chordates. Later, the left side of the body grows at the expense of the right side, which is eventually absorbed. The left side then grows in a pentaradially symmetric fashion, in which the body is arranged in five parts around a central axis. All echinoderms exhibit fivefold radial symmetry in portions of their body at some stage of life, even if they have secondary bilateral symmetry. They also have a mesodermal endoskeleton made of tiny calcified plates and spines, that forms a rigid support contained within tissues of the organism; some groups have modified spines called pedicellariae that keep the animal free of debris. Echinoderms possess a hydraulic water vascular system, a network of fluid-filled canals that function in locomotion, feeding, and gas exchange. They also possess an open and reduced circulatory system, and have a complete digestive tube (tubular gut). They have a simple radial nervous system that consists of a modified nerve net (interconnected neurons with no central organs); nerve rings with radiating nerves around the mouth extending into each arm; the branches of these nerves coordinate the movements of the animal. Most echinoderms, with the exception of the sea cucumber, have a brain, although it is very small. The sexes are usually separate, and eggs and sperms are generally released into the water, in which case fertilization takes place externally. Many echinoderms have remarkable powers of regeneration: a starfish cut radially into a number of parts will, over the course of several months, regenerate into as many separate, viable starfish. A section as small as a single arm (with the commensurate central-body mass and neural tissue) will, in ideal circumstances, successfully regenerate in this way. Echinoderms, like chordates, are deuterostomes and are therefore thought to be the most closely related of the major phyla to the chordates, being a sister group to chordates plus hemichordates. (Some believe that acorn worms are more closely related to echinoderms than chordates.) Because of a controversial interpretation of Homalozoa, a minority of classifiers place the echinoderms into the Chordata. Echinodermata is the largest phylum to lack any fresh water or land representatives.

External links


- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Echinodermata&contgroup=Deuterostomia Echinodermata] from the Tree of Life website.
- [http://www.northwestdiver.com/creature_feature/echinoderms.php Echinoderms] from the Creature Feature website. Category:Animals Category:Echinoderms ja:棘皮動物

Chaetognatha



- Archisagittoidea
- Sagittoidea Chaetognatha is a phylum of predatory marine worms that are a major component of plankton worldwide. They show some preference for warmer waters. Chaetognaths are transparent and are torpedo shaped sometimes with arrowhead like opaque structures in their heads. They range in size from 3mm to 12cm. The common term for the phylum is Arrow Worms. There are about 100 modern species assigned to 15 genera. Despite the limited diversity, the number of individuals is staggering. Chatognaths are transparent or translucent and are covered by a cuticle. They have fins and a pair of hooked, chitinous, grasping spines on each side of their heads that are used in hunting. The spines are covered with a hood when swimming. They have a distinct head, trunk and tail. All species are hermaphroditic, carrying both eggs and sperm. A few species are known to use neurotoxins to subdue prey. Chaetognaths are traditionally classed as deuterostomes by embryologists. Molecular phylogenists, however, consider them to be protostomes. They have some developmental similarities to nematodes. Although they have a mouth with one or two rows of tiny teeth, compound eyes, and a nervous system, they have no respiratory, circulatory, or excremental systems. Materials are moved about the body cavity by cilia. Waste materials are simply excreted through the skin. Chaetognaths swim using their tail fin for propulsion and the body fins for stabilization and steering. Chaetognaths fossilize poorly, but are thought to have originated in the Cambrian era. Chaetognath grasping spines are found occasionally as fossils from the late Paleozoic onward. Complete body fossils that have not been formally described are reported from the Kicking Horse Shale member of the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia and the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan shales of Yunnan, China. Chaetognaths are thought possibly to be related to some of the animals grouped with the conodonts. The conodonts themselves, however, are thought to be related to the vertebrates. It is now thought that the protoconodonts, which are known only from their teeth, might be chaetognaths rather than conodonts. The Burgess Shale fossil Amiskwia is thought by some to be a Chaetognath, but it lacks teeth and is generally thought to belong to some other phylum of worms.

External links


- http://pharyngula.org/index/weblog/friday_chaetognath_blogging/
- http://courses.washington.edu/emb2002/resources/lecturereferences/07052002/chaetognatha.pdf
- http://depts.washington.edu/fhl/zoo432/plankton/plchaetognatha/chaetognatha.html
- http://perezyvan.free.fr/Research/LeParco.htm Category:Animals

Kinorhyncha


Cyclorhagida
Homalorhagida Kinorhyncha (Gr. kinema motion + rhyncho snout) is a phylum of small (1 mm or less) marine pseudocoelomate invertebrates that are widespread in mud or sand at all depths as part of the meiobenthos. They are sometimes called mud dragons. They are segmented, with a body consisting of a head, neck, and a trunk of eleven segments. They do not have external cilia, but instead have a number of spines along the body, plus several circles of spines around the head, which they use for locomotion, withdrawing the head and pushing forward, then holding with the spines while drawing up the body. The spines are part of a cuticle secreted by the epidermis; this is molted several times while growing to adulthood. The head is completely retractable, and is covered by a set of neck plates called placids when retracted. Kinorhynchs eat diatoms and whatever else they can find in the mud. There are two sexes that look alike, and the larvae are free-living, but little else is known of their reproductive process. Their closest relatives are thought to be the phyla Loricifera and Priapulida. Together they consitute the Scalidophora. The two groups of Kinorhynchs are still generally characterized as orders rather than classes, about 150 species are known. Order Cyclorhagida
- Suborder Cyclorhagae
  - Family Echinoderidae
  - Family Zelinkaderidae
  - Family Centroderidae
  - Family Dracoderidae
- Suborder Conchorhagae
  - Family Semnoderidae
- Suborder Cryptorhagae
  - Family Cateriidae Order Homalorhagida
- Suborder Homalorhagae
  - Family Pycnophyidae
  - Family Neocentrophyidae

External link


- [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/ecdysozoa/cephalorhyncha.html Introduction to the Cephalorhyncha]
- [http://biodidac.bio.uottawa.ca/thumbnails/catquery.htm?maxrows_old=&StartRow=1&maxrows=8&kingdom=Animalia&phylum=Kinorhyncha Drawings of Kinorhyncha] Category:Animals

Priapulida


Priapulida (priapulid worms) are a phylum of marine worms with an extensible spiny proboscis. Priapulid fossils are known at least as far back as the Middle Cambrian. Their nearest relatives are probably Kinorhyncha and Loricifera with which they constitute the taxon Scalidophora. (from 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica) They are cylindrical worm-like animals, with a median anterior mouth quite devoid of any armature or tentacles. The body is ringed, and often has circles of spines, which are confinued into the slightly protrusible pharynx. The alimentary canal is straight, the anus terminal, though in Priapulus one or two hollow ventral diverticula of the body-wall stretch out behind it. The nervous system, composed of a ring an