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Xia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty (), ca. 2070 BC (?)–1600 BC (?), is the first dynasty to be described in Chinese historical records, which record the names of seventeen kings over fourteen generations. The legends of The Three August Ones and the Five Emperors precede this dynasty, and it is followed by the Shang dynasty.
Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the existence of the Xia Dynasty. But since then, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. Most Chinese archaeologists identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia Dynasty, while most Western archaeologists remain unconvinced of the connection between the Erlitou culture and the Xia Dynasty. At a minimum, the Xia period marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the typical Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty. Agricultural technology improved drastically, with the invention of wine making and the improvement in horse herding. Carriages were also used in Xia Dynasty.
Xia Dynasty resumed hereditary monarchy from the legendary Yellow Emperor times, and began the period of a family or a clan controlling everything in the nation (家天下). It was also during this period that the Chinese civilization developed a ruling structure that employed both a benign civilian government (文治) and harsh punishment for legal transgressions (刑罰). From this the earliest forms of Chinese legal codes came into being.
Xia Dynasty is believed to encompass a territory east to Henan, Shandong and Hebei Provinces, west to Henan and Shanxi, south to Hubei and north to Hebei.
Jie, the last ruler, was said to be a corrupt king. He was overthrown by T'ang, the leader of Shang people from the east.
Sovereigns of the Xia dynasty
ja:夏 (三代)
21st century BC(22nd century BC - 21st century BC - 20th century BC - other centuries)
(4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC)
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Events
- 2130 BC – 2080 BC — Ninth Dynasty wars in Egypt.
- 2112 BC – 2095 BC — Sumerian campaigns of Ur-Nammu.
- 2091 BC — beginning of the mythological Patriarchal Age is traditionally set in this year.
- 2071 BC — Magh Ithe, first recorded battle in Ireland myths.
- 2070 BC
- — Xia Dynasty of China established.
- 2064 BC – 1986 BC — Twin Dynasty wars in Egypt.
- 2049 BC — Oak trees for Seahenge felled.
- 2040 BC — Pharaoh Merykare died. End of Tenth dynasty of Egypt. Pharaoh Mentuhotep II started to rule. Start of Eleventh Dynasty.
- 2034 BC – 2004 BC — Ur-Amorite wars.
- 2004 BC — Elamite destruction of Ur.
- 2000 BC — Arrival of the ancestors of the Latins in Italy.
- 2000 BC — The town of Mantua was presumedly founded.
- 2000 BC — Stonehenge is believed to have been completed.
- 2000 BC — Farmers and herders travel south from Ethiopia and settle in Kenya.
Significant persons
- Ur-Nammu, 3rd dynasty of Ur
- Shulgi of Urim
- Abraham (probably)
- According to Hindu tradition, lifetime of Rama, the 7th avatar of Vishnu
Inventions, discoveries, introductions
- 2037 BC — Emperor Shen Nong makes first (perhaps mythical) tea drink by boiling fresh leaves.
- 2000 BC — First written accounts of Schizophrenia.
Category:21st century BC
16th century BC
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Overview
Events
- 1700 – 1500 BC -- Hurrian conquests.
- 1600 BC
- — Shang Dynasty of China established.
- 1595 BC - Sack of Babylon by the Hittite king Mursilis I.
- 1567 BC - Egypt: End of Fifteenth Dynasty, end of Sixteenth Dynasty, end of Seventeenth Dynasty, start of Eighteenth Dynasty.
- 1550s BC - The city of Mycenae, located in the northeast Peloponnesus, comes to dominate the rest of Achaea, giving its name to Mycenaean civilization.
- 1556 BC - Cecrops builds or rebuilds Athens following the great flood of Deucalion and the end of the Golden age. He becomes the first of several Kings of Athens whose life account is considered part of Greek mythology.
- 1539 BC - End of Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt, start of the Eighteenth Dynasty.
- 1539 BC - Approximate first use of the Valley of the Kings.
- 1530 BC - End of the First Dynasty of Babylon and the start of the Kassite Dynasty - see History of Iraq.
- 1525 BC - End of Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt.
- 1512 BC (approx.): the flood of Deucalion, according to O'Flaherty, Augustine, Eusebius, and Isidore (bishop of Seville).
- 1506 BC - Cecrops, legendary King of Athens, dies after a reign of 50 years. Having survived his own son, he is succeeded by Cranaus.
- 1504 BC - Egypt started to conquer Nubia and the Levant.
- 1500s BC - Stonehenge built in Wiltshire, England.
- 1500s BC - The element Mercury has been discovered in Egyptian tombs dating from this decade.
- 1500s BC - Settlers from Crete, Greece move to Miletus, Turkey.
- 1500s BC - Early traces of Maya civilization developing in Belize.
- 1500s BC - The Phoenicians develop an alphabet - see Timeline of communication technology.
- 1500s BC - Earliest evidence (from archaeological excavations) of a settlement at Aylesbury, England.
- 1500 BC - Indus valley civilization - The controversial Aryan Invasion Theory is often dated to 1500 BC. Many scholars date the Rig Veda to the period of 1900 to 1200 BC.
- Unetice culture.
Significant persons
- 汤 (pinyin: tāng) — first ruler of Shang Dynasty, ruled China for 29 years since 1600 BC according to the Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project.
1597 BC - Aaron born to Amram and his wife Jochebed (traditional date).
- Kamose, last Pharaoh of the 17th Dynasty of Egypt (1573 - 1570 BC).
- Ahmose I, Pharaoh and founder of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt (1570 - 1546 BC).
- Thutmose II of Egypt, Pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1518 BC - 1504 BC).
Category:16th century BC
ko:기원전 16세기
ja:紀元前16世紀
Shang Dynasty
Shang Dynasty (Chinese: 商朝) or Yin Dynasty (殷代) (1600 BC - 1046 BC) is the first historic Chinese dynasty and ruled in the northeastern region of China proper. The Shang dynasty followed the quasi-legendary Xia Dynasty and preceded the Zhou Dynasty. Information about the Shang Dynasty comes from bronze artifacts and oracle bones--turtle shells or cattle scapula on which were written the first recorded Chinese characters, which were found in the Huang He valley. These bones typically had three sections: a question for the oracle (charge), the oracle's answer (prognostication), and whether the oracle later proved to be correct (Verification). The bones are often from cattle, oxen or monkeys, but never from cats or dogs.
Huang He
The yin (latter half of Shang) left written historic records containing information on the politics, economy, culture, religion, geography, astronomy, calendar, art and medicine of the period, and as such provides critical insight toward the early stages of the Chinese civilization. The site of the Yin capital, later historically called the Ruins of Yin 殷墟, is near modern day Anyang 安陽. Archaeological work there uncovered 11 major Yin royal tombs and the foundations of palace and ritual sites, all of them containing weapons of war. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone and ceramic artifacts have been obtained; the workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization. In terms of inscribed oracle bones alone, more than 20,000 were discovered.
The Shang dynasty is believed to have been founded by a rebel leader who overthrew the last (still legendary) Xia ruler. Its civilization was based on agriculture, augmented by hunting and animal husbandry. The Records of the Grand Historian states that the Shang Dynasty moved its capital six times. The final and most important move to Yin in 1350 BC led to the golden age of the dynasty. The term Yin Dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although lately it has been used specifically in reference to the latter half of the Shang.
A line of hereditary Shang kings ruled over much of northern China, and Shang troops fought frequent wars with neighboring settlements and nomadic herdsmen from the inner Asian steppes. The capitals, particularly in Yin, were centers of glittering court life. Court rituals to propitiate spirits and to honor sacred ancestors were highly developed. In addition to his secular position, the king was the head of the ancestor- and spirit-worship cult. Evidence from the royal tombs indicates that royal personages were buried with articles of value, presumably for use in the afterlife. Perhaps for the same reason, hundreds of commoners, who may have been slaves, were buried alive with the royal corpse.
The Shang dynasty marked the beginning of the development of writing. Iron casting and pottery also advanced in Shang. In astronomy, the Shang astronomers found Mars and various comets. Many musical instruments were also invented at that time.
slave of the Smithsonian Institution.]]
Shang Zhou, the last Yin king, committed suicide after his army was defeated by the Zhou people. Legends say that his army betrayed him by joining the Zhou rebels in a decisive battle. A classical novel Fengshen Yanyi is about the war between that of Yin and Zhou, in which each was supported by one group of gods.
After the Yin's collapse, the surviving Yin ruling family collectively changed their surname from their royal 子 (pinyin: zi; Wade-Giles: tzu) to the name of their fallen dynasty, Yin 殷. The family remained aristocratic and often provided needed administrative services to the succeeding Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou King Cheng 周成王 through the Regent, his uncle the Duke of Zhou Dan 周公旦, enfeoffed the Shang King Zhou's brother the Viscount of Wei, WeiZi 微子 in the old Shang capital at Shang 商 with the territory becoming the state of Song 宋. The State of Song and the royal Shang descendants maintained rites to the dead Shang kings and lasted until 286BC. (Source: Records of the Grand Historian).
Both Korean and Chinese legends state that a disgruntled Yin prince named 箕子 Jizi (Kija), who refused to cede power to the Zhou, left China with his garrison and founded Gija Joseon near modern day Pyongyang to what would become one of the early Korean states (Go-, Gija-, and Wiman-Joseon). Though Jizi is mentioned only a few times in Shiji, it is thought that the story of his going to Joseon is but a myth.
Sovereigns of the Shang Dynasty
See also
- Chinese historiography
- Chinese sovereign
- Chinese mythology
- Erligang culture
- Tribes in Chinese history
External links
- [http://pub16.bravenet.com/photocenter/album.php?usernum=1312371940 Map of Shang]
Category:Bronze Age
Category:History of China
Category:Shang Dynasty
ko:상나라
ja:殷
Erlitou cultureThe Erlitou culture (二裡頭文化) (1900 BC to 1500 BC) is a name given by archaeologists to an Early Bronze Age society that existed in China. The culture was named after the site discovered at Erlitou in Yanshi, Henan Province. The culture was widely spread throughout Henan and Shanxi Province, and later appeared in Shaanxi and Hubei Province. Most Chinese archaeologists identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia Dynasty, while most Western archaeologists remain unconvinced of the connection between the Erlitou culture and the Xia Dynasty.
Discovered in 1959, Erlitou is the largest site associated with the Erlitou culture at 3 km². Erlitou monopolized the production of ritual bronze vessels. After the rise of the Shang Dynasty,the site at Erlitou greatly diminished in size, but remained inhabited during the early phase of the Shang Dynasty.
The Erlitou culture may have evolved from the Longshan culture. Originally centered around Henan and Shanxi Province, the culture later spread to Shaanxi and Hubei Province.
See also
- Erligang culture
- Sanhuangwudi
- Xia Dynasty
References
- Liu, Li. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, ISBN 0521811848
- http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm The Golden Age of Chinese Archaeology
category:History of China
Category:Archaeological cultures
Neolithic
The Neolithic, (Greek νέος (neos) = new + λίθος (lithos) = stone, or "New" Stone Age) was a period in the development of human technology that is traditionally the last part of the Stone Age. The name was invented by John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. The term is more commonly used in the Old World and its application to cultures in the Americas and Oceania is problematic. It follows the terminal Pleistocene Epipalaeolithic and early Holocene Mesolithic periods, beginning with the start of farming and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic), Bronze Age or Iron Age, depending on geographical region. The term "Neolithic" thus does not refer to a specific chronological period but a suite of behavioural and cultural characteristics including the use of (both wild and domestic) crops and the use of domesticated animals. Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as "Early Village Communities", although this has not gained wide acceptance.
Origins and regional development
In Southwest Asia, Neolithic cultures appear soon after 10000 BC, initially in the Levant (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Between South Asia's Neolithic sites there are two ancient ones: Mehrgarh now in Pakistan from 7000 BC and Lahuradewa from 6200 BC in Ganges Valley, India.
Since beginning of cultivation is indicative of Neolithic, it must be mentioned the presence of charcoal showing slash and burn cultivation in the area around Lahuradewa from 8000 BC. More to the west but still in Ganges Valley studies in deposits at Sanai Tal lake showed also slash and burn cultivation with Cerelia pollens since 13000 BC in the concluding Pleistocene phase,making India one of the earliest centres of Neolithic development in the world (National Seminar on the Archaeology of the Ganga Plain, December 2004, Lucknow, India).
There are early Neolithic cultures in SE Anatolia, Syria and Iraq by 8000 BC, and food-producing societies first appear in southeast Europe by 7000 BC, and Central Europe by cal 5500 BC (of which the earliest cultural complexes include the Starčevo-Koros (Cris), Linearbandkeramic, and Vinča). From there, through a combination of diffusion of ideas and migration of peoples, the Neolithic phenomenon spreads westward to northwest Europe by 4500 BC. Early Neolithic farming is limited to a narrow range of crops (both wild and domestic) and the keeping of sheep and goats, but by about 7000 BC it included domestic cows, pigs, permanently or semi-permanently inhabited settlements and the use of pottery. Not all of the cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic (e.g., pottery, permanent villages, and the farming of domestic crops and animals) appear in the same order -- e.g. the earliest farming societies in the Near East do not use pottery, and in Britain it remains unclear what the contribution of domestic plants was in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, India and SE Asia, there are independent domestication events leading to regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures completely independent of Europe. Japanese societies used pottery in the Mesolithic for example. In Mesoamerica a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred at about 4500 BC, although here the term 'Formative' is used instead of 'Neolithic'.
Social organization
There is little evidence for developed hierarchies in the Neolithic, which is a cultural phenomenon more closely associated with the Bronze Age. Families and households were still largely economically independent. Excavations in Central Europe have also revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later Neolithic equivalents such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henges) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour. There is also good evidence for fortified settlement at Linearbandkeramic sites along the Rhine, as well as evidence for inter-group conflict from Neolithic sites in Britain. Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual (e.g., a 'big man', or proto-chief) such as a lineage group head. These sociopolitical entities later developed into the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age. The Iroquois, Pueblo people, Maya civilization and the Maori are examples of stone-tool-dependent cultures with complex social and political systems.
Farming
A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in those areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed, then gradually improved. In these areas, the previous reliance upon a more nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the yield produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labour in tending crop fields required more localised dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands.
The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the early onset of agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term first coined by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe.
One potential benefit of the increasing sophistication and development of farming technology was an ability (if conditions allowed) to produce a crop yield which would be surplus to the immediate needs of the community. When such surpluses were produced they could be preserved and sequestered for later use during times of seasonal shortfalls, traded with other communities (giving rise to a nascent non-subsistence economy), and in general allowed larger populations to be sustained.
However, it should be noted that early farmers were also adversely affected in times of crop failures, such as may be caused by drought or pestilence. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to a sometimes dramatic extent which otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by former hunter-gatherer communities. Nevertheless, despite what must have been periodic setbacks in general agrarian communities proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.
Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of diet. Whereas hunter-gatherer communities typically have diets with a larger proportion of animal protein, those farmers whose opportunities and motivation for hunting had lessened might have their food intake derived in large part just from the proceeds of their plant cultivation. The relative nutritional benefits and disadvantages of these dietary changes, and their overall impact on early societal development is still the subject of some debate.
The domestication of animals, either as draught animals or as a food source (livestock), was another innovation which altered the societal characteristics of those Neolithic communities which adopted it. Animal labour (for example, oxen) could greatly improve the efficiency of land tillage, and their by-product of dung could also be used as a fertilizer, as fuel or even as a building material. Apart from providing a ready source of protein and dairy-based products, livestock animals could also be used for barter and trade. For those communities where pastoralism of grazing animals was developed, this often implied a more nomadic existence than is the case for purely crop-based farming, as the animals were herded or migrated to seasonal pastures (a practice known as transhumance).
Technology
Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tool and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilising mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatalhöyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs for the dead were also built. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives.
With very small exceptions (a few copper hatchets and spear heads in the Great Lakes region), the peoples of the Americas and the Pacific remained at the Neolithic level of technology up until the time of European contact.
Neolithic settlements include:
:Jericho in the Levant, Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture.
:Çatalhöyük in Turkey, 7500 BC
:Mehrgarh in South Asia, 7000 BC
:Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, ca. 9000 BC.
:Nevali Cori in Turkey, ca. 8000 BC.
:Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, the Orkney Islands, Scotland, from 3500 BC.
:around 2000 settlements of Trypillian culture, 5400 BC -- 2800 BC
The world's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track in England, also dates from this time.
See also
- Old European cultures
- Agricultural Revolution
- Ötzi the Iceman
Category:Periods and stages in archaeology
Category:Holocene
ko:신석기 시대
ja:新石器時代
Jie (Xia dynasty ruler)King Jie of Xia of China (Chinese: "桀"), also spelled Chieh, was the last king of the Xia dynasty of China, and is blamed for its fall. He reputedly mistreated his people and became a tyrant. Records from the later Qin dynasty say that during the last year of Jie's reign, ice formed during the summer mornings and frosts occurred through July. Heavy rainfall toppled buildings, hot and cold weather arrived in disorder, and crops failed. Some scientists correlate this event with a volcanic winter, possibly due to the eruption of Thera c. 1628 BC.
Around 1700 BC, Tang, a leader of the Shang people to the east, succeeded in defeating Jie, bringing an end to the Xia dynasty and founding the Shang dynasty.
The historian Sima Qian traces the origin of the Xiongnu people to Chunwei (淳維), who was possibly a son of Jie. This theory has never been proven or disproven.
ja:桀 (夏)
Category:Xia Dynasty
567
Tahun ke-567 Masehi dalam kalender Gregorian.
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