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Wrestling

Wrestling

The sport of wrestling involves standing and/or ground fighting, and has ancient roots. Participants compete for one or more of the following reasons: (1) as recreation or mere play, (2) as serious win-lose competition, (3) as a commercial, money-focused interest, or (4) to gain a higher moral and social status. These are weapon-free competitions between two individuals, though the human body is utilized as an armory of sundry weapons. Many forms or "styles" eliminate striking, beating, kicking, and/or choking—because of the health risks, with brain damage being the primary risk (though blindness, deafness, or even death are possible). In addition, "weight classes" or divisions or frequently created to equalize the competitors, and often competitive intramural-"teams" are established according to such weight considerations. (The term in this context is distinct from its figurative use, as in "wrestling with a problem.") The objective (-s) during competitions is predicated upon individual style, but frequently involves one or more of the following: (1) pinning shoulders of opponent to the ground with a required holding time—e.g, one second, (2) choking or pressuring a major joint to earn opponent's "submission"—or the "tapout" with the hand of the losing-opponent slapping-against the body of the submitted-to opponent, (3) maneuvering shoulders toward ground to earn points, (4) taking opponent from standing to ground for a match win (conclusion) or as points toward a point-earning win—called a "takedown." (5) escaping from opponent's control—an "escape," (6) gaining control from your controlling-opponent—a "reversal," (7) executing with precision an upper-body maneuver (non-leg attach), which first takes opponent off his feet, then brings him to the ground/mat—a "throw"—and especially a crowd-pleasing "superior-amplitude" throw. Many commercial attempts continue in order to: (1) improve competitive aspects, (2) increase or decrease health risks, (3) involve or eliminate head-and-arms or legs, (3) include or exclude submission, blood, and death. Even a totally whimsical form of wrestling has evolved in the USA, referred to as "negative-wrestling," whereby schoolboy opponents work for the opposite of the "pin"—with one opponent attempting to pin himself, and the other opponent trying to keep a pin from occurring. There are almost as many wrestling "styles" as there are national traditions. Styles include sumo in Japan and yağlı güreş (oiled wrestling) in Turkey. Wrestling is often categorized as one of the martial arts; its virile image and usefulness as military training doubtlessly helped generate such multi-cultural evolutions. Wrestling historically is possibly the oldest sport know to man—with ancient wall-paintings of man struggling versus man, and the story of Jacob wrestling an angel in the Book of Genesis. Today, even modern Olympic competitions are including women-vs-women matches; furthermore, cross-gender matches remain the bling-bling "sport" of pubs and nightclubs—often in mud, gelatin (Jello), pudding, or even underwater fests. In addition to its sporting nature, wrestling has often been utilized as the basis for popular spectacle, or theatrical drama. Circus shows worldwide have historically included sideshow-wrestling—even matches involving wagered monies or commodies. Such show-wrestling has continued to this day in "professional" wrestling spectaculars—choreographed for maximum visual (and even auditory) effects. Since the winner is determined in advance, the old circus-roadshow gambling on matches is (more often than not) obsolete—though Sumo, Shoot-Wrestling (also in Japan), and the most recent Ultimate/Extreme Fighting Championships (often in Las Vegas venues) include many of the commercial aspects dating to medieval carnivals, gypsy carriage-shows, or man verus animals (especially bears).

Sport wrestling

Most wrestling is an amateur sport but some forms, such as sumo, have long professional traditions. The most widespread form internationally is amateur wrestling. Two styles are performed in the Olympic Games: Freestyle and Greco-Roman. A similar style, commonly called Collegiate or Folkstyle, is practiced in secondary schools, colleges, and younger age groups in the United States. Other styles of sport wrestling include:
- catch wrestling
- hook wrestling
- sumo
- Pehlwani
- yağlı güreş
- glima
- Khuresh
- Bûno-Philippines
- Chiao-Ti (Swai Chiao)
- Devonshire style wrestling - Great Britain
- Dumog - Philippies
- Fianna - Ancient. Great Britain.A form of Celtic Wrestling.
- Gulat Banjang - Indonesia
- Koshti - Iran
- La Lucha Canaria - Ancient. Canary Islands, Spain
- Lucha Breton - France
- Mallayuddha - Ancient martial art,India.
- Muk'na - India
- Nabon (Naban) - Burma
- Okol - Indonesia
- Rangeln - Austria

Show wrestling

Historically, many spectators have been as interested in observing spectacular "fights" or competitions—as in finding out who was the better wrestler. This is not unlike the often vulgar gladiatorial "competitions" of ancient Rome—with death included, at the whim or political mindedness of an emperor and his "thumbs-up." Such theatrical winning often occurs with the full knowledge of the audience, and sometimes clandestinely. Modern Day Professional Wrestling has its roots in early traveling carnivals, where showmen would challenge local spectators to compete with them in a ring and offer prizes to anybody who could beat them. These showmen were well-versed in methods of "hooking" their unknowing opponents into submission using painful holds. Also, the carnival director would often place one of his showmen in the audience to answer the challenge, and the two would provide a predetermined spectacle with the intent of providing an entertaining show for the spectators. This part of the travelling carnival eventually became its own animal, leading to what we currently see in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and other smaller companies. Led by 20th Century showman, Vince McMahon, WWE has almost singlehandedly revolutionized the world of Professional Wrestling turning it into an international, publicly-traded company reaching large audiences and maximum profits. Besides the USA, Mexico (Lucha-Libre) and Japan (Puroresu) have garnered the greatest percentage of spectator commercialism under the "professional" label.

Ground fighting

Ground Fighting refers to any technique used by a combatant or martial artist to grapple an opponent while one or the other is on the ground. Ground fighting is an essential part of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and mixed martial arts (MMA), and is an important ingredient in judo. The judo term for ground techniques is ne-waza (寝技, ground technique). Takedowns are an important aspect of ground fighting. Except when forbidden by rules, other important aspects include joint locks, chokeholds, and striking.

Positions

Common ground fighting positions include:
- Mount
- Side mount
- Back mount
- Guard

Example

A ground fighting sequence in MMA competition may begin, for example, with one combatant wrestling another to the ground by using a double leg takedown, establishing a top mount position. The top combatant may proceed to throw punches until the bottom defender attempts an escape by pushing the top party away using the defender's arm and the hip. The top combatant may then use the opportunity to grab the defender's arm and transition into an armbar, a joint lock, thus forcing the defender to submit and give up the fight.

Health

:For the science of human and animal health, see Health science. Defined negatively, health is the absence of illness, functionally, as the ability to cope with everyday activities, or positively, as fitness and well-being. In any organism, health is a form of homeostasis. This is a state of balance, with inputs and outputs of energy and matter in equilibrium (allowing for growth). Health also implies good prospects for continued survival. In sentient creatures such as humans, health is a broader concept. Many definitions of health have been offered from time to time. Webster's Dictionary defines health as "the condition of being sound in body, mind or spirit, especially freedom from physical disease or pain". The Oxford English Dictionary defines health as "soundness of body or mind; that condition in which its functions are duly and efficiently discharged". Dubos (1968) defined health as " a modus vivendi enabling imperfect men to achieve a rewarding and not-too-painful existance while they cope with an imperfect world". However, the most widely accepted definition is that of the World Health Organization Constitution. It states that "health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" (World Health Organization, 1946). In more recent years, this statement has been amplified to include the ability to lead a "socially and economically productive life". The WHO definition is not without criticism, mainly that it is too broad. Some argue that health cannot be defined as a state at all, but must be seen as a process of continuous adjustment to the changing demands of living and of the changing meanings we give to life. It is a dynamic concept. the WHO definition is therefore considered by many as an idealistic goal rather than a realistic proposition. Using the WHO definition classifies 70-95% of people as unhealthy. In spite of the above limitations, the concept of health as defined by WHO is broad and positive in its implications. It sets out a high standard for positive health. It represents the overall goal that nations should strive to reach. The most solid aspects of wellness that fit firmly in the realm of medicine are the environmental health, nutrition, disease prevention, and public health matters that can be investigated and assist in measuring well-being.

Notes and references

- World Health Organization, Constitution, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1946. Available online at [http://w3.whosea.org/aboutsearo/pdf/const.pdf http://w3.whosea.org/Accessed October 24, 2005.
- WHO (1979)Health for All, Sr. Nos. 1, 2

External links

- [http://www.sensemassage.co.uk/news The Latest Health News from Around the World]
- [http://www.christianopendirectory.com/Christian-Health/ The World Health Directory]
- [http://edgelife.net/glossary/health.htm The Evolving Concept of Health]
- [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ National Center for Health Statistics] (USA)
- [http://www.nih.gov National Institute of Health] (USA)
- [http://www.cdc.gov Centers for Disease Control and Prevention] (USA)
- [http://www.code-interactive.com/evolution-diet/healthprofile.html Personalized Online Health Profile]
- [http://www.who.int/en/ World Health Organization]
- [http://www.eldis.org/health/ HRC/Eldis Health Resource Guide] - new research and other resources on health in developing countries
- [http://www.wikimd.org WikiMD]
- [http://medical-info.blogspot.com Medical Info.]
- [http://www.best-home-remedies.com Home remedies for health]
- [http://www.herhealthplan.com Women's Health Care]
- [http://www.nahanniriverherbs.com/ Health, nutrition and herbal news and resources.]
- Category:Personal life Category:School subjects ms:kesihatan ja:健康 nb:Helse simple:Health

Brain damage

Brain damage or brain injury is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. Brain damage may occur due to a wide range of conditions, illnesses, or injuries. Possible causes of widespread (diffuse) brain damage include prolonged hypoxia (shortage of oxygen), poisoning, infection, and neurological illness. Common causes of focal or localized brain damage are physical trauma (traumatic brain injury), stroke, aneurysm, or neurological illness. The extent and effect of brain injury is often assessed by the use of neurological examination, brain imaging, and neuropsychological assessment. Brain injury does not necessarily result in long-term impairment or disability, although the location and extent of damage both have a significant effect on the likely outcome. In serious cases of brain injury, the result can be permanent disability, including neurocognitive deficits, delusions (often specifically monothematic delusions), speech or movement problems, and mental handicap. Severe brain damage may result in persistent vegetative state, coma, or death. Various professions may be involved in the medical care and rehabilitation of someone who suffers impairment after brain damage. Neurologists, neurosurgeons, and physiatrists are physicians who specialise in treating brain injury. Neuropsychologists (especially clinical neuropsychologists) are psychologists who specialise in understanding the effects of brain injury and may be involved in assessing the extent of brain damage or creating rehabilitation programmes. Occupational therapists may be involved in running rehabilitation programmes to help restore lost function or help re-learn essential skills. It has been reported that damage sustained during childhood has a better chance of successful recovery than similar injury acquired in adult life. In fact, the consequences of childhood injury may simply be more difficult to detect in the short term. This is because different cortical areas mature at different stages, with some major cell populations and their corresponding cognitive faculties remaining unrefined until early adulthood. In the case of a child with frontal brain injury, for example, the impact of the damage may be undetectable until that child fails to develop normal executive functions in his or her late teens and early twenties. The effects of impairment or disability resulting from brain injury may be treated by a number of methods, including medication, psychotherapy, neuropsychological rehabilitation, surgery, or physical implants such as deep brain stimulation.

External links

- [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/headandbraininjuries.html Head and Brain Injuries] from MedlinePlus Category:Neurotrauma Category:Neurosurgery Category:Neurology

Blindness

:This article is about the visual condition. For a novel by the same name, see here. Blindness can be defined physiologically as the condition of lacking visual perception. The definition as it applies to people thus legally classified is, however, more complex. "Blindness" also applies to partial visual impairment: In North America and most of Europe, legal blindness is defined as visual acuity (vision) of 20/200 (6/60) or less in the better eye with best correction possible. This means that a legally blind individual would have to stand 20 feet from an object to see it with the same degree of clarity as a normally sighted person could from 200 feet. In many areas, people with average acuity who nonetheless have a visual field of less than 20 degrees (the norm being 180 degrees) are also classified as being legally blind. Approximately ten percent of those deemed legally blind, by any measure, are fully sightless. The rest have some vision, from light perception alone to relatively good acuity. Those who are not legally blind, but nonetheless have serious visual impairments, possess low vision. By the 10th Revision of the WHO International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death, low vision is defined as visual acuity of less than 6/18, but equal to or better than 3/60, or corresponding visual field loss to less than 20 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction. Blindness is defined as visual acuity of less than 3/60, or corresponding visual field loss to less than 10 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction. Visual impairment includes low vision as well as blindness.

Causes of blindness

Serious visual impairment has a variety of causes:

Diseases

Most visual impairment is caused by disease and malnutrition. According to WHO estimates in 2002, the most common causes of blindness around the world are:
- cataracts (47.8%),
- glaucoma (12.3%),
- age-related macular degeneration (AMD) (8.7%),
- trachoma (3.6%),
- corneal opacity (5.1%), and
- diabetic retinopathy (4.8%), among other causes. People in developing countries are significantly more likely to experience visual impairment as a consequence of treatable or preventable conditions than are their counterparts in the developed world. While vision impairment is most common in people over age 60 across all regions, children in poorer communities are more likely to be affected by blinding diseases than are their more affluent peers. The link between poverty and treatable visual impairment is most obvious when conducting regional comparisons of cause. Most adult visual impairment in North America and Western Europe is related to age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. While both of these conditions are subject to treatment, neither can be cured. In developing countries, wherein people have shorter life expectancies, cataracts and water-borne parasites—both of which can be treated effectively—are most often the culprits. Of the estimated 40 million blind people located around the world, 70–80% can have some or all of their sight restored through treatment.

Abnormalities and injuries

Eye injuries, most often occurring in people under 30, are the leading cause of monocular blindness (vision loss in one eye) throughout the United States. Both of these conditions, injuries and cataracts, affect the eye itself. Abnormalities such as optic nerve hypoplasia affect the nerve bundle that sends signals from the eye to the back of the brain, which can lead to decreased visual acuity. People with injuries to the occipital lobe of the brain can, despite having perfectly normal eyes and optic nerves, still be legally or totally blind.

Genetic defects

People with albinism often suffer from visual impairment to the extent that many are legally blind, though few of them actually cannot see.

Adaptive techniques

Visually impaired and blind people have devised a number of techniques that allow them to complete daily activities using their remaining senses. These might include the following:
- Adaptations of banknotes so that the value can be determined by touch. For example:
- In some currencies, such as the euro and pound sterling, the physical size of a note increases with value.
- A lot of banknotes from around the world have a tactile feature to indicate denomination in the upper right corner. This tactile feature is a series of raised dots, but it is not standard Braille [http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/banknotes/accessibility.html].
- It is also possible to fold notes in different ways to assist recognition.
- Labeling and tagging clothing and other personal items
- Placing different types of food at different positions on a dinner plate
- Marking oven, dishwasher, and dryer dials for ease of use Most people, once they have been visually impaired for long enough, devise their own adaptive strategies in all areas of personal and professional management.

Tools

Designers, both visually impaired and sighted, have developed a number of tools for use by blind people.

Mobility

People with serious visual impairments can travel independently using a white cane, the international symbol of blindness. A long cane is used to extend the user's range of touch sensation, swung in a low sweeping motion across the intended path of travel to detect obstacles. However, some visually impaired persons do not carry these kinds of canes, opting instead for the shorter, lighter identification (ID) cane. Still others require a support cane. Each of these is painted white for maximum visibility, and to denote visual impairment on the part of the user. In addition to making rules about who can and cannot use a cane, some governments mandate the right-of-way be given to users of white canes or guide dogs. A small number of people, about one percent, employ guide dogs. These companions are trained to lead blind individuals around obstacles on the ground and overhead. Though highly intelligent, guide dogs neither interpret street signs nor determine when the team ought to cross a street. Visually impaired people who employ these animals must already be competent travelers.

Reading and magnification

Most blind and visually impaired people read print, either of a regular size or enlarged through the use of magnification devices. A variety of magnifying glasses, some of which are handheld while others rest on desktops, can make reading easier for those with decreased visual acuity. The rest read Braille and Moon type or rely on talking books and readers. They use computers with special hardware such as scanners and refreshable Braille displays as well as software written specifically for the blind, like optical character recognition applications and screen reading software. Some people access these materials through agencies for the blind, such as the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in the United States, the National Library for the Blind or the RNIB in the United Kingdom. Closed-Circuit Televisions, equipment that enlarge and contrast textual items, are a more high-tech alternative to traditional magnification devices. So too are modern web browsers, which can increase the size of text on some web pages through browser controls or through user-controlled style sheets.

Computers

Access technology such as Freedom Scientific's JAWS for Windows screen reading software enable the blind to use mainstream computer applications. Most legally blind people (70% of them across all ages, according to the Lighthouse for the Blind) do not use computers. Only a small fraction of this population, when compared to the sighted community, have Internet access. This bleak outlook is changing, however, as availability of assistive technology increases, accompanied by concerted efforts to insure the accessibility of information technology to all potential users, including the blind. The movement towards greater web accessibility is opening a far wider number of websites to adaptive technology, making the web a more inviting place for visually impaired surfers. Experimental approaches such as the seeing with sound project are beginning to provide access to arbitrary live views from a camera.

Other aids

People may use talking thermometers, enlarged or marked oven dials, talking watches, talking clocks, talking scales, talking calculators, talking compasses and other talking equipment.

Social attitudes towards blindness

Historically, blind and visually impaired people have either been treated as if their lack of sight were an outward manifestation of some internal lack of reason, or as if they possessed extrasensory abilities. Stories such as The Cricket on the Hearth by Charles Dickens provided yet another view of blindness, wherein those affected by it were ignorant of their surroundings and easily deceived. The authors of modern educational materials (see: blindness and education for further reading on that subject), as well as those treating blindness in literature, have worked to paint a truer picture of blind people as three-dimensional individuals with a range of abilities, talents, and even character flaws. Certain individuals are gifted, and others licentious, but nothing definitive can be said of the blind as a class but that they cannot see well.

External links

- [http://www.accesswatch.info Access Watch: Blind users review accessibility of mainstream software]
- [http://www.question-mark.ca ?.Ca: A Comprehensive Directory of Blindness Information]
- [http://www.acb.org American Council of the Blind]
- [http://www.afb.org American Foundation for the Blind]
- [http://www.blindaccessjournal.com Blind Access Journal: Visual impairment in the real world]
- [http://www.v2020.org VISION 2020: The Right to Sight]
- [http://www.iapb.org International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB)]
- [http://www.braille.org International Braille Research Center]
- [http://www.growingstrong.org/bvi/resource.html Literature Bibliography and Resources List]
- [http://www.nbp.org National Braille Press]
- [http://www.nfb.org National Federation of the Blind: Civil rights and consumer advocacy]
- [http://www.nlb-online.org/ National Library for the Blind]
- [http://www.loc.gov/nls National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped]
- [http://www.rfbd.org Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic]
- [http://www.rnib.org.uk/xpedio/groups/public/documents/code/InternetHome.hcsp Royal National Institute for the Blind]
- [http://www.ssc.mhie.ac.uk/ Scottish Sensory Centre]
- [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/ WHO Fact Sheet on Visual Impairment]
- ja:失明 simple:Blindness

Death

:For other uses, see Death (disambiguation) or Dead (disambiguation). Death is the cessation of physical life in a living organism or the state of the organism after that event.

Interpretations of "death"

In almost all societies, death has one or several symbols associated with it. Common symbols of death in Western cultures include the grim reaper and the color black; conversely, in certain Eastern cultures, the color white is considered symbolic of death. The grave is a metonym for death. Biologically, death can occur to wholes, to parts of wholes, or to both. For example, it is possible for individual cells and even organs to die, and yet for the organism as a whole to continue to live; many individual cells can live for only a short time, and so most of an organism's cells are continually dying and being replaced by new ones. Conversely, when organisms die their cells can live for some time afterward. Organs, for instance, can be removed for transplantation. They must be removed and transplanted quickly, or they too will soon die without the support of their host. Rarely, cell cultures can be "immortal" as in the case of Henrietta Lacks' HeLa cell line. Fingernails and hair appear to grow after a person's death, as, due to bodily dehydration, the flesh pulls away from the hair and nails. In ancient times, this led to confusion about whether a body was actually dead, and added to the myth of vampires. Irreversibility is often cited as a key feature of death. By definition, a dead organism cannot be brought back to life; if it were to be, that would indicate that it had never been dead. Nonetheless, many people do not believe that death is necessarily irreversible; thus some have a religious belief in bodily or spiritual resurrection, while others have hope for the eventual prospects of cryonics or other technological means of reversing what is currently thought of as death. It has been hypothesized that a limited lifespan is a consequence of evolution not selecting for extreme longevity in most species, as evolutionary selection only need apply to the organism up to the point of reproduction; after that, except for caring for kin, the continued existence of an individual can have little effect on the survival of its gene line. A common assumption is that the Second Law of Thermodynamics dictates that all complex systems must eventually deteriorate, so it is not likely that any species could ever be immortal. However, this aspect of the Second Law of Thermodynamics only applies to closed systems, which organisms are not.

Ways of defining human death: medical, religious, and legal

Human death can be defined by three dramatically different but overlapping domains: medical, religious, and legal. These different domains and their importance have evolved over time and can vary from person to person. So when talking about death, it is important to differentiate which domain we are speaking of and to have a general understanding of how each defines death. There are various ways of defining medical death. Early in western culture, death was connected to the heart first and then later the lungs. When these stopped working, a person was dead. It was sometime later that the brain came into the definition. In 1963 a device called an electroencephalogram (EEG) was invented that could very accurately measure the electrical output of the brain. The test showed that when the machine registered zero electrical output from a person's brain (also known as a flat EEG) for 36 hours, the patient could be considered dead. We now know that a person can continue to be medically alive until their brain stem dies. Patients in a persistent vegetative state still have an active brain stem. Legally, a person can be pronounced dead in three different ways. By far the most common is pronouncement by a medical doctor. The second most common is pronouncement by a coroner or a state medical examiner. The third way a person can be pronounced legally dead is by the courts; after a person has disappeared for some time, the courts will pronounce them dead so that their property can be distributed appropriately. A death certificate is a legal document which states how and when a person died, and who pronounced them dead. In religous terms, death is believed to refer to the departure from the body of the soul, or essence.

When is a person dead?

Identifying the exact moment of death is important for a number of reasons. It allows for the correct time on death certificates, and helps ensure that a person's will is enacted only after they are truly deceased. In particular, identifying the moment of death is important in cases of transplantation, as organs must be harvested as quickly as possible after death. Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, for example, but the development of CPR and early defibrillation posed a challenge: either the definition of death was incorrect, or techniques had been discovered that really allowed one to reverse death (because, in some cases, breathing and heartbeat can be restarted). Generally, the first option was chosen. (Today this definition of death is known as "clinical death".) Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death": people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases (cf. persistent vegetative state). It is presumed that a stoppage of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. Brain activity is a necessary condition to legal personhood, and, perhaps with the exception of the fetus, it is a sufficient condition for legal personhood. "It appears that once brain death has been determined … no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices." Dority v. Superior Court of San Bernardino County, 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983) However, those maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should be considered when defining death. In most places the more conservative definition of death (cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex) has been adopted (for example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States). In 2005, the case of Terri Schiavo brought the question of brain-death and artificial sustainment to the front of American politics. However, in all cases the common cause of death is anoxia. Even in these cases, the determination of death can be difficult. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses when none exists, while there have been cases in which electrical activity in a living brain has been too low for EEGs to detect. Because of this, hospitals often have elaborate protocols for determining death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals. Medical history contains many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and coming back to life, sometimes days later in their own coffin or when embalming procedures are about to get underway. Stories of people actually being buried alive (which must assume embalming has not occurred) led at least one inventor in the early 20th century to design an alarm system that could be activated from within the coffin. Because of the difficulties in determining death, under most emergency protocols, a first responder is not authorized to pronounce a patient dead; some EMT training manuals, for example, specifically state that a person is not to be assumed dead unless there are clear and obvious indications that death has occurred, such as mortal decapitation, rigor mortis (the stiffening of the body), livor mortis (blood pooling in the lowest part of the body), decomposition, or incineration. If there is any possibility of life and in the absence of a do not resuscitate order, emergency workers must begin rescue and not end it until a patient has been brought to a hospital to be examined by a physician. This frequently leads to situation of a patient being pronounced dead on arrival.

The process of dying

Cell death

A. Normal cellular function :1. Production of energy required for vital cellular processes :2. Production of enzymatic and structural protein :3. Maintenance of chemical and osmotic homeostasis of cell :4. Cell reproduction B. Needs of cell :1. Oxygen, phosphate, calcium :2. Nutritional substrates :3. ADP - needed to produce ATP :4. Intact cell membranes :5. Steady state of activity enhances 02 consumption

Physiological changes during the process of dying

A. Events leading to death: :1. Brain ceases to supply information vital for controlling ventilation, heart rhythm, and/or vasodilation :2. Lungs unable to supply 0₂ exchange with blood stream :3. Heart and blood vessels unable to maintain adequate circulation of blood to vital tissues B. Cerebrovascular system: :1. Hemorrhage :2. Pump failure :3. Decreased CO₂ leads to decreased PCO2 leads to Cheyne-Stokes respiration C. CNS problems: :1. Infection :2. Blood vessel disruption :3. Malignant tumors :4. Metabolic changes ::a. Renal failure ::b. Hepatic failure ::c. Pancreatic failure D. CNS decompensation: :1. Early signs: ::a. Sluggish pupils :::(1) Non reactive :::(2) Dilated and fixed - drugs also affect this ::b. Confusion ::c. Inability to orient :2. Later signs: ::a. Lethargy ::b. Decreased ability to perform simple cognitive functions ::c. Attention only by tactile, auditory or visual stimuli :3. Late signs: ::a. Stupor, sleep ::b. Withdrawal of purposeless involvement to stimuli without wakefulness or arousal :4. Semicomatose - movement only with pain :5. Deep coma - no response E. Respiratory system: :1. CBF :2. COPD :3. Infections :4. Cancer metutasis :Changes after death: :A. Body cools 1.5 degrees/hr :B. Rigor mortis begins prior to decomposition and liver mortis begins with death :C. Rigor mortis: ::1. Muscles gradually become hard due to decreased ATP and lactic acidosis within muscle febrils ::2. Begins 2-4 hours after death but may be sooner ::3. May disappear 9-12 hours in hot climate :D. Liver mortis: ::1. Body becomes distended ::2. Skin color changes from green to purple to black ::3. Dependent areas fust due to pooling of blood ::4. Seen within 2 hours of death, maximum at 8-12 hours

Signs of approaching death

When death is imminent

• Physical death is a progressive process, during which there are some signs that usually indicate that death is imminent. Not all of the following changes occur, nor do they necessarily occur in any particular order, as the body shuts down during the dying process. In general, the following information may help anticipate and understand changes that appear as an individual approaches death and is “actively dying.” • The dying individual may become increasingly tired and sleepy, and may be difficult to arouse. • The dying individual may become confused much of the time and may no longer recognize familiar persons, places, or objects. • Hearing and vision may become impaired, and speech may be slurred, difficult to understand, or nonsensical. • A few patients become restless or very anxious and move about frequently in the bed, pull at the bed clothes or bedding (linen clutch), and reach out. • The person may hallucinate, seeing things or people which may not appear to anyone else. • Less nourishment will be required, and the person’s intake of food and water will diminish. Difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia) may also occur. • The person may sweat profusely. • The dying individual may lose control of his/her urine or bowels ( incontinence), necessitating that the dying individual be kept especially clean and dry in order to prevent bed sores (decubitis ulcers). • Urination may become darker and diminish or stop. • The mouth of the dying individual may become dry, and then secretions may accumulate in the back of the throat. Breathing may become noisy because of the gurgling or rattling of the secretions in the mouth or chest (“death rattle”). • The pattern of breathing may change; become slower or faster, deeper or shallower, or irregular. Often the patient will have periods of rapid breathing followed by periods in which breathing is very slow or is even absent for as long as 15 seconds. • The legs, and then arms, may become cold and nonreflexive as the circulation slows down. • The skin may be pale or mottled, and some parts, particularly the underside of the body, may become a dark color as the blood pools, usually a deep blue or purple.

When death occurs

• Breathing ceases entirely. • Heartbeat and pulse stop. • The person is entirely unresponsive to stimulus. • The eyes may be fixed in directions. The pupils are dilated and fixed to light. The eyelids may be open or closed. • A loss of control of urine and/or bowels may occur. • The person becomes progressively mottled and cold and stiff (known as rigor mortis) • The skin may become pale; there may be signs of blood buildup on the side the person is laying on.

Cause of death in the United States

The cause of death varies by area and age group. In 2002 in the U.S. the top 10 causes of death were:
- Heart Disease: 696,947
- Cancer: 557,271
- Stroke: 162,672
- Chronic lower respiratory diseases: 124,816
- Accidents (unintentional injuries): 106,742
- Diabetes: 73,249
- Influenza/Pneumonia: 65,681
- Alzheimer's disease: 58,866
- Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and nephrosis: 40,974
- Septicemia: 33,865

Other notable causes of death in the United States (2002)

- Murder: 16,110
- Execution: 71
- Intentional Abortion: 1,293,000
- Note that there is much debate as to when a fetus should be considered "human." The death of a human zygote — a one-celled combination of a sperm and an egg — is counted by some as the death of a human, and by others as simply the death of a cell. The above number would apparently include abortions to save the life of the mother, abortions of obviously highly defective fetuses, and abortions of fetuses unlikely to reach term. Statistical data from [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lcod.htm U.S. Department of Health & Human Services] [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/ Death Penalty Information Center] [http://www.nrlc.org/abortion/facts/abortionstats.html National Right To Life], and [http://www.agi-usa.org/media/presskits/2005/06/28/abortionoverview.html The Alan Guttmacher Institute]

What happens to humans after death?

The second question is of what, apart from the cessation of metabolism and the onset of physiological processes of decay, happens, especially to humans, during and after death (or "once dead", thinking of death as a permanent state). In particular, there is the question of what becomes of consciousness or the soul. Such questions are of long standing, and belief in an afterlife (such as an underworld), or in reincarnation, are common and ancient. The belief that any and all consciousness ceases to exist at death, and that death ("after-life") itself is ultimately the exact same experience as prior to conception ("before life"), is common in atheism/agnosticism. Conversely, religious belief in and information about an afterlife is a consolation in connection with the death of a beloved one or the prospect of one's own death. On the other hand, fear of hell or other negative consequences may make death worse. Human contemplation about death is an important motivation for the development of organized religion. Traditions exist across most cultures to mourn the death of loved ones. Many archaeologists feel that the careful burials among Homo neanderthalensis, where ochre ornamented bodies were laid in carefully dug graves, is evidence of ritualised burial. This may indicate early religious belief which, furthermore, might include a concept of an afterlife.

Physiological consequences of human death

For the human body, the physiological consequences of death follow a recognized sequence through early changes into bloating, then decay to changes after decay and finally skeletal remains. The changes in the immediate post-death stage have received the most attention for two reasons—firstly it is the stage mostly likely to be seen by the living and secondly because of the research of forensics in potential crimes. Soon after death (15–120 minutes depending on various factors), the body begins to cool (algor mortis), becomes pallid (pallor mortis), and internal sphincter muscles relax, leading to the release of urine, feces, and stomach contents if the body is moved. The blood moves to pool in the lowest parts of the body, livor mortis (dependent lividity), within 30 minutes and then begins to coagulate. The body experiences muscle stiffening (rigor mortis) which peaks at around 12 hours after death and is gone in another 24, depending on temperature. Within a day, the body starts to show signs of decomposition (decay), both autolytic changes and from 'attacking' organisms—bacteria, fungi, insects, mammalian scavengers, etc. Internally, the body structures begin to collapse, the skin loses integration with the underlying tissues, and bacterial action creates gases which cause bloating and swelling. The rate of decay is enormously variable; a body can be reduced to skeletal remains in days, or remain largely intact for thousands of years.

Settlement of dead human bodies

In most cultures, before the onset of significant decay, the body undergoes some type of ritual disposal, usually either cremation or deposition in a tomb that is often a hole in the ground called a grave, but may also be a sarcophagus, crypt, sepulchre, or ossuary, a mound or barrow, or a monumental surface structure such as a mausoleum (exemplified by the Taj Mahal). In Tibet, one method of corpse disposal is sky burial, which involves placing the body of the deceased on high ground (a mountain) and leaving it for birds of prey to dispose of. Sometimes this is because in some religious views, birds of prey are carriers of the soul to the heavens, but at other times this simply reflects the fact that when terrain (as in Tibet) makes the ground too hard to dig, there are few trees around to burn and the local religion (Buddhism) believes that the body after death is only an empty shell, there are more practical ways of disposing of a body, such as leaving it for animals to consume. On the other hand, in certain cultures, efforts are made to retard the decay processes before burial (resulting even in the retardation of decay processes after the burial), as in mummification or embalming. This happens during or after a funeral ceremony. Many funeral customs exist in different cultures. In some fishing or navy communities, the body is sent into the water aquatic burial. Several mountain villages have a tradition of hanging the coffin in woods. A new alternative is ecological burial. This is a sequence of deep-freezing, pulverisation by vibration, freeze-drying, removing metals, and burying the resulting powder, which has 30% of the body mass. Space burial is also talked about, using rocket to launch part of the cremated body. Graves are usually grouped together in a plot of land called a cemetery or graveyard, and burials can be arranged by a funeral home, mortuary , undertaker or by a religious body such as a church or (for some Jews) the community's Burial Society, a charitable or voluntary body charged with these duties.

Personification of death

Main article: Death (personification) Death is also a mythological figure who has existed in popular culture since the earliest days of storytelling. The traditional Western image of Death, known as the Grim Reaper - usually resembling a skeleton, wearing black robes and carrying a scythe - is employed on a tarot card and in various television shows and films. Some examples:
- Death is a major character in the Discworld series by Terry Pratchett.
- Humorous depictions of Death, often with a Grim Reaper-esque feel, are common during the Día de los Muertos in Mexico, especially in the state of Michoacán.
- An unusual personification of Death appears in Neil Gaiman's Sandman graphic novels.
- In Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal, a knight plays a game of chess against Death.
- Death is also portrayed as a Grim Reaper-esque character in TV shows such as Family Guy and video and computer games such as The Sims.
- In the film, Meet Joe Black, a remake of Death Takes a Holiday, Death inhabits the body of a young man to experience life firsthand.
- In the film, Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, Death is the bassist for Wyld Stallyns.
- In the TV series Dead Like Me, the main characters are all Grim Reapers as part of a post-life bureaucracy.
- The series Touched by an Angel featured the Angel of Death as a regular character, depicted as a kindly, soft-spoken man in his mid-30s.
- The Angel of Death also appeared in the show Charmed as a man that appeared before those who had died to take them to the afterlife. He was neither good nor evil.
- Death is also a recurring character in the Castlevania video games. He is usually described as Dracula's servant, and is therefore evil. He is almost always a boss, and appears usually near the end of the game. He uses the scythe, and often transforms into more hideous forms.
- Death 'stalks' people who avoided their demise in the Final Destination series.
- Death appears as a character in a sketch in the Monty Python film The Meaning of Life.
- In the cartoon Futurama, Death is represented by the "Sunset Squad", a group of robots who take people away to an unknown destination when they reach the age of 160.
- In the book On a Pale Horse the main character becomes Death himself after killing the previous Death.

External links

- [http://www.disastercenter.com/cdc/111riska.html Deaths and death rates for the 10 leading causes of death in specified age groups: United States, preliminary 1996]
- [http://www.nsc.org/lrs/statinfo/odds.htm Odds of dying due to various injuries or accidents] Source: National Safety Council, United States, 2001
- [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dying.htm Dying, Yamaraja and Yamadutas + terminal restlessness] (Vedic/Hindu view)
- [http://www.quranichealing.com/bp.asp?caid=65 Death & Dying in Islam]What does a man feel at the time of death? and Is death something to be feared?
- [http://www.zyworld.com/jamus/LifeCycle.htm The Cycle of Life] In context of the page New Age of Aquarius.
- [http://samvak.tripod.com/death.html Death, life, and personal identity] In regard to memetics.
- [http://www.quotesandpoem.com/poems/SelectedPoetryTopic/Death Poems on Death and Dying]
- [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/death_suffering.asp Why is there death and suffering?] From a creationist point of view.
- [http://www.ogrish.com Deaths and death scenes. WARNING: very explicit]
- [http://www.elijahwald.com/origin.html George Wald: The Origin of Death] A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms in relation to evolution.
- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/death/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on death]
- [http://www.deathclock.com Death Clock] A little joke telling how much time remains for your death
- [http://www.autopsyvideo.com www.autopsyvideo.com] - This site offers documentaries about autopsy, one produced with the cooperation of the Los Angeles County Coroner's Office.
- [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=281541 The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning] By Maurice Lamm Category:Biology
- ms:Ajal ja:死 simple:Death

Weight

:See also weight function. For the 1994 album by the group Rollins Band, see Weight (album). In the physical sciences, weight is the interaction of matter with a gravitational field. It is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by the magnitude of the gravitational field. The word weight entered Old English sometime around the 9th century, and meant the quantity measured with a balance -- the same as mass in both common and scientific usage. In common usage, weight still means the same as mass.

Weight and mass

"Weight" is often used as a synonym for mass. For instance, when we buy or sell goods "by weight", we are interested in the amount of goods exchanged, not how hard it presses down on the table. Similarly, in measurements of body weight we are primarily interested in the amount of tissue (fat, muscle, etc.) present. Correspondingly, weight is often given in kilograms and other units of mass. In the physical sciences, people usually distinguish between weight and mass. Under most circumstances, this ambiguity is not a problem, because the weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass, and the constant of proportionality -- the strength of the gravitational field -- is approximately constant everywhere on the surface of the Earth (around 9.8 m/s²). For instance, a body will exert less force if it is located on the Moon than if it is on the Earth, since the gravitational field of the Moon is weaker; its mass, on the other hand, does not depend on position. Although terms such as "atomic weight", "molecular weight", and "formula weight" may still be encountered, such usage is often discouraged; terms like atomic mass are used instead. Mass is measured using a balance which compares an item in question to matter of known mass; this method is independent of gravity. Alternately, a spring scale or Hydraulic or pneumatic scale is used to measure force (which physicists call weight). Most scales measure weight using a spring. Related to the historical identification of mass and weight, the pound has been used both as a unit of mass and as a unit of force. In the United States, United Kingdom, and elsewhere, the pound is and always has been officially defined as a unit of mass. The corresponding force is called a pound-force, and similarly the weight of a kilogram of material on Earth is called a kilogram-force. However, the use of pounds to measure forces is still common in engineering, and it occurs in derived units like p.s.i. (pounds per square inch). In most countries, scientists have adopted SI units, which use kilogram for mass and newton for force non-interchangeably.

Weight as a force

The SI unit for weight is the newton (N), or kilogram metres per second squared (kg m s⁻²). The weight force that we sense is actually the normal force exerted by the surface we stand on, which prevents us from being pulled to the center of the Earth, and not the weight itself. This normal force, that we can call the apparent weight is the one that is measured by a weighing scale, not the weight itself. A good evidence of this is given by the fact that a person moving up and down on his toes does see the indicator moving, telling that the measured force is changing while his weight, that depends only on his mass, the Earth mass and the distance between his center of mass and the center of Earth obviously do not change. In contrast, in free-fall, there is no apparent weight because we are not in contact with any surface to provide such a normal force. The experience of having no apparent weight is known as weightlessness or microgravity.

Comparative weights on bodies of the solar system

The following is a list of the weights of a mass on some of the bodies in the solar system, relative to its weight on Earth: For weight variations on Earth, see gee, physical geodesy and gravity anomaly.

Human weight in the medical sciences and ordinary language

Although many people prefer the less-ambiguous term body mass to body weight, the term weight is overwhelmingly used in daily English speech and in biological and medical science contexts. Body weight is measured in kilograms throughout the world. Most hospitals in the United States use kilograms for calculations, but use kilograms and pounds simultaneously for other purposes (a pound is 0.45 kg). Many people in the United Kingdom still measure their weight using the stone equal to 14 lb (6.35 kg).

Sports usage

Participants in sports such as boxing, wrestling, judo, and weight-lifting are classified according to their body weight, measured in units of mass such as pounds or kilograms. See, e.g., wrestling weight classes, boxing weight classes, judo at the 2004 Summer Olympics, boxing at the 2004 Summer Olympics. In horse racing, weight is used to handicap horses. A weight also refers to the physical objects used in weight-lifting and other sports such as the hammer throw.

Sumo

Sumo (相撲 Sumō, alternatively 大相撲 Ōzumō), or Sumo wrestling, is a competition contact sport wherein two wrestlers or rikishi face off in a circular area. The sport is of Japanese origin and is surrounded by ceremony and ritual. The Japanese consider Sumo a gendai budō: a modern Japanese martial art. The Sumo tradition is very ancient, and even today the sport includes many ritual elements from when Sumo was used in the Shinto religion.

Winning a Sumo bout

The winner of a Sumo bout is mainly determined by two rules: # The first wrestler to touch the ground with any part of his body other than the soles of his feet loses. # The first wrestler to touch the ground outside the circle loses. On rare occasions the referee or judges may award the win to the wrestler who touched the ground first; this happens if both wrestlers touch the ground at more or less the same time and it is decided that the wrestler who touched the ground second had no chance of winning as, due to the superior sumo of his opponent, he was already in an irrecoverable position. The losing wrestler is referred to as being shini-tai (“dead body”) in this case. There are also a number of other rarely used rules that can be used to determine the winner. For example a wrestler using an illegal technique (or kinjite) automatically loses, as does one whose mawashi becomes completely undone. A wrestler failing to turn up for his bout (including through a prior injury) also automatically loses (fusenpai). After the winner is declared, an off-stage gyoji (or referee) determines the kimarite (or winning technique) used in the bout, which is then announced to the audience. Matches often last only a few seconds, as usually one wrestler is quickly ousted from the circle or thrown to the clay. However they can occasionally last for several minutes. Each match is preceded by an elaborate ceremonial ritual. The sportsmen themselves are renowned for their great girth, as body mass is a winning factor in Sumo.

The wrestling ring or dohyō

Sumo matches take place in a ring called a dohyō (土俵). The dohyō is made of a mixture of clay and sand spread over the top. It is between 34 and 60 cm high. It is removed after each sumo tournament, and in the case of Nagoya, taken home by the fans as souvenirs. A new dohyō is built prior to each tournament by the yobidashi, who are resoponsible for this activity. The yobidashi also build the dohyō for training stables and sumo touring events. The circle in which the match takes place is 4.55 meters in diameter and bounded by rice-straw bales called tawara (俵), which are buried in the clay. The rice bales are 1/3 standard size and are partially buried in the clay of the dohyō. Four of the tawara are placed slightly outside the line of the circle. In olden times this was to allow rain to run off the surface, when sumo tournaments were held outdoors in the open. Today a wrestler under pressure at the edge of the ring will often try to move himself round to one of these points to allow him to push back more effectively against his opponent who is trying to force him out. At the center are two white lines, the shikiri-sen (仕切り線), which the rikishi must position themselves behind at the start of the bout. Around the ring is finely brushed sand called the hebi-no-me (蛇の目 snake's eye), which can be used to determine if a wrestler has just touched his foot, or another part of his body, outside the ring. The yobidashi ensure it is clean of any previous marks immediately prior to each bout. yobidashi]

Origins of Sumo

As with many forms of wrestling around the world, the roots of Sumo are lost in prehistory. Sumo is mentioned in some of the earliest texts in Japan, under its earlier name Sumai, from the 8th century A.D. However, these early forms would not be Sumo as it is known today, as in many cases the wrestling had relatively few rules and unarmed fights to the death were still referred to as 'Sumo'. In addition to its use as a trial of strength in combat, it has also been associated with Shinto ritual, and even today certain shrines carry out forms of ritual dance where a human ceremonially wrestles with a kami (a Shinto 'spirit' or 'god'). It was an important ritual at the imperial court. Representatives of each province were ordered to attend the contest at the court and fought. They needed to pay for their travels by themselves. The contest was called Sumai no sechie (Party of Sumai). Over the rest of Japanese recorded history Sumo's popularity has changed according to the whims of its rulers and the need for its use as a training tool in periods of civil strife. The form of wrestling combat probably changed gradually into one where the main aim in victory was to throw your opponent. The concept of pushing him out of a limited defined area came some time later. It is believed that a ring, defined by more than the area given to the wrestlers by spectators, came into being in the 16th century as a result of a tournament organized by the then principal warlord in Japan, Oda Nobunaga, but at this point wrestlers would wear loose loincloths, rather than the much stiffer mawashi of today. During the Edo period, wrestlers would wear a fringed kesho-mawashi during the bout, as opposed to the merely ceremonial role they hold today. Much of the rest of the development came in the early Edo period to give the sport its current form. It is worth noting that nations adjacent to Japan, having shared some cultural traditions, also feature styles of traditional wrestling that bear some resemblance to Sumo. Notable examples include Mongolia, the birthplace of Asashoryu, the current Yokozuna, and Korea, where a similar sport called Ssireum is popular.

Professional Sumo

SsireumProfessional Sumo can trace its roots back to the Edo Period in Japan as a form of sporting entertainment. The original wrestlers were probably samurai, often ronin, who needed to find an alternative form of income. Currently professional Sumo is organised by the Japan Sumo Association. The members of the association, called oyakata, are all former wrestlers, and are the only people entitled to train new wrestlers. All practising wrestlers are members of a training stable (heya) run by one of the oyakata, who is the stablemaster for the wrestlers under him. Currently there are 54 training stables for about 700 wrestlers. Sumo wrestling is a strict hierarchy based on sporting merit. The wrestlers are ranked according to a system that dates back hundreds of years, to the Edo period. Wrestlers are promoted or demoted according to their previous performance and a Banzuke listing the full hierarchy is published two weeks prior to each sumo tournament. There are six divisions in sumo: Makuuchi (fixed at 42 wrestlers), Juryo (fixed at 28 wrestlers), Makushita (fixed at 120 wrestlers), Sandanme (fixed at 200 wrestlers), Jonidan (approximately 230 wrestlers), and Jonokuchi (approximately 80 wrestlers). Wrestlers enter Sumo in the lowest Jonokuchi division and, ability permitting, work their way up to the top Makuuchi division. Only wrestlers in the top two divisions are salaried, and they are called sekitori (to have taken the barrier). Wrestlers in the lower divisions are regarded as being in training and receive a subsistence allowance, in return for which they must perform various chores in their training stable. In some instances, the best recruits out of Japanese universities are allowed to enter sumo with the rank of Makushita, instead of the neophyte Jonokuchi level (see Amateur Sumo, below). Some of the better known currently active Sumo wrestlers are listed elsewhere. The topmost Makuuchi division has a number of ranks within it. The majority of wrestlers are Maegashira and are numbered from one (at the top) down to about sixteen or seventeen. Each rank is further subdivided into East and West, with east being slightly more prestigious. Thus, Maegashira two east is ranked below Maegashira one west and above Maegashira two west. Above the Maegashira are the champion or titleholder ranks, called the Sanyaku. These are, in ascending order, Komusubi, Sekiwake, Ozeki and, at the pinnacle of the ranking system, Yokozuna. Yokozuna, or grand champions, are wrestlers who generally are regularly in competition to win the top division tournament title near the end of a tournament. As such, the promotion criteria are very strict. In general, an Ozeki must win the championship for two consecutive tournaments (or an equivalent performance) to be promoted to Yokozuna. More details of the criteria can be found in the article on Yokozuna. It is a rank held at the moment by only one man, Asashoryu. Other recent Yokozuna include Akebono, Musashimaru and Takanohana, who retired in January 2003. In the previous decade, Yokozuna Chiyonofuji retired after winning an astonishing 31 tournaments. That's nearly as many as Akebono and Takanohana won together. Once a wrestler has been promoted to Yokozuna, he can never again be subject to demotion and is expected to retire on his own initiative if he cannot perform to Yokozuna standards. There are also special promotion criteria for Ozeki. Usually at least 33 wins are required over three tournaments as a Sekiwake/Komusubi with special attention paid to the most recent tournament record. The final decision always rests with the sumo association. All sumo wrestlers take wrestling names called shikona (しこ名), which may or may not be related to their real names. Often wrestlers have little choice in their name, which is given to them by their trainer (or stablemaster), or by a supporter or family member who encouraged them into the sport. This is particularly true of foreign-born wrestlers. A wrestler may change names several times during his sumo career. The current trend is towards more wrestlers, particularly native Japanese, keeping their own name. For more information, see Japanese names. Professional Sumo is practiced exclusively in Japan, where it originated, but wrestlers of other nationalities participate. The first foreigner to win the top division championship was Takamiyama in the 1970s. He was followed by Konishiki who won the top division title on three occasions, and reached the rank of Ozeki. In 1993 Akebono became the first foreign born Yokozuna. These three former wrestlers were all born in Hawaii. Former Yokozuna Musashimaru was the second foreigner to reach sumo's top rank and was born in Samoa. The current Yokozuna Asashoryu is Mongolian and is presently (in 2004 and 2005) the dominant force in the sport. Asashoryu heads a small group of Mongolian wrestlers who have achieved Sekitori status. Furthermore, recently wrestlers from Korea and several former Soviet and Soviet bloc countries have also found success in the upper levels of Sumo. In 2005 Kotooshu from Bulgaria, became the first wrestler of European origin to attain Ozeki ranking. There are currently 59 wrestlers officially listed as foreigners. Approximately once every two years the top ranked wrestlers visit a foreign country to give a display competition. Such display competitions are also regularly held in Japan. None of these displays are taken into account in determining a wrestler's future rank. Rank is determined only by performance in Grand Sumo Tournaments. In October 2005, the Sumo Association made such a display in Las Vegas. These exhibitions are mostly for show and for inspiration, as sumo has so far been unable to take root in other countries, but foreigners have been inspired to try their hand at it in places as far away as Eastern Europe and Argentina. As with any sport, Sumo is not without controversy. One in particular being its exclusion of women.　There are no women wrestlers or coaches in professional Sumo. More controversially, women are not allowed to enter the ring used by wrestlers, as this is traditionally seen as violating the purity of the dohyō. The view of those who criticize this continuing policy is that it is discriminatory. The view of the Sumo Association is that it is a tradition passed down through the centuries. This issue came to a head when Fusae Ota, the female prefectural governor of Osaka repeatedly challenged the Sumo Association's policy by requesting she fulfill the Osaka governor's traditional role of presenting the Governor's Prize to the winner of the Osaka tournament, which would require her to enter the ring. Her requests have thus far (2005) been rejected by the Sumo Federation and she has sent a male counterpart in her place.

Professional Sumo tournaments

Osaka There are six Grand Sumo tournaments each year: three in Tokyo, and one each in Osaka, Nagoya and Fukuoka. Tournaments are held every other month starting in January. Each tournament begins on a Sunday and runs for 15 days, ending also on a Sunday. Each sekitori ranked wrestler has one match per day, while the lower ranked rikishi compete in seven bouts, approximately one every two days. rikishi Each day is structured so the highest-ranked contestants are matched up at the end of the day. Thus, wrestling will start in the morning with the Jonokuchi wrestlers and end at around six o'clock in the evening with bouts involving the Yokozuna. The wrestler who wins the most matches over the fifteen days wins the tournament championship. If two rikishi are tied for the top, they wrestle each other and the winner takes the title. Three-way ties for the top position are rare, at least in the top Makuuchi division. In these cases the three wrestle each other in pairs with the first to win two in a row taking the tournament. More complex systems for championship playoffs involving four or more rikishi also exist, but these are usually only seen in determining the winner of one of the lower divisions. A Makuuchi rikishi will arrive at the stadium in the afternoon and enter the changing room. There are 'East' and 'West' rooms so competing wrestlers do not meet their opponent of the day prior to the match. He will change first into his kesho-mawashi, an ornate, embroidered silk 'apron', which he will wear during the ring entering ceremony, or dohyo-iri. There are four dohyo-iri on each day, two for Juryo and two for Makuuchi ranked wrestlers. In each case there is one for those in the east changing room and one for those in the west. During the ceremony the rikishi are introduced to the crowd one by one in ascending rank order and form a circle around the ring facing outwards. Once the highest ranked wrestler is introduced they turn inwards and perform a brief ritual before filing off and returning to their changing room. Yokozuna have a separate dohyo-iri; see Yokozuna. Once in the changing room the wrestlers change into their fighting mawashi and await their bout. The wrestlers enter the arena again two bouts prior to their own and sit down at the side of the ring. When it is their turn they will be called into the ring by a yobidashi and they will mount the dohyo. The referee or gyoji will coordinate the bout. On mounting the dohyo the rikishi performs a number of ritual moves involving leg stomps and clapping whilst facing out towards the audience. He also cleans his mouth out with so-called chikara-mizu or power water. He then throws some salt into the ring to purify it. The rikishi perform another brief ritual when facing each other and then adopt a crouch position to "charge" at each other (called the tachi-ai). The wrestlers do not need to charge on the first occasion but can instead stare and return to their corner. This can happen a number of times (about four) until on the last occasion the gyoji informs them they must start the bout. The total length of time of this preparation and attempts to psyche themselves or opponents is four minutes for all rikishi, but in the lowest divisions the wrestlers are expected to start more or less immediately. At the tachi-ai both rikishi must jump up from the crouch simultaneously at the start of the bout, and the gyoji can restart the bout if this does not occur. Once the bout is complete the gyoji must point his gunbai or war-fan towards the winning side. The rikishi will return to their start positions and bow to each other before retiring, a winning rikishi may receive additional prize money in envelopes from the gyoji if the matchup has been sponsored. The gyoji is obliged, even in bouts too close to call, to immediately designate a winner. For all matches, there are five shimpan (judges) around the ring who can query the gyoji's decision. If this happens they will meet in the centre of the ring to hold a mono-ii (lit: a talk about things). After reaching a consensus they can uphold or reverse the gyoji's decision or order a rematch, known as a torinaoshi (lit: to take and fix). torinaoshi In contrast to the time in bout preparation, bouts are typically very short, usually less than a minute, and often only a few seconds. Extremely rarely a bout can go on for many minutes, in which case the gyoji may call a mizu-iri or water break. The wrestlers are carefully separated, have a brief break and then return to the exact position they left off in. It is the gyoji's responsibility to do this. If after a further few minutes they are still deadlocked they can have a second break, after which they start from the very beginning. Further deadlock can lead to a draw, which is an even rarer result. The last day of the tournament is called senshuraku, which literally means the pleasure of a thousand autumns. This colorful name for the culmination of the tournament echoes the words of the playwright Zeami to represent the excitement of the decisive bouts and the celebration of the victor. The Emperor's Cup is presented to the rikishi who wins the top division (makuuchi) championship. Numerous other (mostly sponsored) prizes are also awarded to him. These prizes are often rather elaborate, ornate gifts, such as giant cups, decorative plates, and statuettes. Promotion and demotion are determined by a wrestler's score over the 15 days. The term kachikoshi indicates a record having more wins than losses, as opposed to makekoshi, which indicates more losses than wins. In the Makuuchi division, kachikoshi means a score of 8–7 or better, while makekoshi means a score of 7–8 or worse. A wrestler who achieves kachikoshi will almost always be promoted further up the ladder, the size of promotion being higher for better scores. Similarly, makekoshi almost always results in a demotion. In the sanyaku ranks simple kachikoshi are often not sufficient to be promoted. Rikishi in this highly competitive subgroup of the highest division may require at nine, ten, or even eleven out of fifteen possible wins to gain in rank. There are special rules for Ozeki and Yokozuna promotions (see above). A top division wrestler who is not an Ozeki or Yokozuna and who finishes the tournament with kachikoshi is also eligible to be considered for one of the three sanshō prizes awarded for technique (ginōshō), fighting spirit (kantōshō), and for the defeating the most Yokozuna and Ōzeki (shukunshō). Please see the list of sumo tournament winners for an overview of yusho winners since 1958.

Life as a professional Sumo wrestler

Unlike most sports Sumo is a highly controlled way of life. The Sumo Association can prescribe the behaviour of its wrestlers in a way that would be more commonly associated with life in a commune. For example in the wake of a serious car accident involving a senior rikishi the Association banned wrestlers from driving their own cars. Sumo wrestlers can be identified immediately when in public. On entering sumo, the rikishi are expected to grow their hair long to form a topknot, or chonmage, similar to the samurai hairstyles of the Edo Period. Furthermore they are expected to wear traditional Japanese dress when in public. The type and quality of the dress depends on the wrestler's rank. Rikishi in Jonidan and below are allowed to wear only a thin cotton robe called a yukata, even in winter. Furthermore they must wear a form of wooden sandals called geta when outside. These make a clip-clop sound as one walks in them. Wrestlers in the Makushita and Sandanme divisions can wear a form of traditional short overcoat over their yukata and are allowed to wear straw sandals, called zori. The sekitori can wear silk robes of their own choice and the quality of the garb is significantly improved. They also are expected to wear a more elaborate form of topknot on formal occasions. Similar distinctions are made in stable life. The junior rikishi must get up earliest, around 5 a.m., for training whereas the sekitori may start around 7 a.m. When the sekitori are training the junior rikishi may have chores to do, such as assisting in cooking the lunch, cleaning and preparing the bath, or holding a sekitori's towel for him for when he needs it. The ranking hierarchy is preserved for the order of precedence in bathing after training, and in eating lunch. Rikishi are not normally allowed to eat breakfast and are expected to have a nap after a large lunch. This regimen helps rikishi put on weight so as to compete more effectively. In the afternoon the junior rikishi will again usually have cleaning or other chores to do, while their sekitori counterparts may relax, or deal with work related issues related to their fan club. In the evening sekitori may go out with their sponsors while juniors stay at home in the stable, unless they are to accompany the stablemaster or a sekitori as his manservant when he is out (this is normally a more privileged role given to a rikishi who may be nearing sekitori status himself). Sekitori also are given their own room in the stable or, if married, may live in their own apartment. The junior rikishi sleep in communal dormitories. Thus the world of the Sumo wrestler splits broadly into the junior rikishi who serve and the sekitori who are served upon. Life is especially harsh for new recruits, to whom the worst jobs tend to be allocated, and there is a high dropout rate at this stage. The negative effects of the sumo lifestyle become dangerously apparent later in life. Sumo wrestlers have a life expectancy of between 60 and 65, more than 10 years less than the average Japanese male. They often develop chronic diabetes and high blood pressure, and are prone to heart attacks. The excessive intake of alcohol leads to liver problems and the stress on their joints causes arthritis. Recently, the standards of weight gain are becoming less strict, to try and increase the health of the rikishi. .

Salary and Payment

As of March 2001, the monthly salary figures for sekitori (in Japanese Yen) were:
- Yokozuna: 2,820,000
- Ozeki: 2,350,000
- Sanyaku: 1,700,000
- Maegashira: 1,300,000
- Juryo: 1,030,000 Wrestlers in the lower divisions, who are considered to be trainees, do not receive a salary, but only a fairly small allowance. In addition to the basic salary, sekitori wrestlers also receive additional bonus income, called mochikyukin, six times a year (once every tournament, or basho) based on the cumulative performance in their career to date. This bonus increases every time that the rikishi scores a kachikoshi (with larger kachikoshi giving larger rises.) Special increases in this bonus are also awarded for winning the Makuuchi championship (with an extra large increase for a "perfect" championship victory with no losses), and also for scoring a kinboshi (an upset of a Yokozuna by a Maegashira). Sanyaku wrestlers also receive a relatively small additional tournament allowance, depending on their rank, and Yokozuna receive an additional allowance every second tournament, associated with the making of a new yokozuna hawswer. There is also prize money for the winner of each divisional championship, which rises from 100,000 yen for a Jonokuchi victory up to 10,000,000 yen for winning the Makuuchi division. For wrestlers in the top division giving an exceptional performance in the eyes of a judging panel there are also three special prizes (the sansho) which are worth 2,000,000 yen each. Individual top division matches can also be sponsored by companies. In such cases the winner of the bout typically receives around 30,000 yen net per sponsor (out of the sponsors contribution of 60,000 yen -- much of the remainder goes in paying the wrestler's tax on the prize). These bout prizes are called kenshokin. For bouts involving Yokozuna and Ozeki the number of sponsors of the matchup can be quite large, whereas for lower ranked matchups there may be no bout sponsors at all unless one of the wrestlers is particularly popular, or unless a company has a policy of sponsoring all his matchups. No bout prize money is awarded for a bout decided by a fusensho (forfeit victory). Due to the amount of money changing hands depending on rank, and prize money, there have been many accusations of yaocho (corruption, bout-fixing) in sumo. A 2000 economic study on corruption　 focused on sumo as a closed system in which to study corruption. The authors of the study found that 70% of wrestlers with 7-7 records on the final day of the tournament won. The percentage was found to rise the more times the two wrestlers had met, and decrease when the wrestler was due to retire, or during times when bout-fixing had a large media focus.

Sumo memorabilia

2000 As with many sports, there are a wide variety of souvenirs and memorabilia that fans may acquire. Fans purchasing box seats or front row seats, usually purchase the tickets through so-called tea houses, which provide sumo related items in a package that includes the purchase of the ticket. This sort of memorabilia can also be purchased separately. Plates, and cups with sumo related themes are a common item. One of the more unusal items that can be purchased is the tegata (lit: hand shape) of the wrestlers of whom one is a fan. Tegata consist of a hand print of the wrestler accompanied by the his fighting name written in calligraphic style by the wrestler himself. The ink for the handprint itself can be either red or black. Original tegata can be quite expensive, but printed copies of the most popular wrestlers can be obtained very inexpensively. Only wrestlers in the top two Juryo and Makuuchi divisions are permitted to make them. Another popular collectible is a copy of the banzuke for a tournament. A banzuke is a document that has been meticulously handwritten in calligraphic script and lists every wrestler in order of rank who participates in a tournament.

Amateur Sumo

In addition, Sumo is an amateur sport, with participants in college, high school and grade school in Japan. In addition to college and school tournaments, there are also open amateur tournaments. The sport at this level is stripped of most of the ceremony. The most successful amateur wrestlers in Japan (usually college champions) can be allowed to enter professional sumo at Makushita (third division) rather than from the very bottom of the ladder. This rank is called Makushita Tsukedashi, and is currently between Makushita 15 and 16. Many of the current Makuuchi rikishi entered professional Sumo by this route. There is also an International Sumo Federation, who encourage the sport's development worldwide, including holding international championships. A key aim of the federation is to have Sumo recognized as an Olympic sport. As such, amateur tournaments are divided into weight classes (Men: Lightweight up to 187 lbs, Middleweight up to 253 lbs, and Heavyweight 253+ lbs), and include competitions for female wrestlers. Amateur Sumo clubs are gaining in popularity in the United States, with competitions regularly held in major cities across the country.

References

- , for information on corruption in Sumo. # # # # #

External links

- [http://www.sumo.or.jp/eng/index.html Nihon Sumo Kyokai Official Grand Sumo Home Page]
- [http://sumo.goo.ne.jp/eng/index.html goo sumo]
- [http://www.scgroup.com/sumo/faq/ Sumo FAQ]
- [http://www.lemondedusumo.com Le Monde du Sumo (free) online magazine]
- [http://www.usasumo.com California Sumo Association] amateur Sumo club
- [http://www.phototravels.net/japan/sumo.html Sumo Photographs from Tokyo] Category:Sumo wrestling Category:Japanese martial arts Category:Sport in Japan Category:Japanese terms ko:스모 ja:相撲 simple:Sumo wrestling

Jacob

:This is an article about the bibilical patriarch Jacob. For other uses of the name, see Jacob (disambiguation). Jacob (disambiguation), 1855]] Jacob or Ya'akov, (יַעֲקֹב "Holder of the heel", Standard Hebrew Yaʿaqov, Tiberian Hebrew Yaʿăqōḇ; Arabic يعقوب Yaʿqūb), later known as Israel (יִשְׂרָאֵל "Prince of God", Standard Hebrew Yisraʾel, Tiberian Hebrew Yiśrāʾēl; Arabic اسرائيل Isrāʾīl) is the third Biblical patriarch. His father was Isaac and his grandfather was Abraham. His story is told in the Book of Genesis. According to the classic Jewish texts, Jacob, as the third and last patriarch, lived a life that paralleled the descent of his offspring, the Jewish people, into the darkness of exile. In contrast to Abraham—who illuminated the world with knowledge of God and earned the respect of the inhabitants of the land of Canaan—and Isaac—who continued his father's teachings and also lived in relative harmony with his neighbors—Jacob experienced many personal struggles both in the land and out of it (including the hatred of his brother Esau, the death of his favorite wife Rachel, the sale of his son Joseph, the rape of his daughter Dinah, and the deception of his father-in-law Laban). For this reason, the Jewish commentators interpret many elements of his story as being symbolic of the future difficulties and struggles the Jewish people would undergo during their long exile, which continues to the present day. The following discussion points out a few of these symbolic undertones in the biblical story.

Biography

Jacob was born 20 years after Isaac and Rebekah were married, at which time his father was 60 (Gen. 25:26), and Abraham, 160 years old. He and his twin brother, Esau, were markedly different in appearance and behavior. Esau was a ruddy hunter, while Jacob was a gentle man who "dwelled in tents," interpreted by most biblical scholars as a mark of his studiousness in the "tents" of Torah. During Rebekah's pregnancy, "the children struggled together within her" (Genesis 25:22). According to Rashi, whenever Rebekah passed a house of learning, Jacob would struggle to get out; whenever she passed a house of idolatry, Esau would struggle to get out. Fearing that she was carrying one rather schizophrenic child, Rebekah questioned God about the tumult and learned that two children were in her womb, who would become two very different nations. They would always be in competition, and eventually, the elder would serve the younger. She did not tell her husband Isaac about this prophecy, but remembered it later when she told Jacob to go to his father in place of Esau to receive the paternal blessing. Esau was born first. Right behind was his brother Jacob, who was grasping onto Esau's heel. Thus he was named Yaakov - יעקב, from the Hebrew root עקב, "heel." The commentators explain that Jacob was trying to hold Esau back from being the firstborn and claiming the Abrahamic legacy for himself. According to the text, Jacob was favored by hi