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Yellowstone: For the next-generation airliner series from Boeing, see Boeing Yellowstone.
Yellowstone National Park is a U.S. National Park located in the states of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. Yellowstone is the first and oldest national park in the world and covers 3,470 square miles (8,980 km²), mostly in the northwest corner of Wyoming. The park is famous for its various geysers, hot springs, and other geothermal features and is home to grizzly bears and wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk. It is the core of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, one of the largest intact temperate zone ecosystems remaining on the planet.
Long before any recorded human history in Yellowstone, a massive volcanic eruption spewed an immense volume of ash that covered all of the western U.S., much of the Midwest, northern Mexico and some areas of the eastern Pacific Coast. The eruption dwarfed that of Mount St. Helens in 1980 and left a huge caldera 43 miles by 18 miles (70 km by 30 km) sitting over a huge magma chamber (see Geology section and Yellowstone Caldera). Yellowstone has registered three major eruption events in the last 2.2 million years with the last event occurring 640,000 years ago. Its eruptions are the largest known to have occurred on Earth within that timeframe, producing drastic climate change in the aftermath.
The park was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone—a deep gash in the Yellowstone Plateau that was formed by floods during previous ice ages and by river erosion from the Yellowstone River.
Human history
The human history of the park dates back 12,000 years. It was known to the original natives as "Mitzi-a-dazi," the "River of Yellow Rocks," because of the hydrothermally altered iron-containing yellow rocks in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone (many people incorrectly believe that the yellow color is from sulfur).
The Native Americans that hunted and fished in the Yellowstone region also utilized the significant amounts of obsidian found in the park to make cutting tools and weapons. In fact, arrowheads made of Yellowstone obsidian have been found as far away as the Mississippi Valley, which strongly indicate that a regular obsidian trade existed between Yellowstone Native Americans and tribes further east.
obsidian trade
In 1806 a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition named John Colter left the Expedition to join a group of fur trappers and was probably the first non-Native American to visit the region and make contact with the Native Americans there. After surviving wounds he suffered in a battle with Crow and Blackfoot tribes, he gave a description of a place of "fire and brimstone" that was dismissed by most people as delirium. The supposedly imaginary place was nicknamed "Colter's Hell."
Mountain man Jim Bridger later returned from an 1857 expedition to the park's area and told tales of boiling springs, spouting water, a mountain of glass and yellow rock. These reports were largely ignored, however, because Bridger was known for being a "spinner of yarns." Nonetheless his stories did arouse the interest of explorer and geologist F.V. Hayden who in 1859 started a two-year survey of the upper Missouri River region with Bridger as a guide and with United States Army surveyor W.F. Raynolds. The party was able to reach the approaches to the Yellowstone region but was not able to go any further due to heavy snows. The intervening American Civil War stopped all attempts to explore the region, and Hayden would not be able to fulfill his mission to explore the area for another 11 years.
American Civil War
A party of Montanans then organized the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition, headed by the surveyor-general of Montana Henry Washburn. Amongst the group was Nathaniel P. Langford, who would later become known as "National Park" Langford, and an Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane. The expedition spent about a month in 1870 exploring the region, collecting specimens and naming sites of interest.
In 1871 Hayden led a second, larger expedition, which was now government sponsored, to the Yellowstone region. He compiled a comprehensive report on Yellowstone which included large-format photographs by William Henry Jackson and paintings by Thomas Moran. This report helped to convince the U.S. Congress to withdraw this region from public auction. Then on March 1, 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed a bill into law that created Yellowstone National Park.
Langford then served for five years without pay as the first superintendent of the park and was followed by several other superintendents (who worked with some minimal funding). The second superintendent was Philetus Norris who essentially volunteered for the position, after traveling through Yellowstone and witnessing its problems first hand. During his tenure Congress finally began to give the superintendent a salary and minimal funds to operate the park. He used these monies to expand access to and further explore Yellowstone. Norris also hired Harry Yount (nicknamed "Rocky Mountain Harry") to control poaching and vandalism in the park. Today, Harry Yount is considered the very first national park ranger.
Harry Yount
Three additional superintendents followed, but none proved effective in stopping the destruction of Yellowstone's natural resources.
This continued until 1886 when the Army was given the task of managing the park (see Fort Yellowstone). The Army remained the steward of the park until control was given to a civilian corps of rangers under the newly created National Park Service in 1916.
More recently, Yellowstone has been designated as an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976, and a United Nations World Heritage Site on September 8, 1978.
Forest fires
1978
A series of lightning-derived fires started to burn large portions of the park in July of the especially dry summer of 1988. Thousands of firefighters responded to the blaze in order to prevent human-built structures from succumbing to the flames. Controversially, however, no serious effort was made to completely extinguish the fires, and they burned until the arrival of autumn rains. Ecologists argued that fire is part of the Yellowstone ecosystem and that not allowing the fires to run their course (as has been the practice in the past) will result in a choked, sick and decaying forest. In fact, relatively few megafauna in the park were killed by the fires and since the blaze many saplings have sprung up on their own, old vistas were viewable once again and many previously unknown archaeological and geological sites of interest were found and cataloged by scientists. The National Park Service now has a policy of lighting smaller, controlled "prescribed fires" to prevent another dangerous buildup of flammable materials.
Geography
The continental divide of North America runs roughly diagonally through the southwestern part of the park. The divide is a topographic ridgeline that bisects the continent between Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages (the drainage from one-third of the park is on the Pacific side of this divide).
Atlantic Ocean
For example, the Yellowstone River and the Snake River both have their origin close to each other in the park. However, the headwaters of the Snake River are on the west side of the continental divide, and the headwaters of the Yellowstone River are on the east side of that divide. The result is that the waters of the Snake River head toward the Pacific Ocean, and the waters of the Yellowstone head for the Atlantic Ocean (via the Gulf of Mexico).
The park sits on a high plateau which is, on average, 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above sea level and is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains, which range from 10,000 to 14,000 feet (3,000 to 4,300 m) in elevation. These ranges are: the Gallatin Range (to the northwest), Beartooth Mountains (to the north), Absaroka Mountains (to the east), Wind River Range (southeast corner), Teton Mountains (to the south, see Grand Teton National Park) and the Madison Range (to the west). The most prominent summit in the plateau is Mount Washburn at 10,243 feet (3,122 m).
Just outside of the southwestern park border is the Island Park Caldera, which is a plateau ringed by low hills. Beyond that is the Snake River Plains of southern Idaho, which are covered by flood basalts and slope gently to the southwest (see Craters of the Moon National Monument).
The major feature of the Yellowstone Plateau is the Yellowstone Caldera; a very large caldera which has been nearly filled-in with volcanic debris and measures 50 by 60 kilometers (30 by 40 mi). Within this caldera lies most of Yellowstone Lake, which is the largest high-elevation lake in North America, and two resurgent domes, which are areas that are uplifting at a slightly faster rate than the rest of the plateau.
Geology
See also Geothermal areas of Yellowstone
Geothermal areas of Yellowstone
Geothermal areas of Yellowstone
Yellowstone is at the northeast tip of a smooth U-shaped curve through the mountains, which is now the Snake River Plain. This curved plain was created as the North American continent drifted across a stationary volcanic hotspot beneath the Earth's crust. This hot spot used to be near what is now Boise, Idaho, but North America has drifted at a rate of 45 mm a year in a southwestern direction, shifting the hot spot to its present location.
Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "supervolcano" because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. It was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago that released 1,000 cubic kilometers of ash, rock and pyroclastic materials (this was 800 times larger than Mount St. Helens' 1980 eruption), forming a crater nearly a kilometre deep and 40 by 70 kilometres in area (25 by 45 mi) (the size of the caldera has been modified a bit since this time and has mostly been filled in, however). The welded tuff geologic formation created by this eruption is called the Lava Creek Tuff. In addition to the last great eruptive cycle there were two other previous ones in the Yellowstone area.
Each eruption is in fact a part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the collapse of the roof of a partially emptied magma chamber. This creates a crater, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material (usually through fissures that ring the caldera). The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 900,000 years, but the small number of such climax eruptions can not be used to make a prediction for the time range for the next climax eruption.
The first and largest eruption climaxed to the southwest of the current park boundaries 2.2 million years ago and formed a caldera about 50 by 80 kilometres in area (30 by 50 mi) and hundreds of meters deep after releasing 2,500 cubic kilometers of material (mostly ash, pumice and other pyroclastics). pumice This caldera has been filled in by subsequent eruptions, and the geologic formation created by this eruption is called the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff. Huckleberry Ridge Tuff] The second eruption, at 280 km³ of material ejected, climaxed 1.2 million years ago and formed the much smaller Island Park Caldera and the geologic formation called the Mesa Falls Tuff. All three climax eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America and fell many hundreds of miles away (as far as California to the southwest; see Lake Tecopa). The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of many species in at least North America. About 160,000 years ago a much smaller climax eruption occurred which formed a relatively small caldera that is now filled in with the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake.
Yellowstone Lake
Lava strata is most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. According to Ken Pierce, U.S. Geological Survey geologist, at the end of the last glacial period, about 14,000 to 18,000 years ago, ice dams formed at the mouth of Yellowstone Lake. When the ice dams melted, a great volume of water was released downstream causing massive flash floods and immediate and catastrophic erosion of the present-day canyon. These flash floods probably happened more than once. The canyon is a classic V-shaped valley, indicative of river-type erosion rather than glaciation. Today the canyon is still being eroded by the Yellowstone River.
valley
After the last major climax eruption 630,000 years ago until about 70,000 years ago, Yellowstone Caldera was nearly filled in with periodic eruptions of rhyolitic lavas (example at Obsidian Cliffs) and basaltic lavas (example at Sheepeaters Cliff). But 150,000 years ago the floor of the plateau began to bulge up again. Two areas in particular at the foci of the elliptically shaped caldera are rising faster than the rest of the plateau. This differential in uplift has created two resurgent domes (Sour Creek dome and Mallard Lake dome) which are uplifting at 15 millimeters a year while the rest of the caldera area of the plateau is uplifting at 12.5 millimeters a year.
Preserved within Yellowstone are many geothermal features and some 10,000 hot springs and geysers, 62% of the planet's known total. The superheated water that sustains these features comes from the same hot spot described above.
The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is Old Faithful Geyser (located in Upper Geyser Basin), but the park also contains the largest active geyser in the world, Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin..
Steamboat Geyser
In 2003 changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin. This coincided with the release of reports about a multiple year USGS research project mapping the bottom of Yellowstone Lake that identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in past beneath Yellowstone Lake. On March 10, 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion. Shortly after in April 2004 the park experienced an upsurge of earthquake activity. These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region. The United States government responded by allocating more resources to monitor the volcano and reminding visitors to remain on designated safe trails.
Biology and ecology
Main articles: Animals of Yellowstone, Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem
The dominant tree species in the park is Lodgepole pine, however, varieties of spruce, fir and aspen are also common. There are at least 600 species of trees and plants found in the park, some of which are found nowhere else.
Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitats in the lower 48 states. Animals found in the park include the majestic American bison (buffalo), grizzly bear, black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, pronghorn, wolverine, bighorn sheep and mountain lion (puma). The Yellowstone Lake Cutthroat Trout is a highly sought after trophy fish by anglers yet has been threatened in recent years by the suspicious introduction of lake trout that compete for spawning grounds and are known to consume smaller cutthroat trout.
cutthroat trout
The relatively large bison populations that exist in the park are a concern for ranchers who fear that the bison can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone's bison have been exposed to brucellosis, a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle and may cause cattle to miscarry. The disease has little effect on park bison and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to a visitor or to domestic livestock has ever been filed. But since the possibility of contagion still exists, the State of Montana believes its "brucellosis-free" status may be jeopardized if bison are in proximity to cattle. Montana has approved a bison hunt for fall of 2005, with 50 licenses issued to shoot bison that have left the park. Elk also carry the disease, but this popular game species is not considered a threat to livestock.
Elk
To combat the perceived threat, National Park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of park borders. Animal rights activists state that is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain. Ecologists also point out that the bison are just traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing (most of these areas are also within United States National Forests).
United States National Forests
A controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), is the recent reintroduction of wolves into the park's ecosystem. For many years the wolves were hunted and harassed until they become locally extinct in the 1930s. The smaller cousin of the wolf, the coyote, then became the park's top predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down any large animal in the park and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna. Since the reintroduction of wolves in the late 1990s this trend has started to reverse.
coyote
However, ranchers in surrounding areas are concerned about wolves that venture outside the park and prey on their livestock, especially sheep and cattle. For the most part, wolves kill what they were taught to kill as pups, so they tend to prey on elk rather than sheep, but once a wolf pack begins eating sheep and training the pups to eat sheep, there is little recourse but to destroy the offending pack members. Ranchers are compensated for their losses if they can prove that wolves killed the livestock, but they contend that it is often difficult to prove that the kills were not made by coyotes or wild dogs.
Reintroduced wolf packs do not carry endangered species status, so ranchers can kill wolves that threaten their herds, but wolves relocating from Canada on their own have begun to merge with the Yellowstone population, making it difficult to discern which wolves are protected and which are not.
endangered species
The National Park Service was generally not in favor of the reintroduction citing evidence that wolves had already begun to return on their own, reestablishing themselves in very limited numbers prior to the wolf reintroduction. Wildlife biologists employed by the National Park Service had documented rare sightings made personally and from eyewitness accounts. It was a quiet concern that the compact agreed on by federal agencies and the states in which Yellowstone is located would ultimately provide less protection to the wolf, because the threatened status would be amended to appease local interests such as ranchers who would not likely face prosecution under the reintroduction agreement.
endangered species
In Yellowstone's hot waters, bacteria form mats consisting of trillions of individual bacteria. The surfaces of these mats assume bizarre shapes, and flies and other arthropods live on the mats, even in the midst of the bitterly cold winters.
Tourist information
endangered species
Yellowstone is one of the most popular national parks in the United States. The park is unique in that it features multiple natural wonders all in the same park.
Geysers, hot springs, a grand canyon, forests, wilderness, wildlife and even a large lake can all be found inside the park. Due to the park's diversity of features, the list of activities for visitors is nearly endless. From backpacking to mountaineering, from kayaking to fishing, from sightseeing to watching bison, moose, and elk wandering into the parking lot of the visitor centers, most visitors enjoy a memorable experience in nature.
Most of the geothermal features (hot springs, geysers, etc) emit gaseous sulfur, and though to most people the odor is not terribly offensive or overwhelming, people with respiratory difficulties should consult their doctors before visiting.
Wildfires are a relatively common occurrence in Yellowstone, because of the dry summer climate, but they should not be considered "disasters"; instead, they are a regular natural process that contributes to the beauty and ecology of the park. A series of wildfires in 1988 burned about 45% of the park's forest, including some forests adjacent to the major tourist areas. The areas burned in the 1988 fire present a strange, stark beauty, and the burned areas are swiftly returning to green.
fishing
Park officials advise visitors not to approach dangerous animals and to stay on designated safe trails to avoid falling into boiling liquids and inhaling toxic gas. In 2004, five bison were discovered dead from an apparent inhalation of toxic geothermal gases.
Lodging for visitors exist at 11 locations within park boundaries. There is a clear view of Old Faithful Geyser at the park's Old Faithful Inn. Lodges range from hotel to cabin accommodations. There also are 11 campgrounds and one hard-sided recreational vehicle park.
Old Faithful Inn
The park itself is surrounded by other protected lands (including Grand Teton National Park and Custer National Forest) and beautiful drives (such as the Beartooth Highway). Nearby communities include West Yellowstone, Montana; Cody, Wyoming; Red Lodge, Montana; Ashton, Idaho; and Gardiner, Montana.
References
- Geology of National Parks: Fifth Edition, Ann G. Harris, Esther Tuttle, Sherwood D. Tuttle (Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing; 1997) ISBN 0-7872-5353-7
- National Park Service [http://www.nps.gov/yell/]
- Yellowstone Park Foundation [http://windowsintowonderland.org/]
External links
- Official site: [http://www.nps.gov/yell/ Yellowstone National Park]
- [http://www.usatoday.com/weather/climate/usa/parks/wyellows.htm Climate data for Yellowstone National Park]
- [http://www.swisseduc.ch/stromboli/perm/yellowstone/index-en.html Yellowstone page on Stromboli online]
- [http://www.bigskyfishing.com/National_parks/yellowstone/photo_gallery/YellowstoneParkPhotoGallery/index.html Yellowstone National Park Pictures]
- [http://www.nps.gov/yell/slidefile/fire/index.htm Yellowstone National Park Wildland Fire Images - Fires of 1988] public domain images.
- [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/history.html USGS: Volcanic History of the Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field]
- [http://www.yellowstone.net Yellowstone Net]
- [http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com yellowstonenationalpark.com], [http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/calderas.htm Calderas], [http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/glaciations.htm Glaciations]
- [http://www.UntraveledRoad.com/USA/Parks/Yellowstone.htm Photographic virtual tour of Yellowstone National Park]
- [http://www.buffalofieldcampaign.org/ Buffalo Field Campaign, working to stop the slaughter of Yellowstone's wild free roaming buffalo]
- h2g2 has articles about the [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A3577197 origin of Yellowstone], its [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A3740474 geology] , its [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A3407447 early history] and [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A3356516 European exploration].
- [http://www.nationalparksgallery.com/parks/Yellowstone-National-Park Yellowstone National Park] - National Parks Gallery
- [http://www.bact.wisc.edu/Bact303/b27 Life at high temperatures] - An introduction to Yellowstone's thermophilic bacteria.
- [http://www.dannyburk.com/yellowstone_and_tetons.htm Pictures of Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks]
- [http://www.mybigadventure.com/index.php?action=Stats&stat=Parks&date=20040805&page=4 Grand Tour of Yellowstone's 7 Major Sights] - My Big Adventure (Images 414)
Category:Idaho landmarks
Category:Montana landmarks
Category:Wyoming landmarks
Category:National parks of the United States
Category:World Heritage Sites in the United States
Category:Geysers
ja:イエローストーン国立公園
Boeing Yellowstone
Yellowstone is a Boeing Commercial Airplanes project to replace its entire civil aircraft portfolio with advanced technology aircraft. New technologies to be introduced include composite aerostructures and more fuel-efficient turbofan engines. The term "Yellowstone" refers to the technologies, while "Y1" through "Y3" refer to the actual aircraft.
Yellowstone is divided into three projects:
- Y1, to replace the 717, 737, and 757-200 product lines. Y1 will cover the 100 to 200-passenger space.
- Y2, to replace the 757-300 and 767 product lines. It may also replace the 777-200. Y2, which initially referred to the Sonic Cruiser is now in development as the 787. Y2 will cover the 200 to 300-passenger space.
- Y3 to replace the 777-300 and 747 product lines. Y3 will cover 300 passengers and beyond.
External links
- [http://www.richardaboulafia.com/shownote.asp?id=59 March 2001 Newsletter], Richard Aboulafia, March, 2001.
- "[http://www.aviationnow.com/content/ncof/ncfn16.htm It's Boeing's Time For Something New]", Aviation Week & Space Technology, April 2, 2001.
- "[http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/design/q0108.shtml Future Airliners]," aerospaceweb.org, January 5, 2003.
- "[http://www.flug-revue.rotor.com/FRTypen/FRSupEf.htm Boeing 'Super Efficient' Airliner]," Flug Revue, 2003.
- "[http://www.flug-revue.rotor.com/FRTypen/FR7E7.htm Boeing 7E7]," Flug Revue, 2003.
- "[http://www.b737.org.uk/history.htm History & Development of the Boeing 737]," www.b737.org.uk, October 23, 2005.
- "[http://www.flightinternational.co.uk/Articles/2005/06/07/Navigation/240/198872/Not+if+but+when.html Not if... but when]," Flight International, July 6, 2005.
U.S. National ParkNational parks in the United States are considered the premier classification of protected areas of the United States. Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the world — in 1872, there was no state government to manage it, so the federal government assumed direct control. Yosemite National Park began as a state park; the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the State of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership.
At first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the civilian staff was replaced by the U.S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Tyng Mather petitioned the federal government to improve the situation. In response they tasked him with leading a new agency, the National Park Service, in 1916, to manage all national parks. Later the agency was given authority over other protected areas with varying designations.
Although all national parks in the United States are controlled by a single agency, and share a common designation, they are all managed under individual pieces of authorizing legislation. For example, Congaree National Park is almost entirely wilderness area, yet Yosemite has the Badger Pass Ski Area and the O'Shaughnessy Dam within its boundaries. Death Valley National Park actually has an active mine within its boundaries.
Many parks, especially the more popular ones, charge an entrance fee ranging from $1 to $20 (soon to be $25) per week. One can buy an annual pass, allowing unlimited access to the parks for $50 per year.
Nearly all the protected areas administered by the National Park Service, including national parks, participate in the national park passport stamps program.
See also
- List of U.S. national parks
External link
- [http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/NPShistory/briefhistory.htm A Brief History of the National Park Service]
National park
Wyoming
Wyoming is a state of the western United States. While the eastern third of the state is within the Great Plains, the majority is dominated by numerous distinct mountain ranges and rangelands. Wyoming is also the least populous U.S. state with 493,782 people, although Alaska has a lower population density. The capital and largest city of Wyoming is Cheyenne.
History
The region known today as the state of Wyoming was originally inhabited by several Native American groups. The Crow, Arapahoe, Sioux, and Shoshone were but a few of the original inhabitants encountered when white explorers first entered the region. Although French trappers may have ventured into the northern sections of the state in the late 1700s, John Colter, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, was probably the first white American to enter the region in 1807. His reports of the Yellowstone area were considered at the time to be fictional. Explorer Jim Bridger discovered South Pass in 1827, which later became the route followed by the Oregon Trail. In 1850, Bridger also located what is now known as Bridger Pass, which was later used by both the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868, and in the 20th century by Interstate 80. Bridger also explored the Yellowstone region and like Colter, most of his reports on that region of the state were considered at the time to be tall tales.
After the Union Pacific Railroad reached the town of Cheyenne, which later became the state capital, in 1867, the population began to grow steadily in the Wyoming Territory, established on July 25, 1868. Unlike the states of Montana to the north South Dakota to the east and Colorado to the south, Wyoming never experienced a rapid population boom due to any major mineral discoveries such as gold or silver. Copper could also be found in some areas of the state.
Once government sponsored expeditions to the Yellowstone country were undertaken, the previous reports by men like Colter and Bridger were found to be true. This led to the creation of Yellowstone National Park which became the world's first National Park in 1872 and is located in the far northwestern portion of the state. Most of the territory that comprises Yellowstone National Park is located in Wyoming.
Wyoming was admitted to the Union on July 10, 1890. It was named after the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, made famous by the 1809 poem Gertrude of Wyoming by Thomas Campbell. The name was suggested by Representative J. M. Ashbey of Ohio.
In 1869 Wyoming extended suffrage to women, at least partially in an attempt to garner enough votes to be admitted as a state. In addition to being the first U.S. state to extend suffrage to women, Wyoming was also the home of many other firsts for U.S. women in politics. It had the first female court bailiff and the first female justice of the peace in the country. Wyoming was also the first state in the Union to elect a woman governor, Nellie Tayloe Ross in 1925.
Wyoming was the location of the Johnson County War of 1892 which was fought between large cattle operations and free ranging interests.
Politics
Wyoming is one of the most conservative and, in national politics, most staunchly Republican states in the nation. The state has not voted for a Democrat for president since 1964 and there are no reliably Democratic counties. In the 2004 presidential election, George W. Bush won his third-largest victory, with 69% of the vote. Current Vice President Dick Cheney is a nearly lifelong Wyoming resident (born in Nebraska) and represented the state in Congress from 1979 to 1990.
However, Democrats have held the governorship for all but eight years since 1975. The current governor, Democrat Dave Freudenthal, was elected in 2002 and has one of the highest approval ratings of any Governor in the nation.
Because of its low population, Wyoming only has 3 votes in the electoral college. This is the same number of votes as Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Washington DC.
Geography
See: List of Wyoming counties
It is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, and on the west by Utah and Idaho. Devil's Tower, made famous in the film Close Encounters Of The Third Kind, is located near Moorcroft in Crook County.
Wyoming is generally considered an arid state with much of the land receiving less than 10 inches of rainfall a year. Consequently, the land supports few opportunities for farming. Ranching, however, is widespread, especially in areas near the numerous mountain chains. There are several major mountain ranges in the state, all part of the Rocky Mountains. The Snowy Range in the south central part of the state is an extension of the Colorado Rockies in both geology and appearance. The Wind River Range in the west central part of the state is remote and also has Gannett Peak, the highest peak in the state. The Big Horn Mountains in the north central portion are somewhat isolated from the bulk of the rest of the Rocky Mountains. Finally, the Teton Range in the northwest extends for 50 miles (80 km) and represents the most impressive section of mountains in the state, home to the second highest peak Grand Teton and Grand Teton National Park which preserves the most scenic section of the Teton range.
Several rivers begin or flow through the state, including the Yellowstone River, Powder River, and the Snake River.
The Continental Divide, which runs through most of North America forks in the south central part of the state. The waters that flow or precipitate into this area, known as the Great Divide Basin, do not flow to any ocean. Instead, due to the overall aridity of Wyoming, they simply sink into the soil or evaporate.
Wyoming sports the lowest population of any state and the lowest population density of the continental 48 states; however, non-contiguous Alaska's population density is lower, although its total population is higher.
Demographics
Population
- 2004 Population estimate – 506,529
- Foreign-born population – 11,000 (2.2%)
- Population Rank: 51st of the 50 states and the District of Columbia
Race
The racial makeup of Wyoming:
- 88.9% White
- 6.4% Hispanic
- 2.3% Native American
- 0.8% Black
- 0.6% Asian
- 1.8% Mixed race
The five largest ancestry groups in Wyoming are: German (25.9%), English (15.9%), Irish (13.3%), American (6.5%), Norwegian (4.3%).
Religion
The religious affiliations of the people of Wyoming are shown in the table below:
- Christian – 78%
- Protestant – 53%
- Lutheran – 9%
- Baptist – 9%
- Methodist – 6%
- Presbyterian – 4%
- Episcopal – 4%
- Other Protestant or general Protestant – 21%
- Roman Catholic – 18%
- Mormon – 7%
- Other Religions – 1%
- Non-Religious – 21%
Important cities and towns
The Wyoming municipalities with populations over 10,000 are, in descending order:
Education
Colleges and universities
- Casper College
- Central Wyoming College
- Eastern Wyoming College
- Laramie County Community College
- Northwest College
- Sheridan College
- University of Wyoming
- Western Wyoming Community College
- Wyoming Technical Institute (WyoTech)
[http://www.WyomingCavalry.com link title] Professional sports teams
- Casper Rockies, minor league baseball
- Wyoming Calvary, National Indoor Football League
Miscellaneous information
- List of notable people from Wyoming
:Capital: Cheyenne
:Nickname: Big Wonderful Wyoming, Equality State, Cowboy State
:State motto: "Equal Rights"
:Population: 493,782 (2000 census)
:State flower: Indian Paintbrush
:State mammal: Bison
:State bird: Western Meadowlark
:State tree: Plains Cottonwood
:State gemstone: Jade
:State fish: Cutthroat Trout
:State reptile: Horned Toad
:State Fossil: Knightia
:State dinosaur: Triceratops
:State coin: Golden Dollar
:State sport: Rodeo
USS Wyoming was named in honor of this state.
Major highways
- Interstate 25
- Interstate 80
- Interstate 90
- U.S. Highway 14
- U.S. Highway 20
- U.S. Highway 26
- U.S. Highway 89
- U.S. Highway 191
- U.S. Highway 287
External links
- [http://wyoming.gov/ Wyoming state government website]
:
- [http://wyoming.gov/state/wyoming_news/general/general.asp State information and symbols]
- [http://gowyld.net/ Wyoming's portal to knowledge and learning]
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/56000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
- [http://www.Untraveledroad.com/USA/Wyoming.htm Photographic virtual tour of Wyoming.]
- [http://www.terragalleria.com/america/north-west/wyoming Photos of Wyoming - Terra Galleria]
- [http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/wyoming/ Wyoming Newspapers]
Category:States of the American West
-
Category:States of the United States
ko:와이오밍 주
ja:ワイオミング州
Idaho
Idaho is a state located in the northwestern United States. Its capital is Boise and the U.S. postal abbreviation is ID.
Name
Idaho is perhaps the only state to be named as the result of a hoax. When a name was being selected for new territory, eccentric lobbyist George M. Willing suggested "Idaho," an Indian term he claimed meant "gem of the mountains". It was later revealed Willing had made up the name himself, and the original Idaho territory was re-named Colorado because of it. Eventually the controversy was forgotten, and modern-day Idaho was given the made-up name when the Idaho Territory was formally created in 1863.
History
The Lewis and Clark expedition entered present-day Idaho on August 12, 1805, at the Lemhi Pass. At that time, approximately 8,000 Native Americans lived in the region.
Idaho was subsequently part of Oregon Territory and later Washington Territory, fur trading and missionary work attracting the first settlers to the region. In 1836 Henry H. Spalding established a mission near Lapwai, where he printed the Northwest's first book, established Idaho's first school, developed Idaho's first irrigation system, and grew the state's first potatoes. Narcissa Whitman and Eliza Spalding were the first white women to cross the continental divide (South Pass).
While thousands passed through Idaho during the California gold rush of 1849, few people settled there. The first organized town in Idaho was Franklin, settled in 1860 by Mormon pioneers. When organized as a territory in 1863, Idaho's total population was under 17,000.
On March 4, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln signed an act creating Idaho Territory. The political stability of the territorial period encouraged settlement. Almost immediately, a public school system was created, stage coach lines were established and a newspaper, the Idaho Statesman, began publication. In 1865, Boise replaced Lewiston as capital. The 1861 discovery of gold in Idaho and the completion of the transcontinental railway in 1869 brought many new people to the territory, including Chinese laborers who came to work the mines. When President Benjamin Harrison signed the law admitting Idaho as a U.S. state on July 3, 1890, the population was 88,548. An interesting fact is that Idaho almost never became a state - in 1887, President Grover Cleveland refused to sign a bill that would have combined southern Idaho with Nevada and northern Idaho with the Washington Territory. Sectionalism in early Idaho was abated by moving the University of Idaho from its planned location in Eagle Rock (near Idaho Falls) to Moscow in northern Idaho. Idaho still operates under its original (1889) state constitution.
1889
As Idaho approached statehood, mining and other extractive industries became increasingly important to her economy. By the 1890s, for example, Idaho exported more lead than any other state. Although Idaho's dependence on mining has decreased, the state remains a top producer of silver and lead. Today, Idaho's industrial economy is growing, with high-tech products a leading sector. Since the late 1970s, Boise has emerged as a center for semiconductor manufacturing. Boise is the home of Micron Technology Inc., the only U.S. manufacturer of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) chips. Hewlett-Packard has operated a large plant in Boise, in southwestern Idaho, since the 1970s, devoted primarily to LaserJet printers.[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/mar04.html]
A troubling development in the 1980s was the development in North Idaho of a few right-wing extremist and "survivalist" political groups, most notably one holding Neo-Nazi views, the Aryan Nations. These groups were most heavily concentrated in the Panhandle region of the state, particularly in the vicinity of Coeur d'Alene, a resort town. Although Idaho is a conservative state politically, with the most Republican legislature in the U.S., the vast majority of its residents reject such hateful ideologies. In 2001 the Aryan Nations compound, which had been located in Hayden Lake, Idaho, was confiscated as a result of a court case, and the organization moved out of state. About the same time Boise installed an impressive stone Human Rights Memorial featuring as bronze statue of Anne Frank and quotations from her and many other writers extolling human freedom and equality.
Law and government
Coeur d'Alene
State government
The current Governor of Idaho is Dirk Kempthorne (Republican), re-elected in 2002.
See: List of Idaho Governors
The constitution of Idaho provides for 3 branches of government: the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Idaho has a bicameral legislature, elected from 35 legislative districts, each represented by one Senator and two Representatives.
United States Senators:
- Larry E. Craig (Republican)
- Mike Crapo (Republican)
House of Representatives:
Idaho has two House Representatives
- 1st District: C.L. "Butch" Otter (Republican)
- 2nd District: Mike Simpson (Republican)
On the national level Idaho is a strongly Republican state which has not supported a Democrat for president since 1964. Even in that election, Lyndon Johnson defeated Barry Goldwater by less than two percentage points. In 2004, George W. Bush carried Idaho by a margin of 38 percentage points and 68.4 percent of the vote, winning in 43 of 44 counties. Only Blaine County, which contains the Sun Valley ski resort, supported John Kerry.
The Idaho Legislature has been continuously controlled by the Republican Party since the late 1950s, although Democratic legistators are routinely elected from Boise, Pocatello, Blaine County and the northern Panhandle.
Geography
Blaine County
Blaine County
Blaine County
Blaine County
See: List of Idaho counties
Idaho borders Washington, Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Montana, Wyoming and the Canadian province of British Columbia (the Idaho-BC border is 48 miles long). Idaho has a rugged landscape with some of the largest unspoiled natural areas in the country. Idaho is a Rocky Mountain state with exciting scenery and enormous natural resources. Idaho has towering, snow-capped mountain ranges, swirling white rapids, peaceful lakes and steep canyons. The churning waters of Snake River rush through Hells Canyon, which is deeper than the Grand Canyon. Shoshone Falls plunges down rugged cliffs from a height greater than that of Niagara Falls.
The major rivers in Idaho are the Snake River, the Clearwater River and the Salmon River. Other significant rivers include the Boise River and the Payette River.
Idaho's highest point is Borah Peak in the Lost River Mountains north of Mackay. Idaho's lowest point is in Lewiston, where the Clearwater River joins the Snake River and continues into Washington.
Most major cities in Idaho, including Boise, Idaho Falls, Pocatello and Twin Falls, are in the Mountain Standard Time Zone. Areas north of the Salmon River, including Coeur d'Alene and Lewiston, are in the Pacific Standard Time Zone.
Lakes
- Coeur d'Alene
- Priest Lake
- Payette Lake (McCall)
- Pend Oreille
- Lake Lowell
- Henery's Lake
|
- Sawtooth National Recreational Area
- Redfish Lake
- Alturas Lake
- Petit Lake
- Sawtooth Lake
|
National Parks
- California National Historic Trail
- City of Rocks National Reserve
- Craters of the Moon National Monument
- Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument
- Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail
- Minidoka Internment National Monument
- Nez Perce National Historical Park
- Oregon National Historic Trail
- Yellowstone National Park
State Parks
Surrounding Territories
- British Columbia - north
- Montana - east
- Nevada - southwest
- Oregon - west
- Utah - south
- Washington - west
- Wyoming - east
Economy
The state's gross product for 2004 was $43.6 billion. The Per Capita Income for 2004 was $26,881.
Idaho is an important agricultural state, producing nearly one third of the potatoes grown in the United States. Other important agricultural products are beans, lentils, sugar beets, cattle, dairy products, wheat, and barley.
Important industries in Idaho are food processing, lumber and wood products, machinery, chemical products, paper products, electronics manufacturing, silver and other mining, and tourism. The Idaho National Laboratory (INL), a government lab for nuclear energy research, is also an important part of the eastern Idaho economy.
Idaho: A Healthy and Diversified Economy
- Idaho's personal income increased nearly 22 percent between 1999 & 2003, ranking the state 10th nationally, exceeding the national average (BEA, 4/2003).
- Idaho exports increased 6.5% in value during 2003, reversing two years of decline. Top export products include high tech, food & agriculture and wood & building materials. (U.S. Department of Commerce)
- Idaho is number one in the nation in the production of potatoes, trout and winter peas. The state ranks in the top 10 in 22 other products.
- Idaho is 7th in the nation in population growth rate. (U.S. Census)
Idaho: A Great Place to Do Business
- Idaho has the 14th lowest overall cost of doing business in U.S., 4th lowest in West (Economy.com, 11/ 2003).
- Idaho's overall tax burden per capita is the 2nd lowest in the West.
- Idaho has the 2nd lowest state and local per capita debt in the nation.
- Between 1997-2004, Idaho ranks fourth in growth of women-owned businesses, first in the nation in employment growth and 3rd in sales. (Center for Women’s Business Research).
- Forbes recently named Idaho the fourth best state in the country for "economic freedom," based on a study it did in conjunction with the Pacific Research Institute.
- "The Gold Guide," published by the National Policy Research Council in Washington, D.C., placed Idaho 13th among all states in the "Best of the Best" ranking. We ranked third in the nation for infrastructure costs and resources (public services and facilities that support business activity), seventh for low crime rate, 14th for economic dynamism and quality of life, and 16th for entrepreneurial climate.
Idaho's Emerging Science & Technology Economy:
- Idaho is number one in the nation for patents issued per capita. Idaho companies such as Micron, Hewlett-Packard and the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Lab account for a large percentage of the patents issued (US Patent Trademark Office, 2001).
- Science and technology employ one out of every ten workers and represents nearly 25% of Idaho's economy ($9.3 billion)
- Idaho's high-tech industry is one of the state's largest employers.
- Idaho ranks 5th in the nation in semiconductor employment with 12,000 jobs.
- Idaho is 14th in the nation in per capita research and development spending.
- Idaho ranks third in the US in percentages of exports coming from high-tech firms (60 percent), behind New Mexico and Vermont (AEA 11/2003)
- Micron Technology and AMI Semiconductors are two of Idaho's largest semiconductor manufacturers. Micron Technology is the largest manufacturer of DRAM semiconductor chips in the U.S. and the 2nd largest in the world.
- Idaho ranks 4th in the nation in growth of venture capital investments. (AEA, 2003)
- Idaho is #3 on Business Facilities' list of Top 10 High Tech Rapid Growth States, 2000-2010. (Business Facilities, August, 2003)
- Pocatello is number one in high tech growth for smaller metros, and Boise is first in high-tech growth for larger metros in the Milken Instituteís annual survey of the nation's best performing cities. (Milken Institute, November, 2004)
Idaho is Well-Connected:
- Idaho is eighth in the nation for being consumer friendly for Internet transactions. (The Washington D.C.-based Progressive Policy Institute, March 2002).
- In 2000, Idaho ranked 3rd among states for ‘digital government' (Center for Digital government).
- In 1999, 97 percent of Idaho's schools had Internet access; 86 percent had access from more than one classroom (Tech Counts '99; EdWeek, 2000).
Demographics
As of 2004, the population of Idaho was estimated to be 1,393,262. There were 81,000 foreign-born in the state (comprising 5.6% of the state population), of which 19,000 were illegal aliens (illegal aliens comprised about one-fourth of the foreign-born population and 1.4% of state population).
Since 1990, Idaho's population has increased 386,000 (38%).
Race
The racial makeup of Idaho:
- 88% White
- 7.9% Hispanic
- 1.4% Native American
- 0.9% Asian
- 0.4% Black
- 2% Mixed race
The five largest reported ancestries in the state are: German (18.9%), English (18.1%), Irish (10%), American (8.4%), Norwegian (3.6%).
Religion
Norwegian
As with many other western states, the percentage of Idaho's population identifying themselves as "non-religious" (an umbrella term which is sometimes synonymous with or includes elements of atheism, agnosticism, skepticism, freethought, humanism, secular humanism, heresy, logical positivism, and apathy) is higher than the rest of the country.
The current religious affiliations of the people of Idaho are shown in the table below:
- Christian – 80%
- Protestant – 50%
- Baptist – 10%
- Methodist – 10%
- Lutheran – 3%
- Presbyterian – 3%
- Other Protestant or general Protestant – 24%
- Mormon – 14%
- Catholic – 15%
- Other Religions – <1%
- Non-Religious – 20%
Important cities and towns
Education
Colleges and universities
Professional sports teams
The Minor League baseball teams are:
- Boise Hawks
- Idaho Falls Chukars
Other minor league sports teams:
- Idaho Stampede
- Idaho Steelheads
Miscellaneous information
Major highways
Well-known Idahoans
- See :Category:People from Idaho
See also
- Red Rock Pass - The pass where the ancient Lake Bonneville was emptied.
External links
- http://www.state.id.us/
- [http://www.idahoparks.org/ Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation]
- [http://www.visitid.org/ Visit Idaho site]
- [http://www.Untraveledroad.com/USA/Idaho.htm A photographic virtual tour of Idaho]
- [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/16000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
- [http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/idaho Idaho Newspapers]
Category:States of the American West
-
Category:States of the United States
ko:아이다호 주
ja:アイダホ州
th:มลรัฐไอดาโฮ
National park
]]
A national park is a reserve of land, usually owned by a national government, protected from most human development and pollution. National parks are a form of protected area.
History
Prologue
Fundamental ideas were first articulated in the 19th century by people from various countries. In 1810 the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy". The painter George Catlin, in his travels though the American West, wrote in 1832 that the Native Americans in the United States might be preserved: by some great protecting policy of government . . . in a magnificent park . . . A nation's park, containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty!. Similar ideas were expressed in other countries – In Sweden, for instance, Baron Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld made such a proposition in 1880.
Establishment
1880.]]
The first effort by any government to set aside such protective lands was in the United States, when President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on June 30, 1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias (later becoming the Yosemite National Park) to the state of California:
:[T]he said State shall accept this grant upon the express conditions that the premises shall he held for public use, resort, and recreation; shall be inalienable for all time.
In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the world's first truly national park. When news of the natural wonders of the Yellowstone were first published, the land was part of a territory. Unlike Yosemite, there was no state government that could assume stewardship of the land, so the Federal Government took on direct responsibility for the park, a process formally completed in October 1, 1890.
Following the idea established in Yellowstone there soon followed parks in other nations. In Australia, the Royal National Park was established just south of Sydney in 1879. In Canada, Banff National Park (then known as Rocky Mountain National Park) became the first national park in 1887. New Zealand had its first national park in 1887. In Europe the first national park were a set of nine parks in Sweden in 1910.
After World War II, national parks were founded all over the world.
Features preserved
National parks are usually located in places which have been largely undeveloped, and often feature areas with exceptional native animals, plants and ecosystems (particularly endangered examples of such), biodiversity, or unusual geological features. Occasionally, national parks are declared in developed areas with the goal of returning the area to resemble its original state as closely as possible.
In some countries, such as England and Wales, areas designated as a national park are not wilderness, nor owned by the government, and can include substantial settlements and land uses which are often integral parts of the landscape.
Park mandates
Most national parks have a dual role in offering a refuge for wildlife and as popular tourist areas. Managing the potential for conflict between these two roles can become problematic, particularly as tourists often generate revenue for the parks which, in turn, are spent on conservation projects. Parks also serve as reserves for substantial natural resources, such as timber, minerals and other valuable commodities. The balance of the demand for extraction of these resources, against the damage this might cause, is often a very important challenge in national park management. National parks have been subject to illegal logging and other exploitation, sometimes because of political corruption. This threatens the integrity of many valuable habitats.
Other sites designated for preservation
Some countries also designate sites of special cultural, scientific or historical importance as national parks, or as special entities within their national park systems. Other countries use a different scheme for historical site preservation. Some of these sites are awarded the title World Heritage Site by the UNESCO.
In many countries, local governmental bodies may be responsible for the maintenance of park systems. Some of these are even called national parks.
See also
- List of national parks (arranged in lists by country)
- United Nations Environment Programme
- International Park
- International Network of Geoparks
- Conservation
- Sustainable development
- Earth science
- National Forest
- Federal lands
- National park passport stamps
External links
:[http://www.unesco.org/mab/ UNESCO - Man and the Biosphere Programme (Biosphere Reserves)]
:[http://whc.unesco.org/nwhc/pages/home/pages/homepage.htm World Heritage Sites]
:[http://www.wcmc.org.uk/data/database/un_combo.html UN Protected Places database]
:[http://www.europarc.org/ EUROPARC federation - Europe's protected areas]
ko:국립공원
ja:国立公園
Geyser
A geyser is a type of hot spring that erupts periodically, ejecting a column of hot water and steam into the air. The name geyser comes from Geysir, the name of an erupting spring at Haukadalur, Iceland; that name, in turn, comes from the verb gjósa, "to gush".
The formation of geysers requires a favourable hydrogeology which exists in only a few places on Earth, and so they are fairly rare phenomena. About 1000 exist worldwide, with about half of these in Yellowstone National Park, USA (Glennon, J.A. 2005). Geyser eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention (Bryan, T.S. 1995).
Erupting fountains of liquefied nitrogen have been observed on Neptune's moon Triton. These phenomena are also often referred to as geysers. On Triton, the geysers appear to be driven by solar heating instead of geothermal energy. The nitrogen, liquefied by a kind of greenhouse effect, may erupt to heights of 8 km.
Eruptions
Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by magma. The geothermally heated water then rises back toward the surface by convection through porous and fractured rock. Geysers differ from noneruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water.
convection
As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a pressure cooker, allowing the water in the reservoir to become superheated, i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the boiling point.
Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins; steam bubbles rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water underneath. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into steam, boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser.
Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; Strokkur in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while Grand Geyser in the USA erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8-12 hours.
Types of geyser
USA
There are two types of geyser; Fountain geysers erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and cone geysers which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (also known as geyserite), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. Old Faithful, perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser.
The intense transient forces inside erupting geysers are the main reason for their rarity. There are many volcanic areas in the world that have hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, but very few with geysers. This is because in most places, even where other necessary conditions for geyser activity exist, the rock structure is loose, and eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.
Most geysers form in places where there is volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolves in hot water and forms mineral deposits called siliceous sinter, or geyserite, along the inside of the plumbing systems. Over time these deposits cement the rock together tightly, strengthening the channel walls and enabling the geyser to persist.
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can 'die'. Many geysers have been destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by geothermal power plants. The Great Geysir of Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes humanly-induced---often on special occasions---by the addition of surfactants to the water. Inducing eruptions at Geysir is no longer done, as the forced eruptions were damaging the geyser's special plumbing system. Following an earthquake in Iceland in 2000 the geyser became somewhat more active again. Initially the geyser erupted about eight times a day. As of July 2003, Geysir erupts several times a week.
2000
:Main article: Thermophile, Hyperthermophile.
The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot habitats) in the form of thermophilic prokaryotes. No known eukaryote can survive over 60 °C (140 °F).
In the 1960s, when the research of biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around 73 °C (163 °F) - the upper limit for the survival of cyanobacteria, as the structure of key cellular proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around 55 °C (131 °F).
However, the observations proved that it actually is possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria prefer even temperatures higher than boiling point of water. Dozens of such bacteria are known nowadays. Thermophiles prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 °C whilst hyperthermophiles grow better at temperatures as high as 80 to 110 °C. As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable tools, that are important in medicine and biotechnology, for example in manufacturing antibiotics, plastics, detergents (by the use of heat-stable enzymes lipases, pullulanases and proteases), and fermentation products (for example ethanol is produced). The fact that such bacteria exist also stretches our imagination about life on other celestial bodies, both inside and outside of solar system. Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is Thermus aquaticus.
Numbers and distribution
Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of water, heat, and fortuitous plumbing. The combination exists in few places on Earth. The five largest geyser fields in the world are (Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995):
- 1. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States
- 2. Dolina Geiserov, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia
- 3. El Tatio, Chile, South America
- 4. Taupo Volcanic Zone, North Island, New Zealand
- 5. Iceland, Europe
There used to be two large geysers fields in Nevada---Beowawe and Steamboat Springs---but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local water table to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained. There are more individual geysers around the world, in California, Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, Dominica, Azores, Kenya and Japan, but no other large clusters.
Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and between three and five hundred geysers. Yellowstone includes the tallest active geyser (Steamboat Geyser in Norris Geyser Basin) and the renowned (Old Faithful Geyser in Upper Geyser Basin).
Many of New Zealand’s geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is Whakarewarewa at Rotorua. Two thirds of the geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961. The Wairakei field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958. The Taupo Spa field was lost when the Waikato River level was deliberately altered in the 1950s. The Rotomahana field was destroyed by the Mount Tarawera eruption in 1886. The Waimangu Geyser which existed from 1900 to 1904 was the largest geyser ever known. It ceased to erupt after a landslide covered its crater. Small numbers of geysers still exist at other places within the Taupo Volcanic Zone including Ketetahi, Tokaanu and Waiotapu.
Misnamed geysers
In a number of places where there is geothermal activity wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. Though these so-called artificial geysers, technically known as erupting geothermal wells, are not true geysers, they can be quite spectacular. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in Calistoga, California, is an erupting geothermal well.
Sometimes drilled cold-water wells erupt in a geyser-like manner due to the build-up of pressure from dissolved carbon dioxide in the water. These are not true geysers either, but are often called cold-water geysers. The best known of these is probably Crystal Geyser, near Green River, Utah (Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff, R.M. 2005).
A perpetual spouter is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers either.
Geysers on Triton
Glennon, J.A.
One of the great surprises of the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune in 1989 was the discovery of geysers on its moon, Triton. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150 km downstream.
All the geysers observed were located between 40° and 60°S, the part of Triton's surface close to the subsolar point. This indicates that solar heating, although very weak at Triton's great distance from the Sun, probably plays a crucial role. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-transparent layer of frozen nitrogen, which creates a kind of greenhouse effect, heating the frozen material beneath it until it breaks the surface in an eruption. A temperature increase of just 4 K above the ambient surface temperature of 38 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed.
Geothermal energy may also be important. Unusually for a major satellite, Triton orbits Neptune in a retrograde orbit—that is, in the opposite direction to Neptune's rotation. This generates tidal forces which are causing Triton's orbit to decay, so that in a few million years time it will collide with Neptune. The tidal forces may also generate heat inside Triton, in the same way as Jupiter's gravity generates tidal forces on Io which drive its extreme volcanic activity.
Each eruption of a Triton geyser may last up to a year, and during this time about 0.1 km³ of material may be deposited downwind. Voyager's images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.
References
- Bryan, T. Scott (1995). The geysers of Yellowstone. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 087081365X
- Glennon, J.A., Pfaff, R.M. (2003). The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile, Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31-78.
- Glennon, J.A. (2005). About Geysers, website: http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers.
- Glennon, J.A., Pfaff, R.M. (2005). The operation and geography of carbon-dioxide-driven, cold-water geysers, GOSA Transactions, vol. 9, pp. 184-192.
- Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system, in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789-790.
- Rinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
- Schreier, Carl (2003). Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide) (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. ISBN 0943972094
- Soderblom L.A., Becker T.L., Kieffer S.W., Brown R.H., Hansen C.J., Johnson T.V. (1990). Triton's geyser-like plumes - Discovery and basic characterization. Science 250: 410-415.
See also
- List of geysers
External links
- [http://www.nps.gov/yell/nature/geothermal/geysers.htm Geysers and How They Work by Yellowstone National Park]
- [http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)]
- [http://www.www.yellowstone.net/geysers/ Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions]
- [http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/ About Geysers by Alan Glennon]
- [http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/crystalgeyser/ Cold Water Geysers by Alan Glennon]
- [http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm Geysers, The UnMuseum]
- [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources]
- [http://www.wyojones.com/geysers.htm What's Up with Geysers? by WyoJones]
Category:Hydrothermal vents
ja:間欠泉
Hot springA hot spring or a hydrothermal spring is a place where warm or hot groundwater issues from the ground on a regular basis for at least a predictable part of the year, and is significantly above the ambient ground temperature (which is usually around 55–57 °F or 13–14 °C in the eastern United States).
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