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Xinjiang

Xinjiang

Xinjiang (Uyghur: (Shinjang); ; Postal Pinyin: Sinkiang), full name Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (Uyghur: شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى (Shinjang Uyghur Aptonom Rayoni); ), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Xinjiang borders the Tibet Autonomous Region to the south and Qinghai and Gansu provinces to the southeast. It also borders Mongolia to the east, Russia to the north, and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and the Pakistan- and India-controlled parts of Kashmir to the west. Xinjiang includes most of Aksai Chin, a region claimed by India as part of its state of Jammu and Kashmir. "Xinjiang" literally means "New Frontier", a name given during the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China. The name is considered offensive by many advocates of independence, who prefer to use historical or ethnic names such as Chinese Turkestan, East Turkestan (with Turkestan sometimes spelled as Turkistan) or Uyghuristan. Because of the association of these names with the independence movement, they are in turn considered synonymous with Pan-Turkic Islamist terrorism by the PRC government and local Han Chinese residents.

History

Traversed by the Silk Road, Xinjiang is the Chinese name for the Tarim and Jungar regions of what is now northwest China. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), the region was subservient to the Xiongnu, a powerful nomadic people based in modern Mongolia. In the 2nd century BC, Han China sent Zhang Qian as an envoy to the states in the region, beginning several decades of struggle between the Xiongnu and Han China over dominance of the region, eventually ending in Chinese success. In 60 BC Han China established the Protectorate of the Western Regions (西域都護府) at Wulei (烏壘; near modern Luntai) to oversee the entire region as far west as the Pamir. During the usurpation of Wang Mang in China, the dependent states of the protectorate rebelled and returned to Xiongnu domination. Over the next century, Han China conducted several expeditions into the region, re-establishing the protectorate from 73 AD to 74, from 91 to 107, and from 123 onward. After the fall of the Han Dynasty (220), the protectorate continued to be maintained by the Wei Dynasty (until 265) and the Western Jin Dynasty (from 265 onwards). The Western Jin Dynasty succumbed to successive waves of invasions by nomads from the north at the beginning of the 4th century. The short-lived non-Han Chinese kingdoms that ruled northwestern China one after the other, including Former Liang, Former Qin, Later Liang, and Western Liang, all attempted to maintain the protectorate, with varying extents and degrees of success. After the final reunification of northern China under the Northern Wei empire, its protectorate controlled what is now the southeastern third of Xinjiang. Local states such as Shule, Yutian, Guizi and Qiemo controlled the western half, while the central region around Turpan was controlled by Gaochang, remnants of a state (Northern Liang) that once ruled part of what is now Gansu province in northwestern China. In the late 5th century the Tuyuhun and the Rouran began to encroach upon the region and assert power in southern and northern Xinjiang, respectively, and the Chinese protectorate was lost again. In the 6th century the Turks began to emerge in the Altay region, subservient to the Rouran. Within a century they had defeated the Rouran and established a vast Turk Empire, stretching over most of Central Asia past both the Aral Sea in the west and Lake Baikal in the east. In 583 the Turks split into western and eastern halves, with Xinjiang coming under the western half. In 609, China under the Sui Dynasty defeated the Tuyuhun, gaining control of southeastern Xinjiang. The Tang Dynasty was established in 618, and would prove to be one of the most expansionist dynasties in Chinese history. Starting from the 620's and 630's, Tang China conducted a series of expeditions against the Turks, eventually forcing the surrender of the western Turks in 657. Xinjiang was placed under the Anxi Protectorate (安西都護府; "Protectorate Pacifying the West"). The protectorate did not outlast the decline of Tang China in the 8th century. During the devastating Anshi Rebellion, Tibet invaded Tang China on a wide front from Xinjiang to Yunnan, sacking the Tang capital in 763, and taking control of southern Xinjiang by the end of the century. At the same time, the Uyghur Khaganate took control of northern Xinjiang, as well as much of the rest of Central Asia, including Mongolia. Both Tibet and the Uyghur Khaganate declined in the mid-9th century. The region then entered into an age of fragmentation. The Kara-Khanid Khanate was in control of western Xinjiang in the 10th century and the 11th century, while branches of the Uyghurs established themselves in central Xinjiang in the same time period. In 1132, remnants of the Khitan Empire from Manchuria entered Xinjiang, fleeing the onslaught of the Jurchens. They established an exile regime, the Kara-Khitan Khanate, that unified what is now Xinjiang over the next century. Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire conquered the Kara-Khitan in 1218. After the disintegration of the Mongol Empire, Xinjiang was ruled by the Chagatai Khanate, one of the successor states of the empire. In the 15th century the Chagatai Khanate disintegrated into separate states in Gulja, Yarkand, and Turpan. In the 17th century, the Jüün Ghar (Jungars) established an empire over much of the region. The Qing Empire, established by the Manchus in China, gained control over eastern Xinjiang after defeating the Jungars in 1697. In 1755, the Manchu Empire attacked Gulja, and captured the Jungar khan. Over the next two years, the Manchus destroyed the remnants of the Jungar khanate. In 1759 a rebellion south of the Tian Shan mountains was put down, thus cementing Manchu rule over Xinjiang. The Manchus put the area under the rule of a General of Ili, headquartered at Gulja. By the mid-19th century, the Russian Empire was encroaching upon Qing China along its entire northern frontier. In 1864 most of what was northwestern Xinjiang up to Lake Balkhash was ceded to the Russian Empire in the Treaty of Tacheng. This area now constitutes parts of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Also in 1864, rebellions broke out all over Xinjiang, including Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Turpan and other areas. In spring 1865, Yaqub Beg, a lord of the neighbouring Khanate of Kokand, entered Xinjiang via Kashgar, and conquered nearly all of Xinjiang over the next six years. In 1871, Russia seized the Ili River valley, including Gulja. By then, Qing China held onto only a few strongholds, including Tacheng. Yaqub Beg's rule lasted until General Zuo Zongtang (also known as General Tso) reconquered the region between 1875 and 1877 for Qing China. In 1881, Qing China recovered the Gulja region. In 1884, Qing China established Xinjiang ("new frontier") as a province, formally applying onto it the political system of China proper. In 1912 the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China. Yuan Dahua, the Qing governor of Xinjiang, acceded to the Republic of China in March of the same year. Following insurgencies against Governor Yang Zengxin in the early 1930s, a rebellion in Kashgar led to the establishment of the short-lived First East Turkistan Republic (1st ETA) in 1933. Xinjiang was eventually brought under the control of Han Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai, who ruled Xinjiang for the next decade. A Second East Turkistan Republic (2nd ETA, also known as the Three Districts Revolution) existed from 1944-1949 with Soviet support in what is now Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in northern Xinjiang. It ended when the People's Liberation Army (PLA) entered Xinjiang in 1949. According to the PRC interpretation, the 2nd ETA was Xinjiang's revolution, a positive part of the communist revolution in China; the 2nd ETA acceded to and welcomed the PLA when they entered Xinjiang, a process known as the Peaceful Liberation of Xinjiang. However independence advocates view the ETA as an effort to establish an independent state, and the subsequent PLA entry as an invasion. The autonomous region of the PRC was established on October 1, 1955, replacing the province. The PRC's first nuclear test was carried out at Lop Nur, Xinjiang, on October 16, 1964. There continue to be tensions in the region, centering both upon Uyghur aspirations to independence and resentment towards what is described as repression of non-Han Chinese culture by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, and Han Chinese resentment towards the aforementioned Uyghur sentiments, as well as towards PRC policies of ethnic autonomy which are perceived as discriminatory against Han Chinese (see autonomous entities of China). Independence advocates view Chinese rule in Xinjiang, and policies like the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps as Chinese imperialism. These tensions occasionally result in major incidents and violent clashes, such as the Kazakh Exodus from Xinjiang in 1962, in which 60,000 refugees fled into the Soviet Union; the Baren Township riot on April 5, 1990 that resulted in more than 50 deaths; the Ghulja riot of February 5, 1997, where over 1000 Uyghurs clashed with military police, resulting in anywhere between 10 and 200 deaths; and the Urumqi bus bombs of February 25, 1997 that killed 9 and injured 68.

Subdivisions

Xinjiang is divided into 2 prefecture-level cities, 7 prefectures, and 5 autonomous prefectures. (2 of the 7 prefectures are in turn part of Ili, an autonomous prefecture.) Below them, there are 11 districts, 20 county-level cities, 62 counties, and 6 autonomous counties. Four of the county-level cities do not belong to any prefecture, and are de facto administered by the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps.

Geography

Xinjiang is the largest political subdivision of China. It is divided into two basins by Mount Tianshan. Dzungarian Basin is in the north, and Tarim Basin is in the south. Xinjiang's lowest point is 155 metres below sea level (lowest point in the PRC as well). Its highest peak is 8611 metres above sea level on the border with Kashmir. Xinjiang has within its borders the point of land remotest from the sea (Lat. 46 degrees 16.8 minutes N, Long. 86 degrees 40.2 minutes E) in the Dzoosotoyn Elisen Desert, 1,645 miles (2648 km) from the nearest coastline (straight-line distance). The Xinjiang-Kyrgyzstan border is marked by the Tian Shan mountain range. The Torugart Pass (3752 m) is located on this border. The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. Rivers include: Tarim River Major Cities:
- Urumqi
- Turpan
- Kashgar
- Karamay
- Yining
- Shihezi

Economy

Shihezi] Xinjiang is known for its fruits and produce including grapes and melons. Cotton, wheat, silk, walnuts, and sheep are also produced. Xinjiang also has large deposits of minerals and oil. Xinjiang's nominal GDP was approximately 187 billion RMB (about 23 billion USD) in 2003, and increased to 220 billion RMB in 2004, due to the "Develop the West" policy introduced by the State Council. Its per capita GDP for 2003 was 9,710 RMB (ca. 1172 USD). Oil and gas extraction industry in Aksu and Karamay is booming, with the pipeline project connecting to Shanghai. Xinjiang's exports amounted to 3.047 billion USD, while import turned out to be 2.589 billion USD in 2004. Most of the overall import/export volume in Xinjiang was directed to and from Kazakstan through Ala Pass. [http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/ndtjgb/dfndtjgb/t20050323_402237340.htm] Recently, China Western Development policy was adopted to boost economical development in western China.

Demographics

Xinjiang is home to several Muslim Turkic groups including the Uyghurs and the Kazakhs. Other PRC minority ethnic groups include Hui Chinese, the Kirghiz, the Mongols, the Russians, the Xibes, the Tajik, the Uzbek, the Tatars, and the Manchus. The percentage of ethnic Han Chinese in Xinjiang has grown from 6 percent in 1949 to an official tally of over 40 percent at present. This figure does not include military personnel or their families, or the many unregistered migrant workers. Much of this transformation can be attributed to the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC), a semi-military organization of settlers that has built farms, towns, and cities over scattered parts of Xinjiang. The demographic transformation is commonly held as a threat to Uyghurs and other non-Han ethnicities in maintaining their culture, in a case similar to that of Tibet. Source: 2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料，民族出版社，2003/9 (ISBN 7105054255)
Does not include members of the People's Liberation Army in active service. In general, Uyghurs are the majority in western Xinjiang, including the prefectures of Kashgar, Khotan, Kizilsu, and Aksu, as well as Turpan prefecture in eastern Xinjiang. Han Chinese are the majority in eastern and northern Xinjiang, including the cities of Urumqi, Karamay, Shihezi and the prefectures of Changji, Bortala, Bayin'gholin, Ili (especially the city of Kuitun), and Kumul. Kazakhs are mostly concentrated in Ili prefecture in northern Xinjiang. 1—Ili AP is composed of Kuitun DACLC, Tacheng Prefecture, Aletai Prefecture, as well as former Ili Prefecture. Ili Prefecture has been disbanded and its former area is now directly administered by Ili AP.
Source: 2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料，民族出版社，2003/9 (ISBN 7105054255)
Does not include members of the People's Liberation Army in active service.
P = Prefecture; AP = Autonomous prefecture; PLC = Prefecture-level city; DACLC = Directly-administered county-level city Some Uighur scholars claim descent from both the Turkic Uighurs and the pre-Turkic Indo-European Tocharians (or Tokharians), and relatively fair-skin, hair and eyes, as well as other so-called 'Caucasoid' physical traits, are not uncommon among them. In general Uyghurs resemble those peoples who live around them in Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India. In 2002, there were 9,632,600 males (growth rate of 1.0%) and 9,419,300 females (growth rate of 2.2%). The population overall growth rate was 10.9‰, with 16.3‰ of birth rate and 5.4‰ mortality rate.

Culture

Miscellaneous topics

Main article: List of Xinjiang-related topics Professional sports teams in Xinjiang include:
- Chinese Football Association
  - None
- Chinese Basketball Association
  - Xinjiang Guanghui Flying Tigers

External links


- [http://www.xinjiang.gov.cn 中国新疆政府网 Xinjiang Government]
- [http://www.muztagh.com/images/map/map-of-xinjiang-large.jpg Large map of Xinjiang]
- [http://www.xzqh.org/quhua/65xj/index.htm Subdivision info] (in Simplified Chinese)

For PRC rule and policies in Xinjiang


- TianshanNet (news portal in [http://uygur.xjts.cn Uyghur], [http://www.xjts.cn Chinese] and [http://russian.xjts.cn Russian])
- Xinjiang Communications Bureau (in [http://www.xjjt.gov.cn Chinese] and [http://www.xjjt.gov.cn/uygur Uyghur])
- [http://www.xju.edu.cn Xinjiang University]
- [http://www.sinkiang.gov.cn/ Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Government] (in English)
- [http://www.xj.gov.cn/ Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Government] (in Simplified Chinese)

Against PRC rule and/or policies in Xinjiang


- [http://www.unpo.org/news_detail.php?arg=21&par=673 Amnesty International Report 2004]
- [http://www.thinking-east.net/site/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=68&Itemid=56 Chinese Civilization and its Discontents] by Benjamin Paarmann
- [http://www.caccp.org/ Citizens Against Communist Chinese Propaganda]
- [http://uygur.org/ East Turkistan Information Center]
- [http://www.taklamakan.org/ International Taklamakan Human Rights Association]
- [http://www.thinking-east.net/site/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=114&Itemid=56 Release of Rebiya Kadeer: No end, but a beginning] by Kilic Bugra Kanat
- [http://www.uyghuramerican.org/ Uyghur American Association]
- [http://www.uhrp.org/ Uyghur Human Rights Project]
- [http://www.uyghurinfo.com/ Uyghur Information Agency]
- [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/64392/ Repression of Uyghur Writers] - International Freedom of Expression Exchange

Others


- [http://www.utoledo.edu/~nlight/qazaqs.htm Qazaq History in Xinjiang]
- [http://china.notspecial.org/ The Opposite End of China (Xinjiang Blog)]
- [http://www.uighurlanguage.com/ UighurLanguage.com]
- [http://homepages.utoledo.edu/nlight/uyghpg.htm Uyghur Culture and History]
- [http://www.meripet.com/ Uyghur Scholars Homepage]
- [http://www.xinjiangcoins.com/ Xinjiang Numismatics]
- [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume12/desai.html Xinjiang Infrastructure]
- [http://www.netreyb.com/xinjiang Xinjiang Travelogue and Travel Tips] (.swf) Category:Autonomous regions of the People's Republic of China Category:Disputed territories
- ko:신장 웨이우얼 자치구 ja:新疆ウイグル自治区 th:เขตปกครองตนเองซินเจียง

Uyghur language

Uyghur (in Uyghur: ئۇيغۇرچه, "new" spelling: Uyƣurqə or ئۇيغۇر تىلى, Uyƣur tili; in Chinese: 维吾尔语 Wéiwú'ěryǔ) is a Turkic language spoken by the Uyghur people in Xinjiang (also called East Turkestan or Uyghuristan), China. The name of the language is spelled variously as "Uyghur", "Uighur", "Uygur" and "Uigur".

Classification

Uyghur is one of the Eastern Turkic languages, which is grouped by some linguists as a branch of Altaic.

Geographic distribution

Uyghur is spoken by 8.5 million (2004) in China, mostly in the far western Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Uyghur is also spoken by 300,000 in Kazakhstan, and there are Uyghur-speaking communities in Afghanistan, Australia, Germany, India, Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Tajikistan, Turkey, United Kingdom, USA, and Uzbekistan.

Official status

The Uyghurs are one of the 56 official nationalities in China, and Uyghur is an official language of Xinjiang.

Dialects

The dialects of Uyghur identified by the Ethnologue are Central Uyghur, Hotan (Hetian), and Lop (Luobu). There are two main languages in Xinjiang Uighur autonmous region: Uyghur and Chinese. Chinese is not used widely in southern Xinjiang. About 80 newspapers and magazines are available in Uighur; five TV channels and ten publishers serve as the Uighur media. All of the information and news provided has to be permitted by governmental offices.

Sounds

Syllable structure can be CV, CVC, or CVCC. Uyghur is not a tonal language.

Grammar

Uyghur has Subject Object Verb word order, postpositions, genitives, adjectives, numerals, relatives before noun heads, and initial question words. There are prefixes and suffixes. Word order distinguishes subjects and indirect objects, topic and comment. There are 8 noun cases shown by suffixes. Verb suffixes mark subject person, number, 2nd person marks plural and 3 levels of respect. Types of verbs include passive, reflexive, reciprocal and causative.

Vocabulary

Uyghur vocabulary is basically from Turkic stock, but like Uzbek has taken on a large quantity of loan words from Persian. Many internationalisms entered the Uyghur language via Russian, and there are some more recent loans from Chinese.

Writing system

The language traditionally used the Arabic script since the 10th century. The Chinese government introduced a Roman script in 1969, but the Persian-Arabic script was reintroduced in 1983, but with extra diacritics to distinguish all vowels of Uyghur. Cyrillic script has been used to write Uyghur in areas previously dominated by Russians, and another Roman script is used in Turkey and on the internet. The following table is a comparison of the present Arabic alphabet (K̡ona Yezik̡), the Latin (Yengi Yezik̡) alphabet used from 1969 to 1987, corresponding modern Turkish spellings and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The table is arranged according to the order of the present alphabet. Note that the characters in the above table will not be diplayed correctly by your browser unless Unicode fonts are installed on your computer.

Text sample

Here the sample of Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1) in Uyghur:

See also


- Languages of China
- Turkic languages

External links


- [http://www.uyghurdictionary.org Online Uyghur-English Multiscript Dictionary]
- [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=uig Ethnologue report for Uighur]
- [http://dict.yulghun.com Online Uyghur-English Dictionary]
- [http://www.oqya.5u.com?code=UIG Uyghur Music Dance and Songs Online]
- [http://www.yulghun.com A Sample Site in the Uyghur Language]
- [http://www.ukij.org/fonts Download Page for Standard Uyghur Fonts]
- [http://www.bilik.cn/bbs Sample site in the Uyghur language, Uyghur BBS/Discussion]
- [http://www.travelphrases.info/gallery/Fonts_Uighur.html Arabic Uyghur in different fonts] Category:Turkic languages Category:Languages of China Category:Languages of Kazakhstan Category:Languages of Kyrgyzstan Category:Languages of Russia ja:ウイグル語 ko:위구르어

Uyghur language

Uyghur (in Uyghur: ئۇيغۇرچه, "new" spelling: Uyƣurqə or ئۇيغۇر تىلى, Uyƣur tili; in Chinese: 维吾尔语 Wéiwú'ěryǔ) is a Turkic language spoken by the Uyghur people in Xinjiang (also called East Turkestan or Uyghuristan), China. The name of the language is spelled variously as "Uyghur", "Uighur", "Uygur" and "Uigur".

Classification

Uyghur is one of the Eastern Turkic languages, which is grouped by some linguists as a branch of Altaic.

Geographic distribution

Uyghur is spoken by 8.5 million (2004) in China, mostly in the far western Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Uyghur is also spoken by 300,000 in Kazakhstan, and there are Uyghur-speaking communities in Afghanistan, Australia, Germany, India, Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Tajikistan, Turkey, United Kingdom, USA, and Uzbekistan.

Official status

The Uyghurs are one of the 56 official nationalities in China, and Uyghur is an official language of Xinjiang.

Dialects

The dialects of Uyghur identified by the Ethnologue are Central Uyghur, Hotan (Hetian), and Lop (Luobu). There are two main languages in Xinjiang Uighur autonmous region: Uyghur and Chinese. Chinese is not used widely in southern Xinjiang. About 80 newspapers and magazines are available in Uighur; five TV channels and ten publishers serve as the Uighur media. All of the information and news provided has to be permitted by governmental offices.

Sounds

Syllable structure can be CV, CVC, or CVCC. Uyghur is not a tonal language.

Grammar

Uyghur has Subject Object Verb word order, postpositions, genitives, adjectives, numerals, relatives before noun heads, and initial question words. There are prefixes and suffixes. Word order distinguishes subjects and indirect objects, topic and comment. There are 8 noun cases shown by suffixes. Verb suffixes mark subject person, number, 2nd person marks plural and 3 levels of respect. Types of verbs include passive, reflexive, reciprocal and causative.

Vocabulary

Uyghur vocabulary is basically from Turkic stock, but like Uzbek has taken on a large quantity of loan words from Persian. Many internationalisms entered the Uyghur language via Russian, and there are some more recent loans from Chinese.

Writing system

The language traditionally used the Arabic script since the 10th century. The Chinese government introduced a Roman script in 1969, but the Persian-Arabic script was reintroduced in 1983, but with extra diacritics to distinguish all vowels of Uyghur. Cyrillic script has been used to write Uyghur in areas previously dominated by Russians, and another Roman script is used in Turkey and on the internet. The following table is a comparison of the present Arabic alphabet (K̡ona Yezik̡), the Latin (Yengi Yezik̡) alphabet used from 1969 to 1987, corresponding modern Turkish spellings and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The table is arranged according to the order of the present alphabet. Note that the characters in the above table will not be diplayed correctly by your browser unless Unicode fonts are installed on your computer.

Text sample

Here the sample of Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1) in Uyghur:

See also


- Languages of China
- Turkic languages

External links


- [http://www.uyghurdictionary.org Online Uyghur-English Multiscript Dictionary]
- [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=uig Ethnologue report for Uighur]
- [http://dict.yulghun.com Online Uyghur-English Dictionary]
- [http://www.oqya.5u.com?code=UIG Uyghur Music Dance and Songs Online]
- [http://www.yulghun.com A Sample Site in the Uyghur Language]
- [http://www.ukij.org/fonts Download Page for Standard Uyghur Fonts]
- [http://www.bilik.cn/bbs Sample site in the Uyghur language, Uyghur BBS/Discussion]
- [http://www.travelphrases.info/gallery/Fonts_Uighur.html Arabic Uyghur in different fonts] Category:Turkic languages Category:Languages of China Category:Languages of Kazakhstan Category:Languages of Kyrgyzstan Category:Languages of Russia ja:ウイグル語 ko:위구르어

Autonomous Region of China

The People's Republic of China has created, following Soviet nationality policy, a number of administrative divisions designated as autonomous. Each autonomous entity is specifically associated with one or more ethnic minority, equivalent to the titular nation in Soviet practice. Autonomous administrative divisions can be found at the first (province), second (prefecture), and third (county) levels of local government. They include the following four types:
- Autonomous regions (), at the province level
- Autonomous prefectures (), at the prefecture level
- Autonomous counties (), at the county level
- Autonomous banners (), also at the county level As of June 2005, there are 5 autonomous regions, 30 autonomous prefectures, 117 autonomous counties and 3 autonomous banners in China. Outside these official numbers, there are also county-level cities and county-level districts that, upon their creation, were specified to enjoy the same rights as regular autonomous entities. At the township level, there are 277 ethnic townships and 1 ethnic sumu as of December 31, 2004, but these are not considered to be autonomous entities, and laws pertaining to ethnic autonomous entities do not apply to them. Autonomous entities are provided for according to the constitution of the PRC, and have a number of rights not accorded to other administrative entities. There is some debate over the actual level autonomy, with various groups feeling that is too much or not enough. Since these autonomous entities were created by the PRC, they are not recognised by the Republic of China on Taiwan which ruled Mainland China before PRC takeover.

Nomenclature

The majority of autonomous entities are named by combining the geographical name, the name of the specified nationality, and the entity name used for that administrative level: In Chinese, the nationality name is always suffixed with -族 ("nationality"), unless both of the following conditions apply: the division is found in Xinjiang (or is Xinjiang); the nationality name consists of more than one syllable. This distinction is not reflected in translation into English. Some autonomous entities have more than one specified minority, which tend to be listed in the name of the prefecture, creating rather long names. Two autonomous counties simply use "Various Nationalities" in their names as placeholders, rather than listing out all of their designated ethnicities: A few autonomous entities break the regular nomenclature pattern, because the name of the nationality is already contained within the geographical name, or because there is no geographical name:

Legal basis

Autonomous regions, prefectures, counties, and banners are covered under Section 6 of Chapter 3 (Articles 111-122) of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, and with more detail under the Law of the People's Republic of China on Regional National Autonomy (《中华人民共和国民族区域自治法》). The constitution states that the head of government of each autonomous entity must be of the ethnic group as specified by the autonomous entity (Tibetan, Uyghur, etc). The constitution also guarantees a range of rights including: independence of finance, independence of economic planning, independence of arts, science and culture, organization of local police, and use of local language. In addition, the head of government of each autonomous region is known as a "chairman", unlike provinces, where they are known as "governors".

Demographics

Of the five autonomous regions, only Tibet has an absolute majority (>50%) of the designated majority, namely, the Tibetans. Xinjiang has a relative majority (<50%) of the designated majority, the Uyghurs, though this is disputed by Uyghur independence advocates, who claim that the Han Chinese population in Xinjiang has been severely understated. The remaining 3 autonomous regions have absolute majorities of Han Chinese, the majority ethnicity of China.

History

Autonomous regions, prefectures, counties, and banners were established after communist takeover, following Soviet practice. At first, the nomenclature of these autonomous entities were somewhat confused, with autonomous regions appearing at the province, prefecture, county, and township levels. Eventually the nomenclature was standardized to the conventions used today. The first autonomous region to be established was Inner Mongolia, created within communist-held territory in 1947, two years before the establishment of the People's Republic. Xinjiang was converted from a province to an autonomous region in 1955. Guangxi and Ningxia followed in 1957, and Tibet Autonomous Region was formally established in 1965.

Opinions

Autonomous administrative entities, as well as the various rights granted to them, are affirmed by the government as a positive example of local self-rule in ethnic areas, and an acknowledgement of minority self-determination unprecedented in Chinese history. It is argued that these autonomous entities have facilitated the preservation and development of non-Han Chinese cultures while maintaining the territorial integrity of China. However, they have also drawn criticism from various groups. Some have questioned the necessity of setting up autonomous entities in areas where the designated ethnicity is actually a minority (true for 3 out of the 5 autonomous regions: Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, and Ningxia). They also point out that autonomous regions pursue affirmative action policies which are viewed as discriminatory, such as less preferential treatment in school admissions and government employment opportunities for Han Chinese; this is viewed as unfair, especially in entities where Han Chinese are actually the majority. Finally, some contend that the existence of these autonomous entities, and the extra privileges they enjoy, are a danger to national unity. Conversely, some have said that autonomous entities offer little or no actual autonomy, as officials (minority or not) are appointed from above rather than elected democratically by the people. Independence advocates for Tibet, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia would especially view the autonomous regions as facades of so-called autonomy that belie actual policies of repression and assimilation. In addition, real power within the autonomous entity lies with the local Communist Party committee secretary (who is usually Han Chinese) rather than the head of government who is required to be of the designated minority. Also, the ranks of government may become filled with Han Chinese, since only the head of government needs to be of the designated minority.

List of autonomous entities

Autonomous regions

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Autonomous prefectures

Autonomous counties and autonomous banners

There are 117 autonomous counties and 3 autonomous banners. The latter are found in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and the former are found everywhere else. The two are essentially identical except in name. category:Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China ja:民族区域自治

Tibet Autonomous Region

The Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) (Tibetan: བོད་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས་; Wylie: Bod-rang-skyong-ljongs; ), is a province-level autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Within the PRC the TAR is identified with Tibet, a characterization hotly disputed by many Tibetan exile groups, particularly the Government of Tibet in Exile, which define the terms "Tibet" or "historic Tibet" to include not just the TAR, but also the traditional province of Amdo, today incorporated in Qinghai province and southwestern of Gansu province, and the traditional province of Kham (eastern half), today in western Sichuan province and northwestern Yunnan province. The TAR includes about half of historic Tibet, including the traditional provinces of Ü-Tsang and Kham (western half). Its borders coincide roughly with the actual zone of control of the government of Tibet before 1959. There is also a debate surrounding the extent of actual autonomy in the TAR. The opinion of the PRC is that the TAR has ample autonomy, as guaranteed under Articles 111-122 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China as well as the Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy of the People's Republic of China. For example, the chairman of the TAR must be ethnic Tibetan, by law. However, independence advocates are of the opinion that the TAR has little or no autonomy. For over a decade, the 14th Dalai Lama has publicly stated that he seeks to negotiate "genuine self-government" or "genuine self-rule" for Tibet within the context of the Chinese state, indicating that he is of the opinion that the current state the TAR does not give the Tibetans genuine self-rule.

History

See History of Tibet for the history of the area before 1959. Before 1959, the present extent of the TAR, comprising Ü-Tsang and western Kham, was governed by the government of Tibet headed by the Dalai Lama, which the Government of Tibet in Exile characterizes as a sovereign independent nation, and the governments of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China as a self-governing Region within China. Other parts of historic Tibet (eastern Kham and Amdo) were not under the administration of the Tibetan government during the 20th century; today they are distributed among the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan. Following Soviet practice, there is a convention that the governor of the TAR is an ethnic Tibetan from the TAR while the general secretary of the local Communist Party committee is an outsider, usually Han Chinese. Notable general secretaries of the TAR Party committee include Hu Jintao who served in the 1980s. See also:
- History of Tibet
- History of the political divisions of China

Geography

History of the political divisions of China, the world's highest region. ]]History of the political divisions of China The TAR is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the highest region on Earth. Most of the Himalaya mountain range lies within Xizang; Mount Everest is on Xizang's border with Nepal. The TAR is bounded on the north and east by Xinjiang, Qinghai, and Sichuan, on the west by India and Kashmir, and on the south by Yunnan, Nepal, India and Bhutan.

Administrative divisions

Tibet Autonomous Region is divided into 1 prefecture-level city (Lhasa) and 6 prefectures (Nagqu Prefecture, Qamdo Prefecture, Nyinchi Prefecture, Shannan Prefecture, Xigazê Prefecture, Ngari Prefecture). All of these are in turn divided into 1 district (Chengguan District, Lhasa), 1 county-level city (Xigazê), and 71 counties. See List of administrative divisions of Tibet Autonomous Region for a complete list of county-level divisions.

Demographics

The TAR has the lowest population density among all of the province-level administrative regions in China, mainly due to its mountainous and harsh geographical features. Most of the population are ethnic Tibetans, who mainly adhere to Tibetan Buddhism and Bön. Han Chinese, who are recent immigrants from other parts of the People's Republic of China, comprise a sizeable portion of the population. There are some intermarriages between the two ethnicities. Smaller tribal groups such as the Monpa and Lhoba, who follow a combination of Lamaism and spirit worship, are found mainly in the southeastern parts of the region.

Economy

The Tibetans traditionally depended upon agriculture for survival. However since the 1980s, with the beginning of Chinese economic reform, other jobs such as taxi-driving and hotel retail work have become available. In 2003, its GDP of 2.2 billion USD is the smallest in all of the PRC's provinces and regions -- contributing to just 0.1% of the entire country's economy. Recently, China Western Development policy was adopted to boost economical development in western China.

Tourism

Ever since China opened its doors to tourists in the 1980s, many people from all over the world have came to visit and explore Tibet. The main attraction is the Potala Palace in Lhasa.

Further reading


- Sorrel Wilby, Journey Across Tibet: A Young Woman's 1900-Mile Trek Across the Rooftop of the World, Contemporary Books (1988), hardcover, 236 pages, ISBN 0809246082

External links

For PRC rule and policies in Tibet


- [http://www.index-china.com/index-english/Tibet-s.html China, Tibet and the Chinese nation]
- [http://www.tibetinfor.com.cn/english/ China Tibet Information Center]
- [http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/tibet/ Chinese government white paper "Tibet -- Its Ownership And Human Rights Situation"] (1992)
- [http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/20011108/index.htm Chinese government white paper, "Tibet's March Toward Modernization"] (2001)
- [http://www.chinatibetnews.com/BIG5/channel19/155/200212/16/5475.html Naming of Tibet] (Simplified Chinese)
- [http://www.chinese-embassy.org.uk/eng/zt/zgxz/default.htm PRC Government Tibet information]
- [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-05/23/content_333030.htm Regional Ethnic Autonomy in Tibet] (May 2004)
- [http://www.tibetonline.net/ Tibet Online] (Simplified Chinese)
- [http://www.tibettour.org/chinatibettoursite/moban/index.asp Tibet Tour (Tibet Tourism Bureau Official Site)]
- [http://www.utibet.edu.cn/ Tibet University] (Simplified Chinese)
- [http://english.people.com.cn/whitepaper/tbpaper/tb.html White Paper on Ecological Improvement and Environmental Protection in Tibet]
- [http://english.people.com.cn/features/tibetpaper/tibet.html White Paper on Tibetan Culture and Homayk]

Against PRC rule and/or policies in Tibet


- [http://www.unpo.org/news_detail.php?arg=52&par=672 Amnesty International Report 2004]
- [http://www.tibet.ca/ Canada Tibet Committee]
- [http://www.tibet.net/ Central Tibetan Administration (Government in Exile)]
- [http://www.archive.org/download/tibet_gnn/tibet_bb.mov Faith in Exile] - A video by the Guerrilla News Network
- [http://www.freetibet.org/ Free Tibet website]
- [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/50602/ Freedom of expression violations in Tibet]
- [http://www.olympicwatch.org/topics.php?id=10 Olympic Watch] (Committee for the 2008 Olympic Games in a Free and Democratic Country) on Tibet-related issues
- [http://www.kinaboykot.dk/video.htm Repression in Tibet]
- [http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/china/document.do?id=B0641B4B43873B66802569A600601F21 Repression in Tibet, 1987 - 1992]
- [http://www.studentsforafreetibet.org/ Students for a Free Tibet]
- [http://www.tibet.com/ The Government of Tibet in exile]
- [http://www.tibet.org/ Tibet Online - Tibet Support Group]
- [http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-TibetanStudies.html Tibetan Studies WWW Virtual Library]
- [http://www.tibet.freeserve.co.uk/ Beefy's Nepal and Tibet Page] - photos and information on Tibet (and Nepal)
- [http://www.cwru.edu/affil/tibet/booksAndPapers/Impact_China_Reform_Policy.htm The Impact of China's Reform Policy on the Nomads of Western Tibet by Melvyn C. Goldstein and Cynthia M. Beall] - An examination of the impact of China's post-1980 Tibet policy on a traditional nomadic area of Tibet's Changtang (Northern Plateau) about 300 miles west-north-west of Lhasa in Phala Xiang, Ngamring county.

Apolitical


- [http://www.muztagh.com/images/map/map-of-tibet-large.jpg Large map of Tibet]
- [http://www.accesstibettour.com/ A Local Travel Agency]
- [http://www.haiweitrails.com/timeline_tibet.htm Haiwei Trails - Timeline of Tibet]
- [http://www.tibetmap.com/ The Tibet Map Institute]
- [http://www.accesstibettour.com/tibet-map.html Tibet Maps]
- [http://www.nordling.nu/schaefer/chinamap.gif Railway map of China]
- [http://www.chinahighlights.com/tibet/index.htm Tibet Tours]
- [http://www.tibettrip.com/ Tibet Travel]
- [http://www.tibetsupport.org/ Tibetan Support Programme] Category:Autonomous regions of the People's Republic of China
- ko:티베트 자치구 ja:チベット自治区

Qinghai

Qinghai (; Postal System Pinyin: Tsinghai) is a province of the People's Republic of China, named after the enormous Qinghai Lake (Koko Nor). It borders Gansu on the northeast, the Xinjiang Autonomous Region on the northwest, Sichuan on the southeast, and Tibet Autonomous Region on the southwest.

History

Most of Qinghai was historically part of the Amdo province of Tibet. In 1928 it became a province of the then Republic of China.

Geography

Qinghai is located on the northeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau. The Yellow River (Huang He) originates in the middle of the province, while the Yangtze and Mekong have their sources in the southern part. Mekong The average elevation of Qinghai is about 3000 metres above sea level. Mountain ranges includes the Tangula Mountains and the Kunlun Mountains to name two. Its average temperature is approximately -5'c to 8'c, with January temperature ranging from -18.2'c to -7'c and July temperature ranging from 5'c to 21'c. It is also prone to heavy winds as well as sandstorms from February to April. Qinghai Lake (Koko Nor) is the largest lake in the People's Republic of China.

Administrative divisions

Qinghai is divided into 1 prefecture-level city (Xining), 1 prefecture (Haidong Prefecture), and 6 autonomous prefectures: Haibei, Hainan, Huangnan, Golog, Gyêgu, and Haixi. All of these are in turn divided into 4 districts, 2 county-level cities, 30 counties, and 7 autonomous counties. See List of administrative divisions of Qinghai for a complete list of county-level divisions.

Economy

Qinghai's economy is amongst the smallest in all of China. Its nominal GDP for 2003 was just 4.8 billion USD and contributes to a little over 0.3% of the entire country's economy. Per capita GDP was 7310 RMB (882 USD). Its heavy industry includes iron and steel productions, located near its capital city of Xining. Oil and natural gas from the Chaidamu Basin have also been an important contributor to the economy.

Demographics

The province of Qinghai boasts a population of 5.2 million, among which the Han is the largest group. Other groups include the Tibetans, Tu, Hui, Salar and Mongols.

Culture

Qinghai's culture is heavily influenced by Tibet, given the close proximity as well as a shared history -Qinghai being historically called "Amdo".

Transport

The Lanqing Railway, running between Lanzhou, Gansu and Xining, the province's capital, was completed in 1959 and is the major transportation route in and out of the province. A continuation of the line, the Qinghai-Tibet Railway through Golmud, has become one of the most ambitious projects in PRC history. It has been completed in October 2005 and connects Tibet with the rest of China through Qinghai. Six National Highways run through the province. Xining Airport provides service to Beijing, Lanzhou, Golmud and Delingha. See Transportation in China.

Tourism

Transportation in China Many tourist attractions center on Xining, the provincial seat of Qinghai. Xining, a vibrant city of 1.1 million, is squeezed between a long valley, offering an amazing blend of culture from Tibetan, Hui, and other minorities along with the Han majority. The city itself has many worthwhile stops, including the Great Mosque of Xining (qīngzhēn dà sì) and North Mountain Temple (bĕishān sì). Outside of Xining lie two notable attractions: The Kumbum Monastery (tă'ĕr sì) lies 30km outside of Xining, and likely any taxi from the city will get you there, but be sure to haggle for a decent price. The Monastery is one of the most important Yellow Hat Sect monasteries in the world, and also includes a Hall of Yak Butter Sculptures, which is not to be missed. Admission is 35RMB, and extra for guides who speak a variety of languages. Qinghai Lake (qīnghăi hú) is another great trip, albeit further from Xining than Kumbum. The lake is the largest saltwater lake in China, and is also located on the "Roof of the World," the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. The lake itself lies at 3,600m elevation. The surrounding area is made up of beautiful rolling grasslands and filled with Ethnic Tibetans, making for an authentic experience. Most pre-arranged tours will stop at Bird Island (niăo dăo), but check to make sure if admission is included in any tour package. A Tour from Xining, around the entire lake, and back with stops for lunch, shopping, and sightseeing can easily run 12 hours (more for Bird Island), so it may be wise to allot an entire day for this side trip. Each year a bicycle race happens from Xining to Qinghai lake. Qinghai offers many outstanding travel opportunities. In this area of Historical Tibet, the local culture is a large draw. Many argue that due to Chinese governmental actions in the 'Tibetan Autonomous Region', Tibetan culture is actually much more intact in Yunnan, Sichuan, and Qinghai than in the current T.A.R.

External links


- [http://english.gov.cn/2005-11/02/content_88633.htm The Provincial Government of Qinghai]
- [http://www.muztagh.com/images/map/map-of-qinghai-large.jpg Large map of Qinghai] Category:Provinces of the People's Republic of China ko:칭하이 성 ja:青海省

Mongolia

:For the region of the same name, see Mongolia (region) Mongolia (Khalkh Mongol: Монгол Улс) is a landlocked nation in central Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and the People's Republic of China to the south. It was the center of the Mongol Empire of the 13th century, but was ruled by the Manchu Qing dynasty from the end of the 18th century until an independent government was formed with Soviet assistance in 1921. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, Mongolia adopted electoral politics. The 18th largest country in the world by area, Mongolia has very little arable land: much of its area is grassland, with mountains in the north and west and the Gobi Desert in the south. A little over 30 percent of the population are nomadic or semi-nomadic Tibetan Buddhists of the Mongol ethnicity. Over fifty per cent of the population reside in the capital city Ulaanbaatar.

History

Main article: History of Mongolia In the 13th century, Mongolia was the center of the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. After more than a century of power, the Mongol Empire ended and Mongolia fell back into a state of internal struggle and feuds, which paved the way for the Manchu conquest of Inner Mongolia in 1636 and the submission of Outer Mongolia in 1691. Both Inner and Outer Mongolia declared independence in 1911, but only Outer Mongolia succeeded, with Russian help. After the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops re-occupied Outer Mongolia in 1919, but were caught in the middle when White and Red Russian armies extended the Russian Civil War into (Outer) Mongolian territory, and were driven out in 1921. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed. Mongolia was aligned closely with the Soviet Union. Politicians who demanded a more independent course, like Bodoo or Dandzan, were quickly toppled and executed. In 1928 Horloogiyn Choybalsan rose to power. Under his rule, forced collectivisation, purges, and the destruction of the Lamaist monasteries in 1937 left more than 10,000 people dead. During World War II, the USSR defended Mongolia against Japan during the Battle of Halhin Gol. Mongolian forces also took part in the Soviet offensive against Japanese forces in Inner Mongolia of August 1945 (see Operation August Storm). The threat of Mongolian forces seizing parts of Inner Mongolia induced the Republic of China to recognize Outer Mongolia's independence, provided that a referendum was held. The referendum took place on October 20, 1945, with, according to official numbers, 100% of the electorate voting for independence. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, both countries recognized each other on October 6, 1949. After Choybalsan died in Moscow on January 26 1952, Yumjaagiyn Tsedenbal took power. In 1956 and again in 1962, Choybalsan's 'personality cult' was condemned. Mongolia continued to closely align itself with the Soviet Union, especially after the Sino-Soviet split of the late 1950s. While Tsedenbal visited Moscow in August 1984, being very ill, the parliament announced his retirement and replaced him with Jambyn Batmonh. In 1990, the Communist Party relinquished control over the government, paving the way for a new constitution in 1992 that abolished the People's Republic and created a hybrid parliamentary/presidential state.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Mongolia Until June 27, 2004 the predominant party in Mongolia was the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party or MPRP, which was formed by Mongolia's communist leaders after the end of the Cold War. The main opposition party was the Democratic Party or DP, which controlled a governing coalition from 1996 to 2000. From 2000 to 2004 MPRP was back in power, but results of the 2004 elections required the establishing of the first ever coalition government in Mongolia between the MPRP and MDC (Motherland Democratic Coalition). The state employs a dual executive system with an elected president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. The legislature, or State Great Khural, has one chamber with 76 seats and is chaired by the speaker of the house.

Provinces

Main article: Provinces of Mongolia
Mongolia is split in to 21 provinces (aimag), Ulaanbaatar (the capital) is a municipality with provincial status. Provinces of Mongolia
- Arhangay
- Bayan-Ölgiy
- Bayanhongor
- Bulgan
- Darhan-Uul
- Dornod
- Dornogovĭ
- Dundgovĭ
- Govĭ-Altay
- Govĭsümber
- Hentiy
- Hovd
- Hövsgöl
- Ömnögovĭ
- Orhon
- Övörhangay
- Selenge
- Sühbaatar
- Töv
- Ulaanbaatar (municipality)
- Uvs
- Zavhan

Geography

Zavhan Main article: Geography of Mongolia The Mongolian heartland consists of relatively flat steppes. The southern portion of the country is taken up by the Gobi Desert, while the northern and western portions are mountainous. Uvs Nuur Lake, shared with Tuva Republic of the Russian Federation, is a natural World Heritage Site. Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as -30°C (-22°F). The country is also subject to occasional harsh climactic conditions known as zud or dzud. Ulaanbaatar has the coldest average temperature of any national capital in the world.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Mongolia Mongolia's economy is centered on agriculture and mining. Mongolia's main mining products are petroleum, coal and copper, with smaller industries in molybdenum, tungsten, and phosphate mining. Following decades of state-run enterprise, the economy has undergone an often-painful transition to capitalism; many industrial facilities were closed down with the end of the Soviet Union, which supported the largely loss-making factories. There are currently over 30,000 independent businesses in Mongolia, chiefly centered around the capital city. The majority of the population outside the cities subsists on sustenance herding; livestock typically consists of cows, sheep, goats, horses and Bactrian camels. GDP per capita is about $602 in nominal terms, but adjusted for purchasing power this comes to around $2,046. Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002, the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit. A massive ($11 billion) foreign debt to Russia was settled by the Mongolian government in 2004 with a $300 million payment; this reduced value was accepted due to Mongolian hardship and losses of human lives during the Soviet Era. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and now exports cashmere, minerals, and food products to Russia, the United States, China, Japan, Italy, and other countries.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Mongolia Most Mongolians are Mongol in descent: there are also smaller populations of Kazakh and Tungus people. The predominant religion is Tibetan Buddhism. As in many developing countries, Mongolia's young and rapidly growing population has put great strains on its economy.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Mongolia See also: Music of Mongolia

Miscellaneous topics


- Communications in Mongolia
- Foreign relations of Mongolia
- Military of Mongolia
- Mongoliyn Skautiyn Holboo
- Public holidays in Mongolia
- Transportation in Mongolia see also: Inner Mongolia

External links

General


- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mg.html CIA World Factbook - Mongolia]
- [http://www.photoglobe.info/ebooks/mongolia/ Country Studies - Mongolia] offers background information on Mongolia
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Mongolia/ Dmoz - Mongolia Links]
- [http://www.tanemahuta.com/mongolia2004/ Plants of Mongolia]
- [http://www.gateway.mn/index.php?newlang=english Mongolia Gateway portal]
- [http://www.mongoliatoday.com/ Mongolia Today Magazine]
- [http://www.open-government.mn Mongolian Open Government] (in Mongolian and English)
- [http://www.mongoliatourism.gov.mn/ Mongolian Tourist Board]
- [http://mongoluls.net/ Mongoluls.net - Information on Mongolia]
- [http://www.mnlibrary.org Mongolia and Social Development]
- [http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/ The UB Post] Mongolia's Independent English Weekly News
- [http://www.21DaysInMongolia.co.uk/ 21 Days In Mongolia] Backpacking in Mongolia
- [http://www.slackertravel.com/pictures/Mongolia/mongolia.html Collection of pictures from Mongolia sorted by province]
- [http://www.mongoliaphoto.com/ Photo session In Mongolia] Mongolia photo
- [http://www.altaimongolia.com/ Tourism In Mongolia] Tourism In Mongolia
- [http://www.willgoto.com/328/1/categories.aspx Travel guide to Mongolia]
- [http://www.geocities.com/ulsuud Flags and arms of the aymags of Mongolia] Category:Central Asian countries Category:Landlocked countries
- category:Disputed territories zh-min-nan:Bông-kó· ko:몽골 ms:Mongolia ja:モンゴル国 th:ประเทศมองโกเลีย

Kazakhstan

The Republic of Kazakhstan or Kazakhstan (Kazakh: Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, IPA ; Russian: Казахстан, Kazakhstán, IPA ), also spelled Kazakstan, is a country that stretches over a vast expanse of Asia. A portion of its territory west of the Ural River is located in eastern-most Europe. It has borders with Russia, the People's Republic of China, and the Central Asian countries Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, and has a coastline on the Caspian Sea. Kazakhstan was a republic of the now extinct Soviet Union and is now a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country in the world by area, but its semi-deserts (steppe) make it only the 57th country in population, with approximately 6 persons per sq km (16/mi²). Population in 2005 was estimated at 15,100,500 [http://www.stat.kz/en/info/stat-bul/stbr&e0303.pdf], down from 16,464,464 in 1989 [http://www.stat.kz/ru/dynamic/svedenia_rk/population/nas.htm].

History

Main article: History of Kazakhstan Humans have inhabited what is now known as Kazakhstan since the earliest Stone Age, generally pursuing the nomadic movement pastoralism for which the region's climate and terrain are best suited. From the 4th century through the beginning of the 13th century, the territory of Kazakhstan was ruled by a series of nomadic nations. Following the Mongolian invasion in the early 13th century, administrative districts were established under the Mongol Empire, which eventually became the territories of the Kazakh Khanate. The major medieval cities of Aulie-Ata and Turkestan were founded along the northern route of the Great Silk Road during this period. Traditional nomadic life on the vast steppe and semi-desert lands was characterized by a constant search for new pasture to support the livestock-based economy. The Kazakhs emerged from a mixture of tribes living in the region in about the 15th century and by the middle of the 16th century had developed a common language, culture, and economy. In the early 1600s, the Kazakh Khanate separated into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) Hordes—confederations based on extended family networks. Political disunion, competition among the hordes, and a lack of an internal market weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. The area was a bone of contention between the Kazak emirs and the Persian Kings for many centuries. In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand, and spread into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 a second less intensive phase followed. The tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and Great Britain. Russia enforced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organizations. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the Kazakh language and identity. From the 1890s onwards ever-larger numbers of Slavic settlers began colonising the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular the province of Semirechie. The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906, and the movement was overseen and encouraged by a specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg. The competition for land and water which ensued between the Kazakhs and the incomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of tsarist Russia, with the most serious uprising, the Central Asian Revolt, occurring in 1916. Although there was a brief period of autonomy during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within Russia and, in 1936, a Soviet republic. Soviet repression of the traditional elites, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s-1930s, brought about mass hunger and led to unrest. Soviet rule, however, took hold, and a communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of thousands exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and later became home for hundreds of thousands evacuated from the Second World War battlefields. The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort. The period of the Second World War marked an increase in industrialization and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" program to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, sped up the development of the agricultural sector, which to this day remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs took place in Almaty to protest the methods of the communist system. Soviet troops suppressed the unrest, and dozens of demonstrators were jailed or killed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost. Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in October 1990. Following the August 1991 abortive coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991. The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet command-economy and political monopoly on power. Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in 1989 as the head of the Kazakh Communist Party and was eventually elected President in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a market economy. The country has enjoyed significant economic growth since 2000, partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is a constitutional republic with a strong presidency. The president is the head of state. The president also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament. President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who has been in office since Kazakhstan became independent, won a new 7-year term in the 1999 election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. The prime minister, who serves at the pleasure of the president, chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet. Daniyal K. Akhmetov became the Prime Minister in June 2003. Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament, comprised of the lower house (the Majilis) and upper house (the Senate). Single mandate districts popularly elect 67 seats in the Majilis; there also are 10 members elected by party-list vote rather than by single mandate districts. The Senate has 39 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (Maslikhats) of Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative divisions (14 regions, or oblasts, plus the cities of Astana and Almaty). The president appoints the remaining seven senators. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the Parliament. Elections to the Majilis in September 2004 yielded a lower house dominated by the pro-government Otan party, headed by President Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party, founded by President Nazarbayev’s daughter, won most of the remaining seats. Opposition parties, which were officially registered and competed in the elections, won a single seat during elections that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. In 1999, Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. The official response of the Assembly was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at the Council until their democracy and human rights records improved. On December 5, 2005, Nursultan Nazarbayev was reelected in a land-slide victory. The electoral commission announced that he had won over 90 % of the vote. Opposition parties complained of irregularities and possible fraud, pointing especially to what they claimed was a hastily-assembled electronic voting system which they argue was open to abuse. Xinhua News Agency reported that Chinese observers, responsible in overseeing 25 polling stations in Astana, found that voting in those polls was conducted in a "transparent and fair" manner. [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000087&sid=a2ml5vt5j2_M&refer=top_world_news]

Kazakh Intelligence Services

Kazakhstan's National Security Committee (KNB) was established June 13 1992. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commandos units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered by many as the most important part of KNB. Its director is Major General Omirtai Bitimov.

Provinces

Omirtai BitimovMain article: Provinces of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is divided into 14 provinces (oblystar) and the two municipal districts of Almaty and Astana. Each is headed by a Hakim (provincial governor) appointed by the president. Municipal Hakims are appointed by oblast Hakims. The Government of Kazakhstan transferred its capital from Almaty to Astana on June 10, 1998. Kazakhstan is divided into 14 oblys and 3 cities (qala)
- : Almaty, Almaty
- , Aqmola (Astana), Aqtobe, Astana
- , Atyrau, Batys Qazaqstan (Oral), Bayqongyr
- , Mangghystau (Aqtau; formerly Shevchenko), Ongtustik Qazaqstan (Shymkent), Pavlodar, Qaraghandy, Qostanay, Qyzylorda, Shyghys Qazaqstan (Oskemen; formerly Ust'-Kamenogorsk), Soltustik Qazaqstan (Petropavl), Zhambyl (Taraz; known as Dzhambul in the Soviet period, but before that as Aulie-Ata) note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses); in 1995 the Governments of Kazakhstan and Russia entered into an agreement whereby Russia would lease for a period of 20 years an area of 6,000 km² enclosing the Bayqongyr (Baykonur) space launch facilities and the city of Bayqongyr (formerly Leninsk). Just recently, the lease of Bayqongyr facilities was extended through 2050.

Geography

Leninsk Main article: Geography of Kazakhstan With an area of 2.7 million square kilometres (1.56 million mi²), Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest nation in the world. It is equivalent to the size of Western Europe. Major cities include, Astana (capital since June 1998), Almaty (former capital, once known as Alma-Ata and before 1917 as Verny), Karaganda, Shymkent (Chimkent), Semey (Semipalatinsk) and Turkestan, once known as Yasi. See Cities of Kazakhstan The terrain extends east to west from the Caspian Sea to the Altay Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western Siberia to the oasis and desert of Central Asia. Almost one-third of the country—804,500 square kilometres—is taken up the the Kazakh Steppe, the world's largest dry steppe region. The steppe is characterized by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions. The climate is continental with cold winters and hot summers; arid and semi-arid. Border lengths: Russia 6,846 km., Uzbekistan 2,203 km., China 1,533 km., Kyrgyzstan 1,051 km., and Turkmenistan 379 km.
- Rivers and lakes include:
  - Aral Sea
  - Ili River
  - Irtysh River
  - Ishim River
  - Lake Balkhash
  - Lake Zaysan

Economy

Main article: Economy of Kazakhstan The Government of Kazakhstan plans to double its Gross domestic product (GDP) by 2008 (compared to 2000) and triple by 2015 (compared to 2003). The GDP growth was stable in last five years, and was higher than 9% (the second fastest growing economy in the world in real terms). The estimation for 2005 is 9.3 % growth in GDP. The GDP growth in 2004 was 9.4%. Kazakhstan's economy grew by 9.2% in 2003, buoyed by high world oil prices. GDP grew 9.5% in 2002; it grew 13.2% in 2001, up from 9.8% in 2000. Kazakhstan's monetary policy has been well managed. Its principal challenges in 2002 were to manage strong foreign currency inflows without sparking inflation. In 2003 inflation did not remain under control, registering at 6.8% instead of forecast level of 5.3%-6.0%. In 2002 inflation was 6.6%, compared to 6.4% in 2001. Because of its strong macroeconomic performance and financial health, Kazakhstan became the first former Soviet republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2000, 7 years ahead of schedule. In March 2002, the U.S. Department of Commerce graduated Kazakhstan to market economy status under U.S. trade law. The change in status recognized substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources. In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the former Soviet Union to receive an investment-grade credit rating from a major international credit rating agency. As of late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22.9 billion. Total governmental debt was $4.2 billion. This amounts to 14% of GDP. There has been a noticeable reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP observed in past years; the ratio of total governmental debt to GDP in 2000 was 21.7%, in 2001 it was 17.5%, and in 2002 it was 15.4%. The upturn in economic growth, combined with the results of earlier tax and financial sector reforms, dramatically improved government finances from the 1999 budget deficit level of 3.5% of GDP to a deficit of 1.2% of GDP in 2003. Government revenues grew from 19.8% of GDP in 1999 to 22.6% of GDP in 2001, but decreased to 16.2% of GDP in 2003. In 2000, Kazakhstan adopted a new tax code in an effort to consolidate these gains. On November 29, 2003 the Law on Changes to Tax Code was adopted, which reduced tax rates-- value added tax from 16% to 15%, social tax from 21% to 20%, and personal income tax from 30% to 20%. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on June 20, 2003 and a customs code on April 5, 2003. Oil and gas is the leading economic sector. Production of oil and gas condensate in Kazakhstan amounted to 51.2 million tons in 2003, which was 8.6% more than in 2002. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44.3 million tons in 2003, 13% higher compared to 2002. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003 amounted to 13.9 billion cubic meters, up 22.7% compared to 2002, including natural gas production of 7.3 billion cubic meters, Kazakhstan holds about 4 billion tons of proven recoverable oil reserves and 2,000 cubic kilometers of gas. Industry analysts believe that planned expansion of oil production, coupled with the development of new fields, will enable the country to produce as much as 3 million barrels (477,000 m³) per day by 2015, lifting Kazakhstan into the ranks of the world's top 10 oil-producing nations. Kazakhstan's 2003 oil exports were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65% of overall exports and 24% of GDP. Major oil and gas fields and their recoverable oil reserves are Tengiz with 7 billion barrels (1.1 km³); Karachaganak with 8 billion barrels (1.3 km³) and 1,350 km³ of natural gas); and Kashagan with 7 to 9 billion barrels (1.1 to 1.4 km³). Kazakhstan instituted an ambitious pension reform program in 1998. As of January 1, 2005 the pension assets were about $4.1 billion. There are 16 saving pension funds in the republic. The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state-owned fund, could be privatized as early as 2005. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates the pension funds. The pension funds' growing demand for quality investment outlets triggered rapid development of the debt securities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including Government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The Kazakhstani banking system is developing rapidly. The banking system's capitalization now exceeds $1 billion. The National Bank has introduced deposit insurance in its campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks have branches in Kazak