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Academic journalIn relation to the natural sciences, see Scientific journal
An academic journal is a regularly-published, peer-reviewed publication that publishes scholarship relating to an academic discipline. The purpose of such a journal is to provide a place for the introduction of new research, as well as a forum for the critique of existing research. These two purposes are most often manifested in the publication of original articles and book reviews.
The term "academic journal" applies to scholarly publications in all fields, but scientific journals vary somewhat in form and function from journals in the humanities and qualitative social sciences.
Scholarly Articles
In American academia, submissions are generally unsolicited. Professional scholars generally submit an article to a journal, and the editor (or editors) determines whether to reject the submission outright. If the editor chooses to consider the article for publication, it is then subject to anonymous peer-review by other scholars of the editor's choosing. The opinions of these outside reviewers are used in the determination to publish the article, to return it to the author for revision, or to reject the article. Even accepted articles are subject to further (and sometimes considerable) editing by the journal before publication. From the submission of an article to its publication is usually a process of several months.
Book Reviews
Book reviews serve as a check on the research published by scholars in manuscript form. Unlike articles, book reviews tend to be solicited. Journals typically have a separate book review editor who determines which new books should be reviewed and by whom. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editor's request to review a book, he or she generally receives a free copy of that book from the journal in exchange for a timely review. Publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of reviews vary considerably from journal to journal.
Prestige
The prestige of an academic journal is established over time. There are dominant journals in each academic discipline that receive the largest number of submissions and therefore can be most selective in choosing their content. Among academic historians in the United States, for example, the two dominant journals are the American Historical Review and the Journal of American History, but there are dozens of other American peer-reviewed journals of history that specialize in specific time-periods, themes, or regions.
In the American humanities, there is as yet no tradition (as currently exists in the sciences) of giving numerical prestige "values" to journals in schemes to quantify the relative importance of research (based on the number of references made to an article in other academic articles).
Financial Operation
Academic journals in the humanities and social sciences are usually subsidized by universities or professional organizations, and do not exist to make a profit. However, they often accept advertisements as a way of off-setting production costs. It is standard practice for academic journals to charge libraries much higher subscription rates than individual subscribers pay. Editors of smaller journals tend to have other professional responsibilities, most often as teaching professors.
New Developments
In recent years, the Internet has revolutionized the production of, and access to, academic journals. Journal content is often available online via services subscribed to by academic libraries. Individual articles are indexed in databases by subject.
External Links
- The American Historical Review http://www.historycooperative.org/ahr/
- The Journal of American History http://www.indiana.edu/~jah/
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Scientific journal
In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer-reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's standards of quality, and scientific validity. Although scientific journals are superficially similar to magazines, they are actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually, as one would read a magazine. The articles are written as part of the scientific method; they generally must supply enough details of an experiment, so that an independent research could potentially repeat the experiment to verify the results. Such journal articles are considered part of the permanent scientific record.
The standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature, Science, or Physical Review, will not publish an article unless they believe that it marks a fundamental breakthrough in its field, and hence will reject papers which contain good work that does not meet this criterion. In many fields, an informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it will select for publication. It is also common for journals to have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular geographic region.
Articles tend to be highly technical, representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field. Scientific journals are a crucial part of the scientific literature.
Types of articles
There are several types of journal articles; the exact terminology and definitions vary by field and specific journal, but often include:
- Letters (not to be confused with letters to the editor) are short descriptions of important current research findings which are usually fast-tracked for immediate publication because they are considered urgent.
- Articles are usually between five and twenty pages and are a complete descriptions of current original research finding, but there are considerable variations between scientific fields and journals: 80-page articles are not rare in mathematics or theoretical computer science.
- Supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data. Some journals now only publish this data electronically on the internet.
- Review articles do not cover original research but rather synthesize the results of many different articles on a particular topic into a coherent narrative about the state of the art in that field. Examples of reviews include the 'Nature Reviews' series of journals and the 'Trends in' series, which invite experts to write on their specialisation and then have the article peer-reviewed before accepting the article for publication. Other journals, such as the Current Opinion series, are less rigorous in peer-reviewing each article and instead rely on the author to present an accurate and unbiased view.
- Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings which are considered less urgent or important than Letters
The formats of journal articles vary, but almost always follow the following general scheme. They begin with an abstract, which is a two-to-four-paragraph summary of the paper. The introduction describes the background for the research including a discussion of similar research. The materials and methods section provides specific details of how the research was conducted. The results and discussion section describes the outcome and implications of the research, and the conclusion section places the research in context and describes avenues for further exploration.
In addition to the above, some scientific journals such as Science will include a news section where scientific developments (often involving political issues) are described. These articles are often written by science journalists and not by scientists. In addition some journals will include an editorial section and a section for letters to the editor. Interestingly, while these are articles published within a journal, they are not generally regarded as scientific journal articles because they have not been peer-reviewed.
Issues
It has been argued that peer-reviewed paper journals are in the process of being replaced by electronic publishing.
There is usually a delay of several months after an article is written before it is published in a journal and this makes journals not an ideal format for disseminating the latest research. In some fields such as astronomy, the role of the journal at disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint databases such as arXiv.org. However, scientific journals still provide an important role in quality control, archiving papers, and establishing scientific credit. In general, the electronic materials uploaded to preprint databases are still intended for eventual publication in a peer-reviewed journal.
Another controversy is the cost of scientific journals. Many scientists and librarians have protested against the cost of journals, especially as they see these fees going to large for-profit publishing houses. Also the fact that copyright is assigned to the journal publisher, and not the authors, causes much discussion.
There is an article titled "Online or Invisible?" (see below) which uses statistical arguments to claim that electronic publishing provides wider dissemination. A number of journals have, while retaining their peer-review process, established electronic versions or even moved entirely to electronic publication.
See also
- Academic conference
- Citation index
- Citeseer
- Open access
- Public Library of Science
Related lists
- List of scientific journals
External links
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/online-nature01/ Online Or Invisible?] by Steve Lawrence of the NEC Research Institute
- [http://www.dlib.org/dlib/december99/12harnad.html 'Free at Last: The Future of Peer-Reviewed Journals'] by Stevan Harnad
Scientific journals
In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer-reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's standards of quality, and scientific validity. Although scientific journals are superficially similar to magazines, they are actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually, as one would read a magazine. The articles are written as part of the scientific method; they generally must supply enough details of an experiment, so that an independent research could potentially repeat the experiment to verify the results. Such journal articles are considered part of the permanent scientific record.
The standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature, Science, or Physical Review, will not publish an article unless they believe that it marks a fundamental breakthrough in its field, and hence will reject papers which contain good work that does not meet this criterion. In many fields, an informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it will select for publication. It is also common for journals to have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular geographic region.
Articles tend to be highly technical, representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field. Scientific journals are a crucial part of the scientific literature.
Types of articles
There are several types of journal articles; the exact terminology and definitions vary by field and specific journal, but often include:
- Letters (not to be confused with letters to the editor) are short descriptions of important current research findings which are usually fast-tracked for immediate publication because they are considered urgent.
- Articles are usually between five and twenty pages and are a complete descriptions of current original research finding, but there are considerable variations between scientific fields and journals: 80-page articles are not rare in mathematics or theoretical computer science.
- Supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data. Some journals now only publish this data electronically on the internet.
- Review articles do not cover original research but rather synthesize the results of many different articles on a particular topic into a coherent narrative about the state of the art in that field. Examples of reviews include the 'Nature Reviews' series of journals and the 'Trends in' series, which invite experts to write on their specialisation and then have the article peer-reviewed before accepting the article for publication. Other journals, such as the Current Opinion series, are less rigorous in peer-reviewing each article and instead rely on the author to present an accurate and unbiased view.
- Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings which are considered less urgent or important than Letters
The formats of journal articles vary, but almost always follow the following general scheme. They begin with an abstract, which is a two-to-four-paragraph summary of the paper. The introduction describes the background for the research including a discussion of similar research. The materials and methods section provides specific details of how the research was conducted. The results and discussion section describes the outcome and implications of the research, and the conclusion section places the research in context and describes avenues for further exploration.
In addition to the above, some scientific journals such as Science will include a news section where scientific developments (often involving political issues) are described. These articles are often written by science journalists and not by scientists. In addition some journals will include an editorial section and a section for letters to the editor. Interestingly, while these are articles published within a journal, they are not generally regarded as scientific journal articles because they have not been peer-reviewed.
Issues
It has been argued that peer-reviewed paper journals are in the process of being replaced by electronic publishing.
There is usually a delay of several months after an article is written before it is published in a journal and this makes journals not an ideal format for disseminating the latest research. In some fields such as astronomy, the role of the journal at disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint databases such as arXiv.org. However, scientific journals still provide an important role in quality control, archiving papers, and establishing scientific credit. In general, the electronic materials uploaded to preprint databases are still intended for eventual publication in a peer-reviewed journal.
Another controversy is the cost of scientific journals. Many scientists and librarians have protested against the cost of journals, especially as they see these fees going to large for-profit publishing houses. Also the fact that copyright is assigned to the journal publisher, and not the authors, causes much discussion.
There is an article titled "Online or Invisible?" (see below) which uses statistical arguments to claim that electronic publishing provides wider dissemination. A number of journals have, while retaining their peer-review process, established electronic versions or even moved entirely to electronic publication.
See also
- Academic conference
- Citation index
- Citeseer
- Open access
- Public Library of Science
Related lists
- List of scientific journals
External links
- [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/online-nature01/ Online Or Invisible?] by Steve Lawrence of the NEC Research Institute
- [http://www.dlib.org/dlib/december99/12harnad.html 'Free at Last: The Future of Peer-Reviewed Journals'] by Stevan Harnad
Category:JournalsThis is a category of academic journals.
See also
- :Category:Magazines
- :Category:Newspapers
- :Category:Serials, periodicals and journals
Category:Academic publishing
Category:Serials, periodicals and journals
Category:Publications
Category:Sources MiG-7
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 (Микоян-Гуревич МиГ-3) was a Soviet fighter aircraft of World War II. It was a development of the MiG-1 in an attempt to curb some of that aircraft's handling problems. This proved to be only partly successful, however.
Mikoyan and Gurevich made a large number of modifications to the MiG-1 design after field testing revealed a number of dangerous characteristics of the type. The most significant of these was doubling the dihedral of the outer wings in an attempt to create more stability, and lengthening the nose of the aircraft to move the engine and therefore centre of gravity further forward. These changes were quickly implemented on the MiG-1 production line, and by March 1941, 10 of these aircraft were coming off the production line every day. It was not long before the type would see combat, claiming a pair of German Junkers Ju 86 reconnaissance aircraft even before the start of hostilities between Germany and the Soviet Union. By the time of Operation Barbarossa, over 1,200 had been delivered.
The MiG-1 had originally been designed as a high-altitude interceptor, and this is where the MiG-3 excelled as well. However, most of the combat against the German invasion took place at very low altitudes, where the aircraft did not stand out at all. Some attempt was made to put it to use as a ground-attack aircraft, but it was quickly withdrawn from this role. The death knell for the MiG-3 was the discontinuation of its AM-35 engine so that Mikulin could concentrate on AM-38 production for the Ilyushin Il-2. There was an attempt to re-engine the aircraft with the engine it was originally designed for, the AM-37. This was designated the MiG-7, but with this engine out of production as well, the project stalled. From Spring 1942 onwards, the MiG-3s were moved from the front line to air-defence squadrons, some of which flew them for the rest of the war.
One final attempt to save the aircraft was to re-engine it with a Shvetsov ASh-82 radial engine, the same engine that had been used to create the Lavochkin La-5 from the LaGG-3. The prototypes were designated I-210 and I-211, and was successful enough that production was considered under the designation MiG-9 (not to be confused with the later jet). However, the La-5 was already in production and the I-211 did not offer the air force anything that it did not already have in that aircraft.
Throughout the rest of the war, Mikoyan and Gurevich continued to develop the MiG-3 along the high-altitude interceptor lines that it had originally been designed for, leading to a series of ever-larger and more powerful prototypes, the I-220 to I-225. While promising enough, the air war over Germany was demonstrating that the heyday of the piston engined fighter was over, and no production order followed. Some sources confuse the MiG-7 designation with one of these aircraft.
Two final prototypes, the I-230 and I-231 attempted to make the most of the original MiG-3 and its engine by considerable lightening of the aircraft, but with the type relegated to secondary units, the air force was simply not interested.
Category:Soviet fighter aircraft 1940-1949
Category:World War II Soviet fighter aircraft
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