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Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe

The Republic of Zimbabwe is a country located in the southern part of the continent of Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west, Zambia to the north and Mozambique to the east.

History

Main article: History of Zimbabwe

Iron Age

History of Zimbabwe] Iron Age Bantu-speaking people began migrating into the area about 2,000 years ago, including the ancestors of the Shona, who account for roughly four fifths of the country's population today. Ruins at Great Zimbabwe, a Shona-speaking state, attest the existence of a medieval Bantu civilization in the region. Linked to the establishment of trade ties with Muslim merchants on the Indian Ocean coast around the early 10th century, Great Zimbabwe began to develop in the 11th century. The state traded gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass. It ceased to be the leading Shona state in the mid-15th century. As of 1837 the Shona were frequently raided by the Ndebele, led by king Mzilikazi who was fleeing Shaka and his Zulu during the Mfecane, and forced them to pay tribute. Later in the 19th century British and Boer traders, hunters, and missionaries started encroaching on the area.

Colonial Era

In 1888, British imperialist Cecil Rhodes extracted mining rights from king Lobengula of the Ndebele. In 1889, Rhodes obtained a charter for the British South Africa Company (BSAC), which conquered the Ndebele and their territory (named "Rhodesia" in 1895 after Cecil Rhodes) and promoted the colonization of the region and its land, labour, and precious metal and mineral resources. Both the Ndebele and the Shona staged unsuccessful revolts against white colonialist encroachment on their native lands in 1896-1897. Chief Garikai Chiremba was captured by the British and it has been rumoured that he tipped his captors to the whereabouts of ancient Zimbabwean platinum smelting secrets. Southern Rhodesia was administered by Rhodes' BSAC before becoming a self-governing British colony in 1922. In 1953, Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia (now called Zambia) were combined with Nyasaland, (now called Malawi) to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also known as the Central African Federation. After the federation was dissolved in 1963, the white minority administration in Southern Rhodesia (known simply as Rhodesia from 1964) demanded independence, but the British government had adopted a policy of NIBMAR — No Independence Before Majority African Rule. In response, the government of Prime Minister Ian Smith made a unilateral declaration of independence on November 11, 1965. The United Kingdom called the declaration a direct act of rebellion but did not attempt to reestablish control by force. When negotiations in 1966 and 1968 proved fruitless, the UK requested UN economic sanctions against Rhodesia. In an attempt to distance the country from its colonial master, Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, but this did not result in international recognition.

Civil War

Resistance to white rule strengthened from the late 1960s, mostly consisting of sporadic attacks on white farmers, the setting of landmines and the politicisation of rural populations. With the end of white rule in neighbouring Mozambique in 1975, guerrilla activities intensified into a large-scale uprising known as the Second Chimurenga or the "Bush War". The Smith regime opened negotiations with the leaders of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by Robert Mugabe after the assassination of Herbert Chitepo in Zambia in 1975, and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), led by Joshua Nkomo. With his regime near the brink of collapse, Smith in March 1978 signed a desperate accord with three black leaders who offered safeguards for whites headed by Bishop Abel Muzorewa. Muzorewa, who not only had the support of Smith but with the white-minority regime in South Africa as well, lacked credibility among significant sectors of the African population. The Muzorewa government soon faltered. In 1979, the British Government asked all parties to come to Lancaster House in an attempt to negotiate a settlement in the civil war.

Independence

Following the conference, held in London (1979-1980), Britain's Lord Soames was appointed governor to oversee the disarming of revolutionary guerrillas, the holding of elections, and the granting of independence to an uneasy coalition government with Joshua Nkomo, head of Zimbabwe African People's Union. In the free elections of February 1980, Mugabe and his Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) won a landslide victory. Mugabe has won re-election ever since. In 1982 Nkomo was ousted from his cabinet, sparking fighting between ZAPU supporters in the southern Ndebele-speaking region of the country and the ruling ZANU. The fighting was marked by a genocide of the Ndebele people by ZANU's infamous Fifth Brigade (known as the Gukurahundi), headed by Colonel Perence Shiri. Ultimately, Nkomo had no choice but to sign a peace accord in 1987, resulting in ZAPU's merger (1988) into the ZANU Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF). The drought in southern Africa, perhaps the worst of the century, affected Zimbabwe so severely that a national disaster was declared in 1992. The drought compounded the country's debt crisis, and the ensuing IMF-backed economic adjustment and austerity program caused further widespread hardship. Despite majority rule, whites made up less than 1% of the population but held 70% of the country's commercially viable arable land, of which 80% had been purchased legally since independence in 1980. However whites held no political power. Land redistribution from whites reemerged as the political issue beginning in 1999. In the aftermath of Mugabe's handling of the land crisis, which moved to redistribute land to blacks, Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations on charges of human rights abuses and of election tampering in 2002. Later, Zimbabwe withdrew from the Commonwealth. The seizure of the white-owned commercial farms led to starvation on a wide scale, as the production of crops ceased. The UN has recently estimated that 25% of the population have HIV/AIDS, probably the fourth highest in the world, compared to about 0.65% average in the world. Following elections in 2005, the government initiated "Operation Murambatsvina" in a supposed effort to crackdown on illegal markets and homes. This action has been widely condemned by opposition and international figures, who charge that it has left a large section of the urban poor homeless.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Zimbabwe Zimbabwe is a republic, with an executive president and a unicameral Parliament, formerly known as the House of Assembly. Under constitutional changes in 2005, the Senate, abolished in 1990, was to be reinstated, with the existing chamber becoming the National Assembly. Zanu PF Robert Mugabe, elected Prime Minister in 1980, revised the constitution in 1987 to make himself President. President Mugabe's affiliated party has won every election since independence 18 April 1980. In some quarters corruption and rigging elections have been stated. In particular the elections of 1990 were nationally and internationally condemned as being rigged, with the second-placing party, Edgar Tekere's Zimbabwe Unity Movement, winning only 20% of the vote. Presidential elections were last held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation, and fraud. The next Presidential elections are to be held 2008. The major opposition party at the moment is the Movement for Democratic Change, or MDC, led by Morgan Tsvangirai. At the present time, November 2005, the MDC is currently split into two factions. One faction, led by Welshman Ncube is contesting the elections to the Senate, while the other led by Morgan Tsvangirai is opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that elections in Zimbabwe are completely free and fair. The 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on March 31. While the African Union reported no major irregularities, opposition figures such as Archbishop Pius Ncube have made charges of vote rigging.

Education

Zimbabwe had a literacy rate of 90.2% in 2000, the highest in Africa. For males, the country's adult literacy rate (the percentage of persons aged 15 and over who can read and write) of 93%. Comparison with other SADC countries in 2004 is as follows: South Africa, 86%, Zambia, 79.9%, Swaziland, 80.9%, Namibia, 83.3%, Lesotho, 81.4%, Botswana, 78.9%, Tanzania, 77.1%, Malawi, 61.8%, Mozambique, 46.5%. This is due to the support of various partners. Despite the suspension of lending, the technical relationship with the World Bank remains strong in social protection, resulting in its assistance in a major redesign of the Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare (MPSLSW), (together with the National Aids Council) targeted school-fee waiver program, the Basic Education assistance Module (BEAM), which relies on geographic and community-based structures to identify the most needy students. [http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/zimbabwe_statistics.html] [http://www.cso.gov.bw/html/liter_survey.htm] [http://www.sarpn.org.za/documents/d0000887/P1006-Zimbabwe_CAE_May2004.pdf]

Provinces

Main article: Provinces of Zimbabwe Zimbabwe is divided into 8 provinces and 2 cities with provincial status: Bulawayo (city), Harare (city), Manicaland, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Masvingo, Matabeleland North, Matabeleland South, and Midlands.

Geography

Midlands Main article: Geography of Zimbabwe Zimbabwe is a landlocked country, surrounded by South Africa to the South, Botswana to the west, Zambia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east and northeast. The northwestern border is defined by the Zambezi River. Victoria Falls is a popular tourist destination on the Zambezi. To the south, Zimbabwe is separated from South Africa by the Limpopo River.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Zimbabwe The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of difficult economic problems as it struggles to consolidate earlier progress in developing a market-oriented economy. Its involvement in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy. Badly needed support from the IMF suffers delays in part because of the country's failure to meet budgetary goals. Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to 59% in 1999 and to 600% in 2003. The economy is being steadily weakened by AIDS; Zimbabwe has the highest rate of infection in the world which is a major problem for the country. The political situation makes it unlikely that the West will be inclined to do much more than provide humanitarian assistance. The lack of foreign exchange, as well as the difference between the official exchange rate and the black-market exchange rate, have resulted in fuel, electric power and water shortages and a lack of other basic supplies. In 2003 Libya supplied fuel, partially in exchange for land, but Zimbabwe could not meet the basic payments, and supplies have since stopped. In 2004 a system of auctioning scarce foreign currency for importers was introduced, which temporarily lead to a slight reduction in the foreign currency crisis, but by mid 2005 foreign currency shortages were once again chronic. The currency was devalued by the central bank twice, first to Z$9000 to the US dollar, and then to Z$17 500 to the US dollar on July 20, but at that date it was reported that that was only half the rate available on the black market. The devaluation continues; on October 26, 2005, the official exchange rate changed from Z$26 000 to Z$60 000 for one US dollar, while on the black market the exchange rate hovers around the six-figure mark. In July 2005 Zimbabwe was reported to be appealing to the South African government for US$1 billion of emergency loans. On July 26, 2005, it was also reported that Zimbabwe had agreed a trade deal with China, providing mineral and other concessions in exchange for economic aid; details of the agreement were not made public. The increasingly close "business" relationship between China and Zimbabwe has sparked much controversy. The gift of two turboprop aircraft by China to the country's Air Zimbabwe has been a sign of things to come. Much of the country's much-diminished foreign currency is being sent home by Chinese immigrants making a potential foreign currency crisis beginning in late 2003.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Zimbabwe Zimbabwe celebrates its national holiday on April 16.
- Music of Zimbabwe
- List of writers from Zimbabwe
- Reps Theatre - local theatre company
- Over the Edge - local theatre company

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Zimbabwe Fixed land lines are operated by Tel-One, a government parastatal. There are 3 Mobile network (cell phone) providers: Econet Wireless, Net
- One and Telecel.
- Foreign relations of Zimbabwe
- Land reform in Zimbabwe
- List of cities in Zimbabwe 4 Cities in Zimbabwe
- Bulawayo second largest city
- Harare Capital City
- Masvingo
- Mutare
- Military of Zimbabwe
- Place names in Zimbabwe
- Reporters without borders World-wide press freedom index 2004: Rank 155 out of 167 countries
- Transportation in Zimbabwe

External links

Government

- [http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/ Parliament of Zimbabwe] official government site
- [http://www.gta.gov.zw/ Zimbabwe Government Online] official government site and [http://www.zim.gov.zw/ mirror site]

News

- [http://www.newzimbabwe.com/ New Zimbabwe] UK-Based independent daily newspaper
- [http://allafrica.com/zimbabwe/ AllAfrica.com - Zimbabwe] news headline links
- [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/77/ IFEX - Zimbabwe] press freedom violations
- [http://www.africaonline.co.zw/mirror/ The Sunday Mirror] weekly newspaper
- [http://www.theindependent.co.zw/ Zimbabwe Independent] weekly newspaper
- [http://www.thezimbabwean.co.uk/ The Zimbabwean] UK-based independent weekly newspaper
- [http://www.zimbabweherald.com/ The Herald] State-owned daily newspaper
- [http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/ Zimbabwe Situation] A comprehensive collection of news stories concerning Zimbabwe from different sources

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064589.stm BBC News - Country Profile: Zimbabwe]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/zi.html CIA World Factbook - Zimbabwe]
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/zimbabwe/0,2759,181131,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Zimbabwe]
- [http://www.joinafrica.com/countries1/Zimbabwe/people.htm Joinafrica.com - Zimbabwe]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/zi/ US State Department - Zimbabwe] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Protest movements

- [http://www.sokwanele.com Sokwanele]
- [http://www.zvakwana.org Zvakwana]

Directories

- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Zimbabwe.html Columbia University Libraries - Zimbabwe] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Zimbabwe/ Open Directory Project - Zimbabwe] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/zim.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Zimbabwe] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Zimbabwe/ Yahoo! - Zimbabwe] directory category

Tourism

-
- [http://www.anytravels.com/africa/zimbabwe/ Travel Overview of Zimbabwe]

Other

- [http://www.amnesty.ca/zimbabwe/ Amnesty International (Zimbabwe)]
- [http://www.itsbho.com itsbho.com Leading Zimbabwean entertainment website]
- [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=6390&var_recherche=Zimbabwe RSF report on Zimbabwe from 2003]
- [http://www.writers.co.zw Writers of Zimbabwe - a website for Zimbabwean Writers]
- [http://www.hrforumzim.com/ Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum]
- [http://www.zimbabwe.8m.com/ ZIMBABWE Information and Links]
- [http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/ 5 year archive of Zimbabwe news updated daily]
- [http://zimcrisis.rhonet.org/ Zimbabwe Crisis] Newsletter published during the controversial 2000 parliamentary elections Category:African Union member states Category:Southern African Development Community Category:Landlocked countries zh-min-nan:Zimbabwe ko:짐바브웨 ms:Zimbabwe ja:ジンバブエ simple:Zimbabwe

Continent

shows land mass with minimal distortion as only one continuous continent]] A continent (Latin continere, "to hold together") is a large continuous land mass. There are several conceptions of what a continent is, geographic, geologic, and tectonic.

Geographic continents

Because geography is defined by local convention, there are several conceptions as to which landmasses qualify as continents. There are names for six, but America is often divided, and Europe is often united with Asia. Ignoring cases where Antarctica is omitted, there are half a dozen lists. tectonic The 7-continent model is usually taught in Western Europe, the United States, Australia, and much of Asia. In Canada, the government-approved [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/international/world/referencemap_image_view Atlas of Canada] names 7 continents and teaches Oceania instead of Australia. The 6-continent combined-America model is taught in Iran, and Latin America. The 6-continent Eurasia model is preferred by the scientific community, and as such is commonly found in all parts of the world, but is especially used in Russia and other countries of Eastern Europe, and in Japan. Historians may use the 5-continent model in which North Africa is separated from Sub-Saharan Africa and attached to Eurasia (Jared Diamond) or the 4-continent Afro-Eurasian model (Andre Gunder Frank). In its original sense, "continent" meant (and still means) mainland. In the Greco-Roman world, there was but one known, the Continent, which we today call the Old World. In the mid 1600s Peter Heylin wrote in his Cosmographie that "A Continent is a great quantity of Land, not separated by any Sea from the rest of the World, as the whole Continent of Europe, Asia, Africa." As late as 1727 Ephraim Chambers wrote in his Cyclopædia, "The world is ordinarily divided into two grand continents: the old and the new." However, since Classical times this Continent was divided into "peninsulas" which also came to be called continents, since they were great land masses themselves. Through the Middle Ages, there were three such continents in the Western conception: Europe, Africa, and Asia. The European discovery of America in 1492 made four; and Australia in 1606 would make five, though not right away: as late as 1813 geographers wrote of Australia as "New Holland, an immense Island, which some geographers dignify with the appellation of another continent". However, dividing America in two was commonplace by this time, and would also produce a fifth continent. The idea of the Five Continents is still strong in Europe and Asia, and is represented by the five rings on the Olympic flag. Antarctica was sighted in 1820, for the sixth and last continent to be given a separate name, though a great "antarctic" (antipodean) landmass had been anticipated for millennia. Dividing the Americas now made seven continents, nicely symmetrical with the magical number of the Seven Seas, Seven Heavens, and the seven heavenly bodies that gave their names to the seven days of the week. However, this division never appealed to Latin America, which saw itself spanning America as a single landmass, and there the conception of six continents remains, as it does in scattered other countries such as Japan. From a modern perspective, the continent with the least reason for separate recognition is Europe, and in scientific circles people generally prefer to subsume Europe and Asia into Eurasia. This appealed to Russia, which spans Eurasia, and in Russia and (at least formerly) in Eastern Europe, Eurasia is or was taught as being one of six continents. Geographers and historians often find it useful to define larger land masses connected by land bridges: # Africa-Eurasia (also called Eurafrasia): the combined land mass of Africa and Eurasia; # America (or the Americas): the combined land mass of North America and South America; # Laurasia: the combined land mass of Eurasia and North America, which were connected by Beringia during the Ice Age; # Sahul: the combined land mass of Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania during the Ice Age. That is, during the last Ice Age, there were three large landmasses: Africa-Eurasia + America (which has no name), Sahul, and Antarctica. These larger land masses are usually considered supercontinents rather than continents, however. In the last century it has also become conventional to subdivide Eurasia into the regions of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. America is often divided into the regions of North America, Central America, and South America. Continents are also sometimes subdivided into subcontinents that are isolated by geological features. The prototype of this is the Indian subcontinent. Islands are usually considered to belong geographically to the continent they are closest to. The Coral Sea and South Pacific islands may be associated with Australia/Australasia to form the "continent" of Oceania (though the Pacific islands without Australia are also called Oceania). The British Isles have always been considered part of Europe, and Greenland is considered part of North America. When the Continent is referred to without clarification by a speaker of British English, it is usually presumed to mean Continental Europe, that is Europe, explicitly excluding Great Britain and Ireland. The Continental United States excludes Hawaii. Contiguous or Co(n)terminous United States means the United States without Alaska or Hawaii (the "Lower 48"), but it is very common for people to say continental for contiguous. See also List of countries by continent, Satellite Images of Continents.

Geologic continents

Geologically, the surface of Earth consists of many tectonic plates, consisting of rigid lithospheric mantle and crust moving together over the much less viscous asthenosphere. Continental crust is primarily granitic in composition, overlain by sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Much of the continental crust extends above sea level as dry land. Oceanic crust is basaltic in composition, and much thinner than continental crust, thus generally lying below sea level. Although from a human perspective shallow inland seas such as the Bering Sea appear to divide up land masses into continents, such ephemeral features do not define continents geologically. For instance, many times over the past few million years, the continents of Eurasia and America were connected by dry land. A geologic continent, therefore, is a continuous piece of continental crust, whether wet or dry at a particular time. As such, Laurasia and Africa-Arabia are one continent, which for the past three million years has also been linked to South America. This world-spanning land mass has no name except for the Classical meaning of "The Continent". The other large geologic continents are Sahul and Antarctica, but there are many so-called microcontinents as well: Madagascar, the Seychelles (the northern Mascarene Plateau), New Zealand, New Caledonia, etc., which are splinters of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana. Note that volcanic Iceland is an exposed bit of oceanic crust at the mid-ocean ridge, and therefore not a microcontinent. Likewise, the British Isles, Sri Lanka, Borneo, and Newfoundland are integral parts of the Laurasian continent which happen to be separated by shallow (and temporary) inland seas flooding its margins.

Tectonic plates

During the 20th century, it became accepted by geologists that continents move location on the face of the planet over the geologic timescale, a process known as continental drift, explained by the theory of plate tectonics. It is the tectonic plates that have drifted, broken apart and joined together over time to give rise to the continents we now recognize. Consequently, in the geological past and prior to the present continents, other continents existed - see :Category:Historical continents. Occasionally there are calls for the continents to be defined by the tectonic plates that carry them. However, not only would this make Arabia on the Arabian plate and India on the Indian plate continents, but also Central America on the Caribbean plate and California on the Pacific plate, and this definition has never been widely accepted.

Zambezi

The Zambezi (also spelled Zambesi) is the fourth-longest river in Africa, and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean. The area of its basin is 1,570,000 km² (606,000 miles²), slightly less than half that of the Nile. The 2,574 km (1,600 mile) long river has its source in Zambia and flows through Angola, along the border of Namibia, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe, to Mozambique, where it empties into the Indian Ocean. The Zambezi's most spectacular feature is Victoria Falls, one of the world's largest waterfalls. Other notable falls include the Chavuma Falls at the border between Zambia and Angola, and Ngonye Falls, near Sioma in Western Zambia. Over its entire course, the Zambezi is spanned by only five bridges: at Chinyingi, Katima Mulilo, Victoria Falls, Chirundu and Tete. There are two main sources of hydroelectric power on the river. These are the Kariba Dam, which provides power to Zambia and Zimbabwe and the Cabora-Bassa Dam in Mozambique which provides power to South Africa. There is also a smaller power station at Victoria Falls.

Course

Source

The river rises in a black marshy bog in north-western Zambia, in undulating forested hills about 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) above sea level. Eastward of the source the watershed between the Congo and Zambezi basins is a well-marked belt of high ground, falling abruptly north and south, and running nearly east-west between 11 and 12° S. This distinctly cuts off the basin of the Luapula (the main branch of the upper Congo) from that of the Zambezi. In the neighbourhood of the source the watershed is not as clearly defined, but the two river systems do not connect.

The upper river

After flowing to the south-west for about 240 km (150 miles), the river turns south, and is joined by many tributaries. A few miles above Kakengi, the river widens from 100 to 350 metres (330 to 1,150 ft), and below Kakengi are a number of rapids ending in the Chavuma Falls, where the river flows through a rocky fissure. The first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the Kabompo River in northern Zambia. A little further south is the confluence with the much larger Lungwebungu River. The savanna through which the river has flowed gives way to a more open bush valley, studded with Borassus palm trees. Dense vegetation is confined to narrow strips of matted forest which skirt the first few hundred metres of the sources of the Zambezi and its tributaries during the first 160 km (100 miles) or so. palm tree From 1500 metres (4,900 ft) at the source, the river drops to about 1100 metres (3,600 ft) at Kakengi, 350 km (220 miles) downstream. From this point until the Victoria Falls, the level of the basin is very uniform, dropping only by another 180 metres (590 ft). Thirty kilometers (19 miles) below the confluence of the Lungwebungu the country becomes flat, and in the rainy season is largely covered by floods. Eighty kilometers (50 miles) further down, the Luanginga, which with its tributaries drains a large area to the west, joins the Zambezi. A few kilometres higher up on the east the main stream is joined by the Luena. A short distance downstream of the confluence with the Luanginga is Lealui, one of the capitals of the Lozi people who populate the semi-autonomous Zambian region of Barotseland. The chief of the Lozi has two compounds, the other being at Limulunga. Limulunga is on high ground and serves as the capital during the rainy season. The annual move from Lealui to Limulunga is a major event, celebrated one of Zambia's best known festivals, the Kuomboka. After Lealui, the river turns to the south-east. From the east it continues to receive numerous small streams, but on the west is without tributaries for 240 km (150 miles), when the Cuando River joins it. Before this, the Ngonye Falls and subsequent rapids interrupt navigation. South of Ngonye Falls, the river briefly borders Namibia's Caprivi Strip. The strip projects from the main body of Namibia, and results from the colonial era: it was added to German South-West Africa expressly to give Germany access to the Zambezi. Below the junction of the Cuando and the Zambezi the river bends almost due east. Here, the river is very broad and shallow, and flows fairly slowly, but as it flows eastward towards the border of the great central plateau of Africa it reaches a chasm into which the Victoria Falls plunge.

The middle Zambezi

Victoria Falls The Victoria Falls are considered the boundary between the upper and middle Zambezi. Below them the river continues to flow due east for about 200 km (120 miles), cutting through perpendicular walls of basalt 20 to 60 metres (65 to 200 ft) apart in hills 200 to 250 metres (650 to 820 ft) high. The river flows swiftly through the gorge, the current being continually interrupted by reefs. Beyond the gorge are a succession of rapids which end 240 km (150 miles) below Victoria Falls. Over this distance, the river drops 250 metres (820 ft). At this point, the river enters Lake Kariba, created in 1959 following the completion of the Kariba Dam. The lake is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, and the hydroelectric power-generating facilities at the dam provide electricity to much of Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Luangwa and the Kafue are the two largest left-hand tributaries of the Zambezi. The Kafue joins the main river in a quiet deep stream about 180 metres (590 ft) wide. From this point the northward bend of the Zambezi is checked and the stream continues due east. At the confluence of the Luangwa (15°37′ S) it enters Mozambique. The middle Zambezi ends when the river enters Lake Cahora Bassa (also spelled Cabora Bassa). Formerly the site of dangerous rapids known as Kebrabassa, the lake was created in 1974 by the construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam.

The lower river

The lower Zambezi's 650 km (400 miles) from Cahora Bassa to the Indian Ocean is navigable, although the river is shallow in many places during the dry season. This shallowness arises as the river enters a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only at one point, the Lupata Gorge, 320 km (200 miles) from its mouth, is the river confined between high hills. Here it is scarcely 200 metres wide. Elsewhere it is from 5 to 8 km (3 to 5 miles) wide, flowing gently in many streams. The river bed is sandy, and the banks are low and reed-fringed. At places, however, and especially in the rainy season, the streams unite into one broad fast-flowing river. rainy season About 160 km (100 miles) from the sea the Zambezi receives the drainage of Lake Malawi through the Shire River. On approaching the Indian Ocean, the river splits up into a number of branches and forms a wide delta. Each of the four principal mouths, Milambe, Kongone, Luabo and Timbwe, is obstructed by a sand bar. A more northerly branch, called the Chinde mouth, has a minimum depth at low water of 2 metres at the entrance and 4 metres further in, and is the branch used for navigation. 100 km (60 miles) further north is a river called the Quelimane, after the town at its mouth. This stream, which is silting up, receives the overflow of the Zambezi in the rainy season. The delta of the Zambezi is today about half as broad as it was before the construction of the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams controlled the seasonal variations in the flow rate of the river. The region drained by the Zambezi is a vast broken-edged plateau 900–1200 metres high, composed in the remote interior of metamorphic beds and fringed with the igneous rocks of the Victoria Falls. At Shupanga, on the lower Zambezi, thin strata of grey and yellow sandstones, with an occasional band of limestone, crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and these persist beyond Tete, where they are associated with extensive seams of coal. Coal is also found in the district just below the Victoria Falls. Gold-bearing rocks occur in several places.

Tributaries

The Zambezi has numerous tributaries. Some of the more important ones are described here, in order from source to sea. The Kabompo rises in the high land which forms the eastern watershed between the Zambezi and Congo systems. It is formed itself by the confluence of the upper Kabompo and the somewhat larger Lunga River, and flows into the Zambezi north of the town of Lukulu. The Lungwebungu, which enters the Zambezi from the west just south of the confluence with the Kabompo River, is 200 metres wide in its upper course, flowing in a valley bordered by white sand covered in thin forest, its floor forming at times an inundated plain 2 to 3 miles wide. The Cuando River, largest of the river's western tributaries, has the ruined capital of the Makololo people on its lower reaches. It rises in Angola, and forms the border between Zambia and Angola for part of its course, before curving to the south, then flowing east into the Zambezi. In this eastward stretch the Cuando flows through a vast reedy swamp studded with alluvial islands for 110 km (70 miles), and at its most southern bend is joined by the Magwekwana, which in time of flood receives some of the surplus water of the Okavango. This surplus water, received after most of the flood water of the Cuando has passed, raises the level of the lake and holds up the waters of the Cuando for some miles above it. The largest tributary of the middle Zambezi, the Kafue, rises in northern Zambia at an elevation of 1350 metres in thick forest country. The main headstream is later joined by the Lunga River or Luanga. The Itezhi-Tezhi Dam is an important source of hydroelectric power from the Kafue River, and the river also supports a great deal of wildlife, which is protected by Zambia's largest national park, Kafue National Park. The lower Kafue has a series of waterfalls and cataracts, dropping several hundred feet in 25 km (15 miles). The next large tributary to the east is the Luangwa, which rises near the north-west corner of Lake Malawi and in its upper course runs parallel to its western shores. The Luangwa flows in a generally level valley, bounded by steep plateau escarpments, and is generally shallow and rapid, though fairly wide. Its tributaries the Lunsemfwa River and Lukasashi River drain a large area of the western plateau of Zambia. The Luangwa joins the Zambezi a little above the town of Zumbo. The Luangwa Valley is an important wildlife conservation area, and contains North Luangwa National Park and South Luangwa National Park. The Luangwa defines the border between Zambia and Mozambique for about 75 km before it joins the Zambezi. From the south the middle Zambezi receives various rivers which water northern Zimbabwe—the Shangani, Sanyati, and Hanyani, besides minor streams. The Mazoe, which rises in Mashonaland, joins the Zambezi below the Cahora Bassa Dam.

Exploration of the river

Mashonaland The Zambezi region was known to medieval geographers as the Empire of Monomotapa, and the course of the river, as well as the position of Lakes Ngami and Nyasa, were given broadly accurately in early maps. These were probably constructed from Arab information. The first European to visit the upper Zambezi was David Livingstone in his exploration from Bechuanaland between 1851 and 1853. Two or three years later he descended the Zambezi to its mouth and in the course of this journey discovered the Victoria Falls. During 1858–60, accompanied by John Kirk, Livingstone ascended the river by the Kongone mouth as far as the Falls, and also traced the course of its tributary the Shire and discovered Lake Malawi. For the next 35 years very little exploration of the river took place, but in 1889 the Chinde channel north of the main mouths of the river was discovered. Two expeditions led by Major A. St Hill Gibbons in 1895 to 1896 and 1898 to 1900 continued the work of exploration begun by Livingstone in the upper basin and central course of the river. Portuguese explorer Serpa Pinto examined some of the western tributaries of the river and made measurements of the Victoria Falls in 1878.

Wildlife

The river supports large populations of many animals. Hippopotamuses are abundant along most of the calm stretches of the river, and many crocodiles are also present. Monitor lizards are found in many places. Bird life is abundant, with species including heron, pelican, egret and African Fish Eagle present in large numbers. Riverine woodland also supports many large animals, such as buffalo, zebras, giraffes and elephants. However, below Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams, the cessation of annual flooding has seen the area of this habitat greatly reduced and a corresponding reduction in the populations of the large mammals. The Zambezi also supports several hundred species of fish, some of which are endemic to the river. Important species include cichlids which are fished heavily for food, as well as catfish, tigerfish and other large species. The bull shark is sometimes known as the Zambezi Shark after the river but is found around the world. It normally inhabits coastal waters but has been found far inland in many large rivers including the Zambezi. It is an aggressive shark which has been responsible for several attacks on humans.

Economy

coast The population of the Zambezi river valley is estimated to be about 32 million. About 80% of the population of the valley is dependent on agriculture, and the upper river's flood plains provide good agricultural land. Communities by the river fish extensively from it, and many people travel from far afield to fish. Some Zambian towns on roads leading to the river levy unofficial 'fish taxes' on people taking Zambezi fish to other parts of the country. As well as fishing for food, game fishing is a significant activity on some parts of the river. Between Mongu and Livingstone, several safari lodges cater for tourists who want to fish for exotic species, and many also catch fish to sell to aquaria. The river valley is rich in mineral deposits and fossil fuels, and coal mining is important in places. The dams along its length also provide employment for many people near them, in maintaining the hydroelectric power stations and the dams themselves. Several parts of the river are also very popular tourist destinations. Victoria Falls receives over 1.5 million visitors annually, while Mana Pools and Lake Kariba also draw substantial tourist numbers.

Transportation

The river is frequently interrupted by rapids and so has never been an important long-distance transport route. However, along short stretches, it is often more convenient to travel by canoe along the river rather than on the unimproved roads which are often in very poor condition due to being regularly submerged in flood waters, and many small villages along the banks of the river are only accessible by boat. There are only five bridges across the river along its entire course, of which one is a footbridge only. However, at many locations pontoons ferry people and vehicles across the river. The bridge at Victoria Falls was the first to be built, and was completed in April 1905. It was initially intended as a link in Cecil Rhodes' scheme to build a railway from Cape Town to Cairo. The bridge is 250 metres (820 ft) across, with a main arch spanning 150 metres (490 ft), and the top of the bridge is 125 metres (410 ft) above the low-water level of the river. Later bridges were constructed at Chirundu in Zambia (1939, replaced in 2003), Tete in Mozambique (1960s) and Chinyingi in northern Zambia in the 1970s (footbridge only). 2004 saw the completion of a bridge crossing the river from Sesheke in Zambia with Katima Mulilo in Namibia, completing the TransCaprivi Highway and connecting Lusaka in Zambia with Walvis Bay on the Namibian coast.

Ecology

Walvis Bay Sewage effluent is a major cause of water pollution around urban areas, as inadequate water treatment facilities in all the major cities of the region force them to release untreated sewage into the river. This has resulted in eutrophication of the river water and has facilitated the spread of diseases of poor hygiene such as cholera, typhus and dysentery. The construction of two major dams regulating the flow of the river has had a major effect on wildlife and human populations in the lower Zambezi region. When the Cahora Bassa Dam was constructed in 1973, its managers allowed it to fill in a single flood season, going against recommendations to fill over at least two years. The drastic reduction in the flow of the river led to a 40% reduction in the coverage of mangroves, greatly increased erosion of the coastal region and a 60% reduction in the catch of prawns off the mouth due to the reduction in emplacement of silt and associate nutrients. Wetland ecosystems downstream of the dam shrank considerably.

Major towns

Along much of the river's length, the population is sparse, but important towns and cities along its course include the following:
- Mongu
- Lukulu
- Katima Mulilo (Namibia), Sesheke (Zambia)
- Livingstone (Zambia), Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
- Kariba
- Songo
- Tete

References

# Bento C.M., Beilfuss R. (2003), Wattled Cranes, Waterbirds, and Wetland Conservation in the Zambezi Delta, Mozambique, report for the Biodiversity Foundation for Africa for the IUCN - Regional Office for Southern Africa: Zambezi Basin Wetlands Conservation and Resource Utilisation Project. # Bourgeois S., Kocher T., Schelander P. (2003), Case study: Zambezi river basin, ETH Seminar: Science and Politics of International Freshwater Management 2003/04 # Davies B.R., Beilfuss R., Thoms M.C. (2000), Cahora Bassa retrospective, 1974–1997: effects of flow regulation on the Lower Zambezi River, Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol, v. 27, p. 1-9 # Dunham KM (1994), The effect of drought on the large mammal populations of Zambezi riverine woodlands, Journal of Zoology, v. 234, p. 489-526 # Wynn S. (2002), The Zambezi River - Wilderness and Tourism, International Journal of Wilderness, v. 8, p. 34

External links

- [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=310&theme=2 Information and a map of the Zambezi's watershed]
- [http://www.zaraho.org.zm/ Zambezi River Authority]
- [http://www.zamsoc.org/ The Zambezi Society]
- [http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/register/images/africa.gif Map of Africa's river basins] Category:Rivers of Angola Category:Rivers of Mozambique Category:Rivers of Zambia Category:Rivers of Zimbabwe ja:ザンベジ川

South Africa

:This article is about the country called 'South Africa'. For the region, see southern Africa. The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of the African continent. It borders the countries of Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Swaziland. Lesotho is an enclave entirely surrounded by South African territory. South Africa has the largest population of people of European descent in Africa, the largest Indian population in Africa, the largest mixed white, Malay, and black population (formerly known as "Coloured"; people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European descent; or pure Khoisan descent) community in Africa, making it one of the most ethnically diverse countries on the continent. Racial and ethnic strife between the white minority and the black majority have played a large part in the country's history and politics. The National Party began introducing the policy of apartheid after winning the general election of 1948; however, it was the same party under the leadership of F.W. de Klerk which under pressure started to dismantle it in 1990 after a long struggle by the black majority, as well as some white, coloured and Indian South Africans. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup d'état, and regular free and fair elections have been held for almost a century (however blacks have only been able to vote since 1994), making it a regional power and among the most stable and liberal democracies in Africa. The economy of South Africa is the largest and most well-developed of the entire African continent, with modern infrastructure common throughout the country.

Languages

South Africa has 11 official languages: English, Afrikaans, Zulu, Swati, Ndebele, Southern Sotho, Northern Sotho, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda and Xhosa. In this regard it is second only to India in number. As a result, there are many official names for the country. The country also recognises eight non-official languages: Fanagalo, Lobedu, Northern Ndebele, Phuthi, South African Sign Language, Khoe, Nama and San. These non-official languages may be used in certain official uses in limited areas where it has been determined that these languages are prevalent. Nevertheless, their populations are not as such that they require nationwide recognition. Many of the "unofficial languages" of the San and Khoikhoi people contain regional dialects stretching northward into Namibia and Botswana, and elsewhere. These people, who are a physically distinct population from other Africans, have their own cultural identity based on their hunter-gatherer societies. They have been marginalised to a great extent, and many of their languages are in danger of becoming extinct. Many white South Africans also speak other European languages, such as Portuguese, German, and Greek, while many Asians and Indians in South Africa speak languages such as Gujarati and Tamil. There are 11 official names for South Africa, one for each of the official national languages. While each language is technically equal to every other, English has emerged recently as the chief-among-peers as it is the most widely spoken language across racial barriers as well as globally, even though it is not the most widely spoken language by population. Afrikaans has been downgraded in order to accommodate other official languages. The South African passport currently has only French and English on the front cover and lists the other official names of South Africa on an inner page. Many of the minority groups in South Africa feel that their languages, despite having official status, are being sidelined in favour of English.

History

minority groups in South Africa minority groups in South Africas.]] minority groups in South Africa during apartheid. Non-whites were only allowed on the left side of the boundary.]] :Main article: History of South Africa South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological sites in Africa. Extensive fossil remains at the Sterkfontein, Kromdraai and Makapansgat caves suggest that various australopithecines existed in South Africa from about three million years ago. These were succeeded by various species of Homo, including Homo habilis, Homo erectus and modern man, Homo sapiens. Bantu iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen moved south of the Limpopo River into modern-day South Africa by the 4th or 5th century (the Bantu expansion). They slowly moved south and the earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The furthest south they reached was the Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. These Iron Age populations displaced earlier hunter-gatherer peoples as they migrated. The written history of South Africa began on April 6 1652, when a victualing station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a Dutch possession. The Dutch settlers initiated a series of wars called Cape Frontier Wars against the Xhosa people, and imported slaves from Indonesia, Madagascar, and India. Descendants of these slaves, who often married with Dutch settlers, were later classified together with the remnants of the Khoi as Cape Coloureds and "Cape Malays", constituting roughly 50 percent of the population in the Western Cape Province. Great Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1797 during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War. The Dutch declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the Cape Colony in 1805. The British continued the frontier wars against the AmaXhosa, pushing the eastern frontier eastward through a line of forts established along the Fish River and consolidating it by encouraging British settlement. Due to pressure of abolitionist societies in Britain, the British parliament first stopped its global slave trade, then abolished slavery in all its colonies in 1833. The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1886 encouraged economic growth and immigration, intensifying the subjugation of the natives. The Boers successfully resisted British encroachments during the First Boer War (1880–1881) basing their tactics much better on local conditions. For example, the Boers wore khaki clothing, which was the same colour as the earth, whereas the British wore bright red uniforms, making them easy targets for Boer sharpshooters. The British returned in greater numbers without their red jackets in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), which was largely opposed by the Liberal Party in the British Parliament. The Boers' attempt to ally themselves with German South West Africa provided the British with yet another excuse to take control of the Boer Republics. The Boers resisted fiercely, but the British eventually overwhelmed the Boer forces, using their superior numbers and external supply chains, as well as the controversial scorched earth tactic. The Treaty of Vereeniging specified full British sovereignty over the South African republics, and the British government agreed to assume the £3,000,000 war debt owed by the Afrikaner governments. One of the main provisions of the treaty ending the war was that blacks would not be allowed to vote, except in the Cape Colony. After four years of negotiations, the Union of South Africa was created from the colonies of Cape Colony, Natal Colony, and the republics of Orange Free State, and Transvaal on May 31, 1910, exactly eight years after the end of the Second Boer War. In 1934 the South African Party and National Parties merged to form the United Party, seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking whites, but split in 1939 over the Union's entry in World War II as an ally of the United Kingdom. The right-wing National Party sympathised with Nazi Germany during the war, and sought greater racial segregation, or apartheid after it. After World War II, the whites were able to maintain their rule by implementing the policies that would become known collectively as apartheid, a series of harsh laws segregating the country along racial lines. Apartheid became increasingly controversial in the late 20th century, leading to widespread sanctions and divestment abroad and growing unrest and oppression by the National Party within South Africa. In 1990, after a long period of resistance, strikes, marches, protests, andsabotage by various anti-apartheid movements, most notably the African National Congress (ANC), and also because of harsh international sanctions, the National Party government took the first step towards negotiating itself out of power when it lifted the ban on the African National Congress and other left-wing political organisations, and released Nelson Mandela from prison after 27 years. Apartheid legislation was gradually removed from the statute books, and the first multi-racial elections were held in 1994. The ANC won by an overwhelming majority, and has been in power ever since. South Africa is the first, and to date only, country to build nuclear weapons and then voluntarily dismantle its entire nuclear weapons programme. Despite the end of apartheid, millions of South Africans, mostly black, continue to live in poverty. The reason for this is attributed to the legacy of the apartheid regime and increasingly, what many see as the failure of the current government to tackle social issues. However, the ANC's social housing policy has produced some improvement in living conditions in many areas.

Government

poverty.]] :Main article: Government of South Africa The Republic of South Africa is a constitutional democracy with a three-tiered system of government and an independent judiciary, operating under a parliamentary system. However, unlike republics with Westminster-style parliamentary systems, the President is both Head of State and Head of Government. The minimum age for voting in South Africa is 18. In the first post-apartheid elections, permanent residents as well as citizens were allowed to vote. In all subsequent elections, only citizens have been granted this privilege - as is the case with most other nations. The government is decentralised: the national, provincial, and local levels of government all have legislative and executive authority in their own spheres, and is defined in the South African constitution as "distinctive, interdependent, and interrelated"—a system of separation of powers. All bodies and branches of the South African government are subject to the rule of the constitution, which is the supreme law in South Africa. The national legislature is the bicameral Parliament, consisting of the National Assembly (the lower house) and the National Council of Provinces (the upper house), which replaced the Senate in 1997. Each province has a unicameral Provincial Legislature, from which a Premier is elected, who in turn appoints an Executive Council . The judiciary consists of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court of Appeal, and the High Court. Operating at both national and provincial levels are advisory bodies drawn from South Africa's traditional leaders. The Council of Traditional Leaders being the national body, while each province except the Western Cape and Northern Cape have a House of Traditional Leaders. It is a stated intention in the Constitution that the country be run on a system of cooperative governance.

Politics

High Court :Main article: Politics of South Africa South Africa has a bicameral Parliament, comprising the National Council of Provinces (or upper house) with 90 members, and a National Assembly (or lower house) with 400 members. Members of the lower house are elected on a population basis by proportional representation: half of the members are elected from national lists and half are elected from provincial lists. Ten members are elected to represent each province in the National Council of Provinces, regardless of the population of the province. Elections for both chambers are held every five years. The government is formed in the lower house, and the leader of the majority party in the National Assembly is the President. Current South African politics is dominated by the ANC, who received 69.7 percent of the vote during the 2004 general election. The main challenger to the ANC's rule is the Democratic Alliance party, which received only 12.4 percent of the vote. The formerly dominant New National Party, who introduced apartheid through its predecessor, the National Party, has suffered increasing humiliation at election polls since 1994, and finally voted to disband on 9 April 2005.

Provinces

:Main article: Provinces of South Africa When apartheid ended in 1994, the South African government had to integrate the formerly independent and semi-independent Bantustans into the political structure of South Africa. To this end, it abolished the four former provinces of South Africa (Cape Province, Natal, Orange Free State, and Transvaal) and replaced them with nine fully integrated provinces. The new provinces are usually much smaller than the former provinces, which theoretically is in order to give local governments more resources to distribute over smaller areas. The new provinces are:

Geography

Transvaal :Main article: Geography of South Africa South Africa is located at the extreme south of Africa, with a long coastline that stretches more than 2,500 km and across two oceans (the Atlantic and the Indian). South Africa has a great variety of climate zones, from the extreme desert of the Kalahari near Namibia to lush subtropical climate along the border with Mozambique. It quickly rises over a mountainous escarpment towards the interior plateau known as the Highveld. Even though South Africa is classified as semi-arid, there is considerable variation in climate as well as topography. The interior of South Africa is a giant, mountainous, and sparsely populated scrubland Karoo plateau, which is drier towards the north-west along the Kalahari desert. In contrast, the eastern coastline is lush and well-watered which produces a climate similar to the tropics. The extreme south west has a climate remarkably similar to that of the Mediterranean with wet winters and hot, dry summers. This area also produces much of South Africa's wine. This region is also particularly known for its wind, which blows intermittently almost all year. The severity of this wind made passing around the Cape of Good Hope particularly treacherous for sailors, causing many shipwrecks. Further east on the country's south coast rainfall is distributed more evenly throughout the year, producing a green landscape. This area is popularly known as the Garden Route. The Free State is particularly flat due to the fact that the eastern region of the Highveld does not extend as far north as the western region. North the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not experience subtropical extremes of heat. Johannesburg, in the centre of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m and receives an annual rainfall of 760 mm. Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare. To the north and east of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the Highveld's escarpment, and turns into the Lowveld. The Lowveld has particularly high temperatures, and is also the location of traditional South African Bushveld. The high Drakensberg mountains, which form the eastern escarpment of the Highveld, offer limited skiing opportunities in winter. The coldest place in South Africa is Sutherland in the western Roggeveld Mountains, where midwinter temperatures can reach as low as –15 degrees Celsius. The deep interior has the hottest temperatures: A temperature of 51.7 °C was recorded in 1948 in the Northern Cape Kalahari near Upington.[http://www.safrica.info/ess_info/sa_glance/geography/geography.htm] South Africa also has one possession, the small sub-antarctic archipelago of the Prince Edward Islands, consisting of Marion Island (290 km²) and Prince Edward Island (45 km²; not to be confused with the Canadian province of the same name).

Flora and fauna

Canadian province of the same name unique to South Africa, is found near Cape Town.]] South Africa has more than 20,000 different plants, or about 10 percent of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it particularly verdant. The Fynbos Biome, one of the six floral kingdoms, is located in a small region of the Western Cape and contains more than 9,000 of those species, making it among the most green places on earth. The majority of the plants are evergreen hard-leaf plants with fine, needle-like leaves, such as the sclerophyllous. Another particularly South African plant is the protea, which is a genus of blooming plants. There are 130 different species recorded in South Africa. While South Africa has a really great wealth of flowering plants, it has a dearth of forest resources. Only 1 percent of South Africa is forest, almost exclusively in the humid coastal plain along the Indian Ocean in KwaZulu-Natal. There are even smaller reserves of forests that are out of the reach of fire, known as montane forests. Plantations of imported tree species are predominant, particularly the non-native eucalyptus and pine. The original temperate forest that met the first European settlers to South Africa was extinguished ruthlessly until only small patches remained. Currently, South African hardwood trees like Real Yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), and South African Black Ironwood (Olea laurifolia) are under government protection. South Africa's most prevalent biome is grassland, which is particularly present on the Highveld, where the plant cover is dominated by different grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mainly camel-thorn and whitethorn. Vegetation becomes even more sparse towards the northwest due to low precipitation. There are several species of water-storing succulents like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. The grass and thorn savannah turns slowly into a bush savannah towards the northeast of the country, with more dense growth. There are significant numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park. [http://www.southafrica-travel.net/pages/e_plants.htm]

Economy

Kruger National Park coast and site of Africa's largest commercial port.]] Kruger National Park with Table Mountain in the background. Cape Town has become an important retail and tourism centre for the country, and attracts the largest number of foreign visitors in South Africa.]] :Main article: Economy of South Africa South Africa is a middle-income country with an abundant supply of resources, well-developed financial, legal, communications, energy, and transport sectors, a stock exchange, JSE Securities Exchange, that ranks among the 10 largest in the world, and a modern infrastructure supporting an efficient distribution of goods to major urban centres throughout the region. South Africa's per capita GDP, corrected for purchasing power parity, positions the country as one of the 50 wealthiest in the world. In many respects, South Africa is developed; however, this development is significantly localised around 4 areas, namely: Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, Durban, and Pretoria-Johannesburg. Beyond these 4 economic centres, development is marginal and poverty still reigns despite Government strategies. Large income gaps and a dual economy designate South Africa as developing. Only Brazil and India show a greater divide between its country's wealthy and poor residents. Consecutive growth rates in the last ten years are helping lower unemployment, however, the economy still has ways to go, and daunting economic problems remain from the apartheid era, especially the problems of poverty and lack of economic empowerment among the disadvantaged groups. Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS. At the start of 2000, President Thabo Mbeki vowed to promote economic growth and foreign investment by relaxing restrictive labour laws, stepping up the pace of privatisation, and cutting unneeded governmental spending. His policies face strong opposition from organised labour. It is estimated that South Africa accounts for up to 30 percent of the gross domestic product of the entire African continent. South Africa is also the continent's largest energy producer and consumer. The rand, the world's most actively traded emerging market currency, has joined an elite club of 15 currencies - the Continuous Linked Settlement (CLS) - where forex transactions are settled immediately, lowering the risks of transacting across time zone. The South African Rand was the best performing currency against the US Dollar between 2002 and 2005, according to the Bloomberg Currency Scorecard. The volatility of the rand has affected economic activity, with the rand falling sharply during 2001, hitting an historic low of R13.85 to the United States dollar, raising fears of inflation, and causing the Reserve Bank to increase interest rates. The rand has since dramatically recovered, trading at R6.55 to the dollar as of July 2005 while the South African Reserve Bank's policy of inflation targeting has brought inflation under control. The stronger rand has however put exporters under considerable pressure, with many calling for government to intervene in the exchange rate to help soften the rand, and many others dismissing staff. 21.5% of the South African population have been estimated to be HIV positive in 2004. The government has recently, after much delay, devoted substantial resources to fighting the epidemic. A recent study from the African Journal of AIDS Research by Thomas Rehle and Olive Shisana showed the infection rate starting to level off, from 4.2 percent to 1.7 percent infection rate for 15-49 year olds, and AIDS deaths peaking at 487,320 in 2008. Refugees from poorer neighbouring countries abound with immigrants from the DRC, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi and many others representing a large portion of the informal sector. With high unemployment levels amongst poorer South Africans, xenophobia is a very real fear and many people born in South Africa feel resentful of immigrants who are seen to be depriving the native population of jobs, a feeling which has been given credibility by the fact that many South African employers have employed migrants from other countries for lower pay than South African citizens, especially in the construction, tourism, agriculture and domestic service industries. Illegal immigrants are also heavily involved in informal trading. [http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/5No4/StrategigPerspectives.html] However, many immigrants to South Africa continue to live in poor conditions, and the South African immigration policy has become increasingly restrictive since 1994 [http://www.queensu.ca/samp/sampresources/samppublications/policyseries/policy20.htm].

Agriculture

:Main article: Agriculture in South Africa South Africa has a large agricultural sector, and is a net exporter of farming products. There are almost a thousand agricultural cooperatives and agribusinesses throughout the country, and agricultural exports constitute eight per cent of South Africa's total exports for the past five years. The agricultural industry contributes to around 9% of formal employment, relatively low compared to other parts of Africa, as well as providing work for casual labourers and contributing towards around 2.6% of GDP for the nation. However, due to the aridity of the land, only 15% can be used for crop production. [http://www.southafrica.co.za/agriculture_29.html] Although the commercial farming sector is relatively well developed, people in some rural areas still survive on subsistence farming. It is the eighth largest wine producer in the world, and the eleventh largest producer of sunflower seed. South Africa is a net exporter of agricultural products and foodstuffs, the largest number of exported items being sugar, grapes, citrus, nectarines, wine and deciduous fruit. The largest locally produced crop is maize, and it has been estimated that 9 million tons is produced every year, with 7.4 million tons being consumed. Livestock are also popular on South African farms, with the country producing 85% of all meat consumed. The dairy industry consists of around 4300 milk producers providing employment for 60 000 farm workers and contributing to the livelihoods of around 40 000 others. In recent years, the agricultural sector has introduced several reforms, some of which are controversial, such as land reform and the deregulation of the market for agricultural products. Land reform has been criticised both by farmers' groups and by landless workers, the latter alleging that the pace of change has not been fast enough, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4718707.stm] and the former alleging racist treatment (many commercial farmers are white) and expressing concerns that a similar situation to Robert Mugabe's land reform policy may develop, a fear exacerbated by comments made by the country's deputy president [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4140990.stm][http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/905101351.html?dids=905101351:905101351&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+1%2C+2005&author=Alexandra+Fuller&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=South+Africa%27s+land+grab]. The sector continues to face problems with increased foreign competition and crime being two of the major challenges for the industry. Crime against commercial farmers is often, although not always, racially motivated as many South African commercial farmers are white. The rural farmer population has shouldered a great increase in attacks and harrassment and suffered nearly 1800 farm murders since the end of apartheid in 1994, and this has caused many commercial farmers, who are often white, to flee the countryside for the protection of the gated communities of the cities and that offered by other nations. The government has been accused of not devoting enough time and money to tackle the problem as opposed to other forms of violent crime, or simply inefficiency and incompetence. Some observers have even alleged that the government are unsympathetic or uninterested due to racism, especially in the case of white farmers, even suggesting that elite police units are indirectly protecting the murderers by monitoring unilaterally security professionals from farmer organisation TAU SA [http://www.praag.co.za/nuus.boereafluister30112005.htm] [http://www.praag.co.za/menings30112005.htm]. As a result of this and other pressures on the industry, there are now only 25,000 commercial farmers as opposed to 85,000 in 1994, and agricultural productivity and output has decreased 50%. Another issue which continues to affect South African agriculture is environmental damage caused by misuse of the land. To reverse the damage caused by land mismanagement, the government have supported a scheme which promotes sustainable development and the use of natural resources. [http://www.nda.agric.za/]

Demographics

:Main article: Demographics of South Africa South Africa is a nation of 44.8 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and beliefs. The 2001 Statistics South Africa census provided five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, "unspecified/other" drew negligible responses, and these results were omitted. Results for the other categories were:
- African/Black—75%
- White—14%
- Coloured—9%
- Indian/Asian—3% By far the major part of the population classified itself as African or black, but it is not culturally or linguistically homogenous. Major ethnic groups include the Zulu, Xhosa, Basotho, Venda, Tswana, Tsonga, Swazi and Ndebele. Some, such as the Zulu, Xhosa and Venda groups, are unique to South Africa. Other groups are distributed across the borders with South Africa's neighbours: The Basotho group is also the major ethnic group in Lesotho. The Tswana ethnic group constitute the majority of the population of Botswana. The Swazi ethnic group is the major ethnic group in Swaziland. The Ndebele ethnic group is also found in Matabeleland in Zimbabwe. The Tsonga ethnic group is also found in southern Mozambique, where Tsonga people are known as the Shangaan. The white population descends largely from colonial immigrants: Dutch, German, French Huguenot, and British. Linguistically, it is divided into Afrikaans- and English-speaking groups, although many small communities immigrating over the last century retain the use of other languages. The white population is on the decrease due to a low birth rate and emigration; as a factor in their decision to emigrate, many cite the high crime rate and the government's affirmative action policies. The term "Coloured" is still largely used for the people of mixed race descended from slaves brought in from the East and central Africa, the indigenous Khoisan who lived in the Cape at the time, indigenous African blacks and whites. The majority speak Afrikaans. Khoisan is a term used to describe two separate groups, physically similar in that they were light-skinned and small in stature. The Khoi, who were called Hottentots by the Europeans, were pastoralists and were effectively annihilated; the San, called Bushmen by the Europeans, were hunter-gatherers. The major part of the Asian population of the country is Indian in origin, many of them descended from indentured workers brought in the 19th century to work on the sugar plantations of the eastern coastal area then known as Natal. There is also a significant group of Chinese South Africans (approximately 100 000 individuals).

Culture

Chinese, the holding place of several anti-apartheid fighters including Nelson Mandela, who was imprisoned there for 27 years. Robben Island is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.]] :Main article: Culture of South Africa While it may be argued that there is no "single" culture in South Africa because of its ethnic diversity, South Africans of all races and backgrounds are united by a sincere desire to see to it that the horrors and injustices of Apartheid are never again repeated. Today, the diverse cultural foods are enjoyed by all and especially marketed to tourists who wish to sample the large variety of South African cuisine. In addition to food, music and dance are equally enjoyed and appreciated by all. South African cuisine is heavily meat-based and has spawned the distinctively South African social gathering known as a braai. South Africa has also developed into a major wine producer, with some of the best vineyards in the world lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek and Paarl. There is great diversity in music from South Africa. Many black musicians who sang in Afrikaans or English during apartheid have since begun to sing in traditional African languages, and have developed a unique style called Kwaito. Of note is Brenda Fassie, who launched to fame with her song "Weekend Special", which was sung in English. More famous traditional musicians include Ladysmith Black Mambazo, while the Soweto String Quartet performs classic music with an African flavour. White and Coloured South African singers tend to avoid traditional African musical themes, instead preferring more European musical styles. There is a thriving market for Afrikaans music, covering all the genres of Western music. The country's black majority still has a substantial number of rural inhabitants who lead largely impoverished lives. It is among these people, however, that traditional dance and music survive; as blacks have become increasingly urbanised and westernised, aspects of traditional culture have declined. Urban blacks usually speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still significant groups of speakers of Khoisan languages which are not official languages, but are one of the eight officially recognised languages. There are small groups of speakers of endangered languages, most of which are from the Khoi-San family, that receive no official status; however, some groups within South Africa are attempting to promote their use and revival. The white minority lead lifestyles similar in many respects to whites found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia. Historical enmity between Afrikaans and English-speaking whites has given way to banter that is purely amiable today. Despite considerable discrimination under apartheid, Coloureds tend to relate more to white South African culture rather than black South African culture, especially Afrikaans-speaking Coloured people whose