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Wren Building

Wren Building

The Wren Building is a highly notable building on the campus of the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. Construction began August 8, 1695 and was completed in 1700. The Wren Building is the oldest continually used academic building in the U.S. According to tradition, the building was designed by famous British architect Christopher Wren. The building is constructed out of red brick and contains classrooms, offices, and a chapel. On the top of the building is a weather vane with the number 1693, the year the college was founded. Posted on the building is the college's honor code, attributed to Thomas Jefferson, who at one point in time, attended college in the Wren Building himself. The Wren Building was the first major building restored by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., after he and the Reverend Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin began Colonial Williamsburg's restoration in the late 1920s).

Uses of the Building

Colonial Williamsburg The Wren Building was once the college's only building. Students studied, attended religious services, and lived in the building. After the destruction of Virginia's former capital of Jamestown, Virginia's legislature met in the Wren's Great Hall as a temporary meeting place from 1700 to 1704 while the Capitol was under construction. When the Capitol burned in 1747, the legislature moved back into the building until the Capitol was reconstructed in 1754. The Wren also housed a grammar school and an Indian school, which was moved to its own building, Brafferton, in 1723. The Wren was used as a military hospital by the French during the American Revolutionary War and by the Confederacy during the American Civil War. Today the building has historical and ceremonial importance in addition to its academic use. Each year during the opening convocation ceremony, incoming William and Mary freshmen enter the building from the courtyard, pass through the central hall, and exit on the opposite side. As seniors, students pass through the building in the opposite direction on their way to the graduation ceremony.

Botetourt Statue

Popular Virginia Governor Norborne Berkeley, baron de Botetourt, better known as Lord Botetourt, who died in office in 1770 and had been a member of the College's Board of Visitors, was buried in the Wren Building Chapel. A statue of Lord Botetourt was acquired by William and Mary and moved to the campus from the former Capitol building in 1797. It was a landmark in front of the Wren Building for several centuries. After years of weathering, was eventually moved to a location inside the College's Swem Library in the 20th century. In 1993, as the College celebrated its Tercentenary (300th anniversary), a new statue of Lord Botetourt, created in bronze by W&M alumnus, Gordon Kray, was installed in the College Yard, in the place occupied for so many years by the original. [http://www.wm.edu/about/wren/wrenchapel/htmls/botetourthistory.html]

Fires

Gordon Kray The Wren Building has been burned three times, in 1705, 1859, and 1862. The design changed somewhat over the course of time and included Italianate towers in the 1859 reconstruction.

External links

- [http://www.wm.edu/about/wren/history.php William and Mary - History of the Wren Building]
- [http://www.history.org/Almanack/places/hb/hbwren.cfm Colonial Williamsburg - Wren Building]
- [http://www.williamsburgpostcards.com/wren/wren.htm Many historical Wren Building images] Category:College of William and Mary

Building

:For other uses, see Building (disambiguation). Building is either the act of creating an object assembled from more than one element, or the object itself; see also construction. A building is usually a human-created object composed of more than a single element, permanently fixed to the ground, that mediates one or more aspects of the environment. construction Buildings may be as simple as a lone roof providing shelter from the rain for a single occupant, or as complex as a hospital regulating temperature, air flow, light, gas content, bacteria movement, particle flow, pressure, and people movement and activities. The design construction and operation of buildings is as old as humankind. Architects today design most large-scale buildings in a team with a large number of specialized engineers. Small residential buildings do not usually involve extensive work by architects or engineers. Systems for transport of people within buildings:
- Elevator
- Escalator
- Moving sidewalk (horizontal and inclined) Systems for interconnecting buildings:
- Skyway
- Underground city

External links

- [http://www.usc.edu/uscnews/story.php?id=10009 Automated house-building:Contour Crafting].
- [http://www.vernarch.com/ Center for vernacular Architecture-Banglaore-India] Category:Buildings and structures
- category:Real estate ja:建築物 th:อาคาร

Williamsburg, Virginia

Williamsburg is a city located on the Virginia Peninsula in the Hampton Roads area of Virginia. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 11,998. It is the county seat of James City County, although it is itself an independent city. The Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the city of Williamsburg with James City county for statistical purposes. Williamsburg is well-known for the restored colonial area of the city, Colonial Williamsburg, and for the College of William and Mary which is situated mostly within the city of Williamsburg. The newspaper of record is The Virginia Gazette.

History

17th-18th centuries

Williamsburg was settled in 1632 and was called Middle Plantation. The College of William and Mary was founded in Middle Plantation in 1693. In 1699 the village was laid out and renamed to Williamsburg in honor of King William III of England. The town was granted a royal charter as a city in 1722. Jamestown was the original capital of Virginia Colony, and remained as such until its burning in during the events of Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. Temporary quarters were established about 12 miles away on high ground at Middle Plantation, but the rebuilt statehouse in Jamestown burned again in 1698. After that fire, upon suggestion by students of the College of William and Mary, the colonial capital was permanently moved to nearby Middle Plantation again, and the town was renamed Williamsburg. Williamsburg's local newspaper, the Virginia Gazette, was the first newspaper paper published south of the Potomac River in 1736. The publisher was William Parks. Beginning in April, 1775, the Gunpowder incident of Williamsburg, a dispute between Governor Dunmore and Virginia colonists over gunpowder (stored in the Williamsburg Magazine) evolved into an important event in the run-up to the American Revolution. Dunmore, fearing a rebellion, ordered royal marines to seize gunpowder from the magazine. Virginia militia led by Patrick Henry responded to the "theft" and marched on Williamsburg. A standoff ensued with Dunmore threatening to destroy the city if attacked by the militia. The dispute was resolved when payment for the powder was arranged. In 1780, during the American Revolutionary War, the capital was moved again to Richmond at the urging of then-Governor Thomas Jefferson, who was afraid that Williamsburg's location made it vulnerable to a British attack. During the Revolutionary War many important conventions were held in Williamsburg.

19th century

With the capitol gone after 1780, Williamsburg also lost prominence. Early 19th century transportation was largely by canals and navigable rivers. Built deliberately on "high ground," Williamsburg was not located along a major waterway like many early communities in the United States. Early railroads beginning in the 1830s also did not come its way. The area saw some activity during the Peninsula Campaign of the American Civil War (1861-1865), notably the Battle of Williamsburg on May 5, 1862. About 20 years later, in 1881, Collis P. Huntington's Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad (with mostly through-coal traffic) built through the area. Of course, there were the ongoing activities of the College of William and Mary, but even that was suspended from 1882 until 1886.

20th century restoration: Colonial Williamsburg

In the early 20th century, one of the largest historic restorations ever undertaken anywhere in the world was championed by the Reverend Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin of Williamsburg's Bruton Parish Church. Initially, Dr. Goodwin had wanted to save his historic church building, and this he accomplished. However, he began to realize that much of the other colonial era buildings also remained, but were at risk. He sought financing from a number of sources before successfully drawing the interests and major financial support of Standard Oil heir and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. and his wife which resulted in the creation of Colonial Williamsburg, to celebrate the patriots and the early history of America. Today, Colonial Williamsburg forms the centerpiece of the Historic Triangle with Jamestown and Yorktown joined by the Colonial Parkway. See also article Colonial Williamsburg

Anheuser-Busch: brewery, theme park, development

Anheuser-Busch has large operations in James City County just outside the city. The company operates a large brewery there, and a subsidiary of the company operates two of its theme parks near the brewery, Busch Gardens Williamsburg, and Water Country USA. Anheuser-Busch's subsidiary Busch Properties operates a commerce park, McLaw's Circle, and Kingsmill on the James a residential neighborhood that contains a resort of the same name.

G7 Summit

The 9th G7 Summit was held in Williamsburg in 1983. The summit participants discussed the growing debt crisis, arms control and greater co-operation between the Soviet Union and the G7 (now the G8). At the end of the meeting, U.S. Secretary of State George P. Shultz read to the press a statement confirming the deployment of American Pershing II-nuclear rockets in West Germany later in 1983.

Geography and climate

Geography

Williamsburg is located at . According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 22.5 km² (8.7 mi²). 22.1 km² (8.5 mi²) of it is land and 0.3 km² (0.1 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 1.50% water. The city is located on the I-64 corridor on the Virginia Peninsula, 45 miles southeast of Richmond and approximately 37 miles northwest of Norfolk. It is in the northwest corner of the greater Hampton Roads area, (officially known as the Virginia Beach-Norfolk-Newport News, VA-NC MSA), which is the 34th largest in the United States, with a total population of 1,576,370. The area includes the Virginia cities of Norfolk, Virginia Beach, Chesapeake, Hampton, Newport News, Poquoson, Portsmouth, Suffolk, Williamsburg, and the counties of Gloucester, Isle of Wight, James City, Mathews, Surry, and York, as well as the North Carolina county of Currituck. While Virginia Beach is the most populated city within Hampton Roads, it currently functions more as a suburb. The city of Norfolk is recognized as the central business district, while the Virginia Beach seaside resort district and Williamsburg are primarily centers of tourism.

Climate

Williamsburg's mild four season climate means outdoor activities can be enjoyed year round. The weather in Williamsburg is temperate and seasonal. Summers are hot and humid with cool evenings. The mean annual temperature is 60 °F (15 °C), with an average annual snowfall of 6 inches and an average annual rainfall of 47 inches. No measurable snow fell in 1999. The wettest seasons are the spring and summer, although rainfall is fairly constant all year round. The highest recorded temperature was 104.0°F (40.0°C) on June 26, 1952 and August 22, 1983. The lowest recorded temperature was -7.0°F (-21.6°C) on January 21, 1985.

People and culture

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 11,998 people, 3,619 households, and 1,787 families residing in the city. The population density is 542.4/km² (1,404.1/mi²). There are 3,880 housing units at an average density of 175.4/km² (454.1/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 79.54% White, 13.34% Black or African American, 0.27% Native American, 4.58% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.75% from other races, and 1.47% from two or more races. 2.52% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 3,619 households out of which 16.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.2% are married couples living together, 9.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.6% are non-families. 35.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.07 and the average family size is 2.66. The age distribution, which is heavily influenced by the College of William and Mary, is: 9.6% under the age of 18, 46.0% from 18 to 24, 17.7% from 25 to 44, 15.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 23 years. For every 100 females there are 81.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 80.8 males. The median income for a household in the city is $37,093, and the median income for a family is $52,358. Males have a median income of $28,625 versus $26,840 for females. The per capita income for the city is $18,483. 18.3% of the population and 9.3% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 29.7% of those under the age of 18 and 5.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. Williamsburg is notable for the fact that a high proportion of city residents derive a significant percentage of their annual income from investment sources, either in addition to or in lieu of income from work. This is because many retirees relocate to Williamsburg, who typically draw income from investments such as 401k plans and the like (see also retirement community).

Infrastructure

Government

The independent city has operated under the council-manager form of government since 1932. The governing body is composed of public-spirited citizens serving on a part-time basis to decide major policy issues. The Mayor is elected by the city council, and presides over council meetings and served as the Chief Elected Official for the city. The city council consists of five members that serve staggered, four-year terms. A city manager is hired by the city council, and is comparable to a corporation's chief executive officer. This person is usually a professionally-trained public administrator, who is charged with implementing the policies and directives of the city council, and has broad administrative authority with strict rules prohibiting political interference in administrative matters. The current Mayor of the city of Williamsburg is Jeanne Zeidler, and the Vice Mayor is Clyde A. Haulman. Other members of the city council are Paul Freiling, Billy Scruggs, and Mickey Chohany. The current city manager is Jackson C. Tuttle. The city shares constitutional officers, courts, and a school system with adjacent James City County, and is the county seat.

Education

The public school system is jointly operated by the city of Williamsburg and James City County. The system consists approximately 9,000 students in 12 schools, of which there are 7 elementary schools, 3 middle schools, and 2 high schools. For the 2001-2002 academic year, the public school system was ranked among the top five school systems in the Commonwealth of Virginia and in the top 15% nationwide by Expansion Management Magazine. There are also two regional Governor's Schools in the area that serve gifted and talented students. The city has also been the home to the College of William and Mary since its founding in 1693, making it America's second oldest college behind Harvard University. It is also the first U.S. institution to have a Royal Charter. Three other institutions of higher education are located within a twenty-five mile radius of the city, including Christopher Newport University (Newport News), Old Dominion University (Norfolk), and Hampton University (Hampton). There are also three community colleges, offering associate degrees and college transfer programs, within a twenty-five mile radius of Williamsburg: Thomas Nelson Community College, Paul D. Camp Community College, and Rappahannock Community College.

Transportation

Williamsburg is served by the Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport, in nearby Newport News. The Norfolk International Airport and Richmond International Airport, each located a short drive away, are larger and offer considerably more flights. These two airports are convenient as Williamsburg is roughly equidistant from the two major cities. The [http://www.airnav.com/airport/KJGG Williamsburg-Jamestown Airport] is a small general aviation airport located 3 miles southwest of Williamsburg, that provides air transport for private and small business jets. Williamsburg is located on Interstate 64 which parallels U.S. Highway 60 in the area. State Highway 199 surrounds the city in a semicircle and is occasionally humorously called the Williamsburg Beltway. Virginia State Highway 5 links the city with the James River Plantations along the north shore of the James River, Interstate 295 and Richmond. Virginia State Highway 31 links the city to Jamestown and the toll-free Jamestown Ferry which connects to Virginia State Highway 10 at Surry, offering access to plantations south of the river as well as Hopewell, City Point, and Smithfield, Virginia. The Colonial Parkway provides a bucolic low-speed link between the points of the Historic Triangle which in addition to Colonial Williamsburg, included Jamestown and Yorktown. Also, motorized traffic is not allowed on Duke of Gloucester Street in the historic district, allowing visitors to gain a perspective of what life was really like in the colonial days. Intercity bus service is provided by Greyhound Lines. Local public transit bus and paratransit services are provided by Williamsburg Area Transit, which connects with the much larger Hampton Roads Transit bus system at Lee Hall in northwestern Newport News. The College of William and Mary also operates a bus service for students of the university, which runs between locations on the central university campus, points in the city of Williamsburg and James City County, the law school campus, and various outlying dormitories and auxiliary buildings owned or operated by the university that are not contiguous with the main campus. The city is also served by several Amtrak trains a day, with direct service to Newport News, Richmond, and points along the Northeast Corridor from Washington DC through New York City to Boston.

External links

- [http://www.ci.williamsburg.va.us/ Official Williamsburg Website]
- [http://www.jccegov.com/ Official James City County Website]
- [http://www.visitwilliamsburg.com/ Williamsburg Area Convention and Visitors Bureau]
- [http://www.colonialwilliamsburg.com/ Colonial Williamsburg]
- [http://www.history.org/ Official Web Site of Colonial Williamsburg, the World's Largest Living History Museum]
- [http://gowilliamsburg.com/ Go Williamsburg - Hotels, Tickets and Things to Do in Williamsburg, VA] Williamsburg Williamsburg Category:Williamsburg, Virginia ja:ウィリアムズバーグ (バージニア州)

Academic

Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research, taken as a whole. The word comes from the akademeia just outside ancient Athens, where the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space had formerly been an olive grove, hence the expression "the groves of Academe". By extension Academia has come to connote the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, English and French religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. The English adopted the form academy while the French adopted the forms academe and academie. An academic is a person who works as a researcher (and usually teacher) at a university or similar institution. In the United States, the term is approximately synonymous with professor. In the United Kingdom, various titles are used, typically fellow, lecturer, reader and professor (see also academic rank), though the loose term don is often popularly substituted. In other parts of the world, the term scholar is probably closer. Academic administrators are not typically included in this use of the term. Some sociologists have divided, but not limited, academia into four basic historical types: ancient academia, early academia, academic societies and the modern university. There are at least two models of academia: a European model developed since ancient times, as well as an American model developed by Benjamin Franklin in the mid-18th century and Thomas Jefferson in the early 19th century.

Structure

Academia is usually conceived of as divided into disciplines or fields of study. These have their roots in the subjects of the ancient trivium and quadrivium, which provided the model for Scholastic thought in the first universities in medieval Europe. The disciplines have been much revised, and many new disciplines have formed since medieval times; in general, academic fields have probably become more and more specialized since the Enlightenment, dividing their research into smaller and smaller areas. Because of this, interdisciplinary research is often prized in today's academy. It can also be made difficult by practical matters of administration and funding. In fact, many new fields of study have initially been conceived as interdisciplinary, and later become specialized disciplines in their own right (cognitive science is one recent example). In short, there is a historical process behind the internal differentiation of the academy. Most academic institutions reflect the divide of the disciplines in their administrative structure, being divided internally into departments or programs in various fields of study. Each department is typically administered and funded separately by the academic institution, though there may be some overlap and faculty members, research and administrative staff may in some cases be shared among departments. In addition, academic institutions generally have an overall administrative structure (usually including a president and several deans) which is controlled by no single department, discipline, or field of thought. Also, the tenure system, a major component of academic employment and research, serves to ensure that academia is relatively protected from political and financial pressures on thought.

Qualifications

Main article: Academic degree The degree awarded for completed study is the primary academic qualification. Typically these are, in order of completion, bachelor's degree (awarded for completion of undergraduate study), master's degree, and doctorate (awarded after graduate or postgraduate study). These are only currently being standardized in Europe as part of the Bologna process, as many different degrees and standards of time to reach each are currently awarded in different countries in Europe. In most fields the majority of academic researchers and teachers have doctorates or other terminal degrees, though in some professional and creative fields it is common for scholars and teachers to have only master's degrees.

Academic conferences

Closely related to academic publishing is the practice of bringing a number of intellectuals in a field to give talks on a paper they have written, often allowing for a wider audience to be exposed to their ideas. The papers are usually refereed first and only a smaller number of authors are invited to speak about their writing. The chance to speak can allow fuller explanation of points that may not have been clearly written or fully expanded upon in writing. The greater interactivity that is inherent in the conference format can allow for quicker feedback and criticism on the ideas discussed. Since papers are typically submitted ahead of time, conference attendees have had time to read the paper and be prepared with insightful questions if they wish.

Conflicting goals

Within academia, diverse constituent groups have diverse, and sometimes conflicting, goals. In the contemporary academy several of these conflicts are widely distributed and common. A salient example of conflict is that between the goal to increase services and the goal to reduce costs. The conflicting goals of professional education programs and general education advocates currently are playing out in the negotiation over accreditation standards.

Practice and theory

Academia is sometimes contrasted pejoratively with "practice", such as daily living, employment, and business. Critics of academia say that academic theory is insulated from the 'real world', and thus does not have to take into account the real effects, results, and risks of actually performing the actions which academics study. Academic insularity is sometimes referred to as the ivory tower. This often leads to a real or perceived tension between academics and practitioners in many fields of knowledge, particularly when an academic is critical of the actions of a practitioner. Depending on the degree of criticism, the practitioner's critique of academia could also be seen as anti-intellectualism. The balance to the view from the practitioner is that even if academia is insulated from practice in the real world, that does not mean academic study is valueless. In fact it is often seen that many academic developments turn out only much later to have great practical results. However, given that among practitioners there is a perception of academic insularity, it may increase the value and impact of the academician's studies and or opinion if she takes that insularity into account when discussing or offering criticism of a practitioner or a practice in general.

Town and gown

Universities are often culturally distinct from the towns or cities where they reside. In some cases this leads to discomfort or outright conflict between local residents and members of the university over political, economic, or other town and gown issues. Some localities in the Northeastern United States, for instance, have tried to block students from registering to vote as local residents—instead encouraging them to vote by absentee ballot at their parents' residence—in order to retain control of local politics. Other issues can include deep cultural and class divisions between local residents and university students. The film Breaking Away dramatizes such a conflict.

Commerce and scholarship

The goals of research for profit and for the sake of knowledge often conflict to some degree.

History

Ancient times

Main article: Academy Academia takes its name from the Academy, a sacred sanctuary outside the city walls of ancient Athens. It was dedicated to the legendary hero Akademos and contained several olive groves, a gymnasium and an area suited for intimate gatherings. In these gardens, largely planted and enchanced with statuary by its previous owner Cimon, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers who believed Plato would enlighten them. These informal sessions came to be known as the Academy. Plato later further developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what is known today as the Old Academy. Plato's colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy. Carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories and established the Lyceum in another gymnasium.

Early development

Main article: Medieval university Academia as a modern institution began to take shape in the Middle Ages (AD 350 to 1450). At this time, the Roman Empire had crumbled and new regimes were beginning to take shape throughout Western Europe. Europe had just come out of the Dark Ages, a period of mass illiteracy and loss of information. The only repositories of ancient knowledge were the Roman Catholic monasteries with hermits, monks and priests compiling all the world's knowledge into elaborate hand written books. The earliest precursors of the colleges and universities were just being developed at these monasteries in order to redistribute the knowledge they had saved through the Dark Ages. One had to go to a monastery to learn about ancient Greece and Rome and the wealth of information created in those societies. Being schooled at a monastery meant academia was effectively restricted to men who wanted to become monks and priests. But by the 11th century, some Roman Catholic church leaders began a revolutionary campaign to proliferate the knowledge they had to the greater society of early Europe. They believed that Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Homer, Sophocles and the others belonged to the people and not just for the religious. The monks and priests moved out of the monasteries and went to the city cathedrals where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. Most notable of these schools were in Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge, though others were opened throughout Europe. Studying at these schools, now called universities, meant sitting through a method of education called the lecture. In a lecture, the master read aloud from manuscripts written by monks and priests while students sat at their pews reading along from their own handwritten copies of the massive amounts of texts. Only the master could determine if a student had achieved enough knowledge to graduate and organize lectures of their own. By the end of the 13th century, there were over 80 universities in Europe.

Early methods

Seven liberal arts

The seven liberal arts became codified in late antiquity through textbooks by Varro and Martianus Capella, who offered the standardized structure through which men (and it was men, by and large, for women were excluded) could visualize the world of learning. The Liberal Arts consisted of the Trivium, the basic "three ways" of Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic, and the Quadrivium, the "four ways" of Arithmetic, Geometry, Music and Astronomy. Philosophy and Theology were the all-embracing studies that encompassed the Liberal Arts, but philosophy in the early Middle Ages was largely a matter of dialectic. The didactic allegory of the 5th-century pagan Martianus Capella's De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii ("The wedding of philology and Mercury") was of stupendous importance in fixing the unchanging formulas of Academia for the Latin West, from the Christianized Roman Empire of the 5th century until newly available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became available in Western Europe in the 12th century. The conceptual scheme established by Martianus Capella, given Christian readings and interpretations, remained largely in effect in western Academia, even after the new scholasticism of the School of Chartres and the encyclopedic work of Thomas Aquinas, until the humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences.

Encyclopedists

Three medieval writers attempted to encompass the whole of Academia, the entire world of learning: Isidore of Seville, Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas Aquinas.

Abelard

In the 12th century, French philosopher Peter Abelard instituted his own revolution in the world of academia with the 1123 publication of his book, Sic et Non. He did away with the master reading from a text aloud in lectures and instead sat his students at desks in front of two separate texts contradicting each other. Instead of telling them which method was correct and which was wrong, he required his students to ask each other questions and come up with their own conclusions. Soon, almost all universities experimented with the use of the Abelard method.

Scholasticism

In the early 13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas revolutionized academia once again with his popularization of scholasticism. Scholasticism employed the Abelard method of education but went further. Masters offered their students long, involved resolutions in examining two opposing texts and asked them to consider religious faith in their reasoning. The resolutions were based on newly rediscovered philosophies of Aristotle which tried to balance out reason with faith in God.

Rise of academic societies

Main article: Learned society Academic societies or learned societies began as groups of academics who worked together or presented their work to each other. These informal groups later became organized and in many cases state-approved. Membership was restricted, usually requiring approval of the current members and often total membership was limited to a specific number. The Royal Society founded in 1660 was the first such academy. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was begun in 1780 by many of the same people prominent in the American Revolution. Academic societies served both as a forum to present and publish academic work, the role now served by academic publishing, and as a means to sponsor research and support academics, a role they still serve. Membership in academic societies is still a matter of prestige in modern academia.

Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

Academia began to splinter from its Christian roots in 18th-century colonial America. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the Academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the College and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the University of Pennsylvania. For the first time, academia was established as a secular institution. For the most part, church-based dogmatic points of view were no longer thrust upon students in the examination of their subjects of study. Points of view became more varied as students were free to wander in thought without having to add religious dimensions to their conclusions. In 1819, Thomas Jefferson founded the University of Virginia and developed the standards used today in organizing colleges and universities across the globe. The curriculum was taken from the traditional liberal arts, classical humanism and the values introduced with the Protestant Reformation. Jefferson offered his students something new: the freedom to chart their own courses of study rather than mandate a fixed curriculum for all students. Religious colleges and universities followed suit. The Academy movement in the U.S. in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the Old Northwest, in western New York State, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois. Dozens of academies were founded in the area, supported by private donations. During the Age of Enlightenment in 18th-century Europe, the academy started to change in Europe. In the beginning of the 19th century Wilhelm von Humboldt not only published his philosophical paper On the Limits of State Action, but also directed the educational system in Prussia for a short time. He introduced an academic system that was much more accessible to the lower classes. Humboldt's Ideal was an education based on individuality, creativity, wholeness, and versatility. Many continental European universities are still rooted in these ideas (or at least pay lip-service to them). They are, however, in contradiction to today's massive trend of specialization in academia.

Recent economic changes

In the 1980s and 1990s significant changes in the economics of academic life began to be felt, identified by some as a catastrophe in the making and by others as a new era with potentially huge gains for the university. Some critics identified the changes as a new "corporatization of the university." Academic jobs have been traditionally viewed by many intellectuals as desirable, because of the autonomy and intellectual freedom they allow (especially because of the tenure system), despite their low pay compared to other professions requiring extensive education. And until the mid-1970s, when federal expenditures for higher education fell sharply, there were routinely more tenure-track jobs than Ph.D.'s. Now, by contrast, despite rising tuition rates and growing university revenues (especially in the U.S.) well-paid professorial positions are rarer, replaced with poorly paid adjunct positions and graduate-student labor. People with doctorates in the sciences and, to a lesser extent, mathematics, often find jobs outside of academia (or use part-time work in industry to supplement their incomes), but a Ph.D. in the humanities and many social sciences prepares the student primarily for academic employment. However, in recent years a large proportion of such Ph.D.'s—ranging from 30 percent to 60 percent—have been unable to obtain tenure-track jobs. They must choose between adjunct positions, which are poorly paid and lack job security; teaching jobs in community colleges or in high schools, where little research is done; the non-academic job market, where they will tend to be overqualified; or some other course of study, such as law or business. Indeed, with academic institutions producing Ph.D.'s in greater numbers than the number of tenure-track professorial positions they intend to create, there is little question that administrators are cognizant of the economic effects of this arrangement. The sociologist Stanley Aronowitz wrote: "Basking in the plenitude of qualified and credentialed instructors, many university administrators see the time when they can once again make tenure a rare privilege, awarded only to the most faithful and to those whose services are in great demand" (The Knowledge Factory 76). Most people who are knowledgeable of the academic job market advise prospective graduate students not to attend graduate school if they must pay for it; graduate students who are admitted without tuition remission and a reasonable stipend are forced to incur large debts that they will be unlikely to repay quickly. In addition, most people recommend that students obtain full and accurate information about the placement record of the programs they are considering. At some programs, most Ph.D.'s get multiple tenure-track offers, whereas at others few obtain any; such information is clearly very useful in deciding what to do with the next 5–7 years of one's life. Some believe that, as a number of Baby Boomer professors retire, the academic job market will rebound. However, others predict that this will not result in an appreciable growth of tenure-track positions, as universities will merely fill their needs with low-paid adjunct positions. Aronowitz ascribed this problem to the economic restructuring of academia as a whole: :In fact, the program of restructuring on university campuses, which entails reducing full-time tenure-track positions in favor of part-time, temporary, and contingent jobs, has literally "fabricated" this situation. The idea of an academic "job market" based on the balance of supply and demand in an open competitive arena is a fiction whose effect is to persuade the candidate that she simply lost out because of bad luck or lack of talent. The truth is otherwise. (75–76) The effects of a growing pool of unemployed, underemployed, and undesirably employed Ph.D.'s on the Western countries' economies as a whole is undetermined.

Academic publishing

Main article: Academic publishing

History of academic journals

Among the earliest research journals were the Proceedings of meetings of the Royal Society in the 17th century. At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry was controversial, and widely ridiculed. It was not at all unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an anagram, reserving priority for the discoverer, but indecipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both Isaac Newton and Leibniz used this approach. However, this method did not work well. Robert K. Merton, a sociologist, found that 92% of cases of simultaneous discovery in the 17th century ended in dispute. The number of disputes dropped to 72% in the 18th century, 59% by the latter half of the 19th century, and 33% by the first half of the 20th century. The decline in contested claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited to the increasing acceptance of the publication of papers in modern academic journals. The Royal Society was steadfast in its unpopular belief that science could only move forward through a transparent and open exchange of ideas backed by experimental evidence. Many of the experiments were ones that we would not recognize as scientific today—nor were the questions they answered. For example, when the Duke of Buckingham was admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society on June 5, 1661, he presented the Society with a vial of powdered "unicorn horn". It was a well-accepted 'fact' that a circle of unicorn's horn would act as an invisible cage for any spider. Robert Hooke, the chief experimenter of the Royal Society, emptied the Duke's vial into a circle on a table and dropped a spider in the centre of the circle. The spider promptly walked out of circle and off the table. In its day, this was cutting-edge research.

Current status and development

Research journals have been so successful that the number of journals and of papers has proliferated over the past few decades, and the credo of the modern academic has become "publish or perish". Except for generalist journals like Science or Nature, the topics covered in any single journal have tended to narrow, and readership and citation have declined. A variety of methods reviewing submissions exist. The most common involves initial approval by the journal, peer review by two or three researchers working in similar or closely related subjects who recommend approval or rejection as well as request error correction, clarification or additions before publishing. Controversial topics may receive additional levels of review. Journals have developed a hierarchy, partly based on reputation but also on the strictness of the review policy. More prestigious journals are more likely to receive and publish more important work. Submitters try to submit their work to the most prestigious journal likely to publish it to bolster their reputation and curriculum vitae. Andrew Odlyzko, an academician with a large number of published research papers, has argued that research journals will evolve into something akin to Internet forums over the coming decade, by extending the interactivity of current Internet preprints. This change may open them up to a wider range of ideas, some more developed than others. Whether this will be a positive evolution remains to be seen. Some claim that forums, like markets, tend to thrive or fail based on their ability to attract talent. Some believe that highly restrictive and tightly monitored forums may be the least likely to thrive.

Academic dress

Main article: Academic dress Gowns have been associated with academia since the birth of the university in the 1300s and 1400s, perhaps because most early scholars were priests or church officials. Over time, the gowns worn by degree-holders have become standardized to some extent, although traditions in individual countries and even institutions have established a diverse range of gown styles, and some have ended the custom entirely, even for graduation ceremonies. At some universities, such as the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, undergraduates may be required to wear gowns on formal occasions and on graduation. Undergraduate gowns are usually a shortened version of a bachelor's gown. At other universities, for example, outside the UK or U.S., the custom is entirely absent. In general, in the U.S. and UK recipients of a bachelor's degree are entitled to wear a simple full-length robe without adornment and a mortarboard cap with a tassel. In addition, holders of a bachelor's degree may be entitled to wear a ceremonial hood at some schools. In the U.S., bachelor's hoods are rarely seen. Bachelor's hoods are generally black, but may have a silk lining denoting the subject of the degree, and are often edged in white fur. Recipients of a master's degree in the U.S. or UK wear a similar cap and gown but closed sleeves with slits, and usually receive a ceremonial hood that hangs down the back of the gown. The hood is traditionally edged with a silk or velvet strip displaying the disciplinary colour, and is lined with the university's colors. Recipients of a doctoral degree tend to have the most elaborate academic dress, and hence there is the greatest diversity at this level. In general, doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by master's graduates, with the addition of velvet stripes across the sleeves and running down the front of the gown, tinted with the disciplinary color for the degree received. Holders of a doctoral degree may be entitled or obliged to wear scarlet (a special gown in scarlet) on high days and special occasions. The doctoral hood is identical in virtually every way to the master's hood, with the exception that it is generally longer, and the velvet strip is wider. While some doctoral graduates wear the mortarboard cap traditional to the lower degree levels, most wear a cap or tudor bonnet that resembles a tam o'shanter, from which a colored tassel is suspended. In modern times in the U.S. and UK, gowns are normally only worn at graduation ceremonies, although some colleges still demand the wearing of academic dress on formal occasions (official banquets and other similar affairs). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was more common to see the dress worn in the classroom, a practice which has now all but disappeared. One notable exception is the University of Oxford, where students are required to wear formal academic dress in the examination room.

References

- Aronowitz, Stanley. The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate University and Creating True Higher Learning. ISBN 0807031232.

External links

- [http://palinurus.english.ucsb.edu/BIBLIO-UNIVERSITY-history-of-university.html Bibliography on the history of the university][http://www.academicforum.co.uk ,] provided by [http://palinurus.english.ucsb.edu/ Palinurus: The Academy and the Corporation], a web site from the University of California, Santa Barbara
- [http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Frequently_Asked_Questions3&Template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=8086 An Academic Costume Code and An Academic Ceremony Guide] Category:Education

Architect

An architect is a person involved in the planning, designing and oversight of a building's construction. The most basic definition of an architect is a professional who is qualified to design and provide advice - functional, aesthetic and technical - on built objects in our public and private landscapes. More generally, an architect is the designer of a scheme or plan. "Architect" is derived from Latin: architectus, and from Greek: arkhitekton (master builder), arkhi (chief) + tekton (builder, carpenter). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=architect&searchmode=none] In the broadest sense, an architect is a person who interfaces between the end user of a planned structure and the builder. That is, the architect translates the user's needs into the builder's requirements. The architect must be completely conversant with the user's environment, that is, the area of business or industry for which the structure is to be used, so that s/he can fully and completely understand the image of the final result that the user is trying to convey. Equally as important, the architect must thoroughly understand the building and operational codes with which the builder must conform and, upon completion, during use of the structure. That degree of knowledge is necessary so that s/he is not apt to omit any necessary requirements, or produce improper, conflicting, ambiguous, or confusing requirements. S/he must understand the various methods available to the builder for building the user's structure, so that s/he can negotiate with the user to produce a best possible compromise of the results desired within explicit cost and time boundaries. Architects are professionals considered on par with doctors, engineers, and lawyers, and they must frequently make building design and planning decisions that affect the safety and well being of the general public. Architects are required to obtain specialized education and documented work experience to obtain professional licensure, similar to the requirements for other professionals, with requirements for practice varying greatly from place to place (see below). The most prestigious award a living architect can receive is the Pritzker Prize. It is considered the equivalent of the Nobel Prize for architecture. Other awards for excellence in architecture are given by the American Institute of Architects and Royal Institute of British Architects. Although architect may be a specific term referring to a licensed professional, the word is frequently used in the broader sense noted above to define someone who brings order to the built or unbuilt environment through the use of rational constructs using (engineering) design tools. [Note: someone who brings order to the built and/or unbuilt environment through the use of rational or irrational constructs and who may or may not use design tools is normally referred to as an artist. Although structures described by architectures may often be said to contain artistic features, as a whole they are rarely referred to as works of art. Similarly, works of art are rarely referred to as having an architecture.] For example, naval architects, software architects, etc., and graduates of schools of architecture not doing regulated project/construction documents are often called architects. However, non-licensed architects and designers working in the construction industry are prohibited from referring to themselves as architects in most countries.

Canada

In Canada, architects are required to belong to provincial architectural associations that require them to complete an accredited degree in architecture, finish a multi-year internship process, pass a series of exams, and pay an annual fee to acquire and maintain a license to practice. The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada [http://www.raic.org/] aims to be "the voice of Architecture and its practice in Canada." Architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix MRAIC after their names. All members of the RAIC hold accredited degrees in architecture, but not all Canadian architects are members of the RAIC.

UK

Architects in the UK qualify through courses and exams recognized by the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) and the Architects Registration Board (ARB). Typically the sequence of education leading to full qualification and registration takes seven years and is:
- Three-year degree course
- RIBA Part 1 exam
- One year’s professional experience
- Further two-year course
- RIBA Part 2 exam
- Another year’s professional experience
- RIBA Part 3 exam The word ‘architect’ is legally protected; under the Architects Act 1997 it is against the law for people who are not registered architects to style themselves thus. However, many minor architectural tasks can be carried out by draughtsmen also known as architectural technologists (previously architectural technicians).

USA

In the United States, people wishing to become licensed architects (interns) are required to pass a series of multiple exams (depending on specific criteria set forth by the State in which the testing is conducted), referred to as the Architectural Registration Examination (the ARE). In addition, interns must have multiple years of documented practical work experience (quantity depends on type of educational experience and type of educational degree earned) working under a licensed Architect before they may become eligible to take the ARE. Although the ARE is a national exam, each state issues their own licenses. Some states, such as California and Hawaii, require supplemental exams in addition to the ARE. Other states have reciprocity agreements, so licenses may be easily transferred between certain states. Schooling is not always required in such states as New York, for someone who works at least 10 years under an accredited architect is eligible for a licensening test. There are three types of accredited ("professional") degrees in architecture in the United States; a Bachelor of Architecture, a Master of Architecture, or a Doctor of Architecture (abbreviated as B.Arch., M.Arch., and D.Arch., respectively). These are called professional degrees as they are required to enter the profession. A Bachelor of Arts in Architecture (BA), Bachelor of Fine Arts in Architecture (BFA Arch), Bachelor of Science in Architecture (BS), or Bachelor of Environmental Design (B.Envd) typically takes four years - as opposed to five for a B. Arch degree - and is considered a pre-professional degree. However a professional degree is still required (to take the ARE and to practice) and the programs are often combined usually leading to an M.Arch degree. A pre-professional degree is not necessary to enter a professional degree program, but accelerates completion. Following graduation from a professional program, documented apprenticeship (typically 3 year internship) is required before the individual is eligible to take the ARE and become licensed. The American Institute of Architects [http://www.aia.org] is the professional organization dedicated to offering a network of services to architects in the United States. Architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix AIA after their names. Not all architects who are licensed by their respective states are members of the AIA, and the general public often confuses the AIA suffix with actual credentials rather than participation in a business organization.

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong to be an architect, one must be a graduate of a university specified by the HKIA plus a two year internship, then take the architect registration examination. Architects from U.K. and U.S.A. with 10 years experience aren't required to take the examination, but are required to attend an interview just as a formality. Architects in Hong Kong are not authorised to submit building plans but use it as a 'title' only, unlike in most of the western world which carries a statutory obligation. To be able to submit building plans, architects, engineers or surveyors must go through another step by passing an authorized personal interview. Contrary to popular thought, most of the famous buildings in Hong Kong are designed by well-known international 'brand' architects and local architects act only as facilitators.

Notable architects

The architects in the list of notable architects are in chronological order of when they did their most important work (or emerged), and alphabetized within each time period.

Notable schools of Architecture

- Bauhaus, Weimar, Dessau, and Berlin
- Architectural Association School of Architecture, London
- École des Beaux Arts, Paris (until 1968 when 22 Écoles d'Architecture replaced it)
- Scott Sutherland School, Scotland
- National Technical University of Athens [http://www.arch.ntua.gr]
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [http://www.arch.auth.gr]
- Auburn University (Paul Rudolph, Samuel Mockbee) [http://www.auburn.edu]
- Glasgow School of Art,Glasgow,Scotland
- GSAPP [http://www.arch.columbia.edu/], Columbia University in the City of New York [http://www.columbia.edu/]
- Pennsylvania State University,Pennsylvania[http://www.psu.edu]
- Waterloo School of Architecture, Cambridge, Ontario, Canada
- Berlage Institute, Rotterdam [http://www.berlage-institute.nl/]
- Dalhousie University (Technical University of Nova Scotia), Halifax, NS, Canada

External links

- [http://www.raic.org/ Royal Architectural Institute of Canada] - Professional association for architects in Canada
- [http://www.aia.org/ American Institute of Architects] - Professional association for architects in the United States
- [http://www.architectsindex.com/ Architects' Index] - Directory of UK registered architects
- [http://www.architecture.com.au Royal Australian Institute of Architects] - Professional association for architects in Australia
- [http://architect.architecture.sk/ Famous architects] Biographies of well-known architects, almost all of the Modern Movement. Category:Architecture and engineering occupations Architect Category:Professional qualifications ja:建築家

Brick

This page is about bricks used for construction. For other types of brick please see Brick (disambiguation). Brick (disambiguation) A brick is a ceramic block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or ground shale. Clay bricks are formed in a mould (the soft mud method), or more frequently in commercial mass production by extruding clay through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper size (the stiff mud process). Brick made from dampened clay must be formed in molds with a great deal of pressure, usually applied by a hydraulic press. These bricks are known as hydraulic-pressed bricks, and have a dense surface which makes them highly resistant to weathering, and thus suitable for facing work. The shaped clay is then dried and fired to achieve the final, desired strength. In modern brickworks, this is usually done in a continuously fired kiln, in which the bricks move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars to achieve consistent physical characteristics for all bricks. Bricks are also known in the building trades as compressed earth blocks or CEBs.

History

clay In the Near East and India, bricks have been in use for more than five thousand years. The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacks rocks and trees. Sumerian structures were thus built of plano-convex mudbricks, not fixed with mortar or with cement. As plano-convex bricks (being rounded) are somewhat unstable in behaviour, Sumerian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows. They would fill the gaps with bitumen, straw, marsh reeds, and weeds. The Ancient Egyptians and the Indus Valley Civilization also used mudbrick extensively, as can be seen in the ruins of Buhen, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, for example. The Romans made use of fired bricks, and the Roman legions, which operated mobile kilns, introduced bricks to many parts of the empire. Roman bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised its production. The use of bricks in Southern and Western Germany, for example, can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius. In the 12th century, bricks from Northern Italy were re-introduced to Northern Germany, where an independent tradition evolved. It culminated in the so-called brick Gothic, a reduced style of Gothic architecture that flourished in Northern Europe, especially in the regions around the Baltic Sea which are without natural rock resources. Brick Gothic buildings, which are built almost exclusively of bricks, are to be found in Denmark, Germany, Poland and Russia. However, bricks were long considered an inferior substitute for natural rock. During the Renaissance and the Baroque, visible brick walls were unpopular and the brickwork was often covered with plaster. It was only during the mid-18th century that visible brick walls regained some degree of popularity, as illustrated by the Dutch Quarter of Potsdam, for example.

Construction and types

Potsdam Hard-burned brick should be used for face work exposed to the weather, and soft brick for filling, foundations, and the like. The mainstay standard US brick measures approximately 8 x 4 x 2.25 inches (203 x 102 x 57 millimeters), and has a crushing strength of between 1000 and 3000 lbf/in² (7 to 21 megapascals) depending on quality. The standard UK brick size is 215 x 102.5 x 65 millimetres. A highly impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by salt glazing, in which salt is added during the burning process, or by the use of a "slip," which is a glaze material into which the bricks are dipped. Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base.

Proportions

Regardless of size, bricks are usually manufactured with the depth equal to half the length (assuming that the brick is laid horizontally). This allows for several convenient layouts which must necessarily interweave the bricks in any structure, often both at the corners and within the wall depth in order to ensure the greatest possible durability of the structure.

Use

salt glazing) on the west side of Lake Lily in Maitland, Florida. It was built in 1915 or 1916, paved over at some point, and restored in 1999.]] Bricks are typically for building. In the USA at one time, it was popular to pave roads with bricks, but they were found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic. Brick paving is again coming back into use as a method of traffic calming or as a decorative surface in pedestrian precincts. Bricks are also used in the metallurgy and glass industries for lining furnaces. They have various uses, especially refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia and neutral (chromomagnesite) refractory bricks. This type of brick must have a series of properties such as good thermal shock resistance, refractoriness under load, high melting point, satisfactory porosity (which can influence several other properties), all of which are high-temperature properties. There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the United Kingdom, Japan and the U.S.A.

Weather vane

A weather vane, also called a wind vane, is a movable device attached to an elevated object such as a roof for showing the direction of the wind. Very often these are in the shape of cockerels and are called weather cocks. Arrows are also popular, but a multitude of designs have been used. The weather vane must be balanced so that half its weight is on either side of its axis, but also designed so that the areas exposed to the wind are unequal. This unequal area causes the vane to rotate to minimize the force of the wind on its surface. The design of the vane causes the end with the smallest area to turn into the wind, pointing to the source of the wind. Because winds are named from their source direction, the pointer enables the viewer to name the wind easily. Most simple weather vanes have directional markers beneath the pointer, aligned with the geographic directions. The pointer must be able to move freely on its axis. Weather cocks, especially those with fanciful shapes, do not always show the real direction of a very gentle wind. This is because the figures do not achieve the design balance required in a weather vane: an unequal surface area but balanced in weight. Early weather vanes had very ornamental pointers, but modern wind vanes are usually simple arrows that dispense with the directionals because the instrument is connected to a remote reading station. Also modern wind vanes are mounted with an anemometer, a device that measures wind speed. Co-locating both instruments allows them to use the same axis (a vertical rod). Weather stations of variable quality may be purchased, and these include wind vanes along with several other instruments with dials that can be read comfortably inside a home or office. To obtain an accurate reading, the weather vane must be located well above the ground and away from buildings, trees, and other objects which interfere with the true wind direction. Changing wind direction can be meaningful when coordinated with other apparent sky conditions, enabling the user to make simple short range forecasts. Another wind direction device is the windsock used at airports to show wind direction and strength. The wind fills the sock and makes it blow away from the prevailing wind. Strong winds make the sock point almost horizontally, while light airs allow the sock to hang limply. Because of its size, the wind sock can often be seen from the air as well as the ground. Even the most technologically-advanced airports still use windsocks.

Notable weather vanes

ddd
- "The World's Largest Weathervane" is located in downtown Montague, Michigan.
- The Father Time weather vane at Lord's Cricket Ground, London.

External links

- [http://www.nsdl.arm.gov/Library/glossary.shtml#wind_vane National Science Digital Library - Wind vane]
- [http://www.weathervanesculpture.com/weathervanes/weathervanes.php Weather Vane Gallery - Examples of Weathervanes]
- [http://www.geocities.com/weathermake2000/Weathervane.html Homemade electronic wind vane] Category:Measuring instruments Category:Meteorology

1693

Events

- January 11 - Eruption of Mt. Etna.
- February 8 - The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia is granted a charter
- July 29 - The Battle of Landen
- October 11 – Charleloi falls to the French forces
- China concentrates all its foreign trade to Canton – European ships are forbidden to land anywhere else
- Sect of Amish formed
- Knights of Apocalypse formed in Italy
- Academia operosorum Labacensis established in Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Financier Richard Hoare founds Hoare's Bank in London.

Births

- February 7 - Empress Anna I of Russia (d. 1740)
- February 24 - James Quin, English actor (d. 1766)
- March 5 - Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian (d. 1754)
- March 7 - Pope Clement XIII (d. 1769)
- March 24 - John Harrison, English clockmaker (d. 1776)
- April 3 - George Edwards, English naturalist (d. 1773)
- June 17 - Johann Georg Walch, German theologian (d. 1775)
- July 21 - Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, English statesman (d. 1768)
- August 8 - Laurent Belissen, French composer (d. 1762)
- September 3 - Charles Radclyffe, British politician (d. 1746)
- Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1768)

Deaths

- February 7 - Paul Pellisson, French writer (b. 1624)
- April 5 - Anne, Duchess of Montpensier, French writer (b. 1627)
- April 9 - Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy, French writer (b. 1618)
- May 3 - Claude de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French courtier (b. 1607)
- May 25 - Marie-Madeleine Pioche de la Vergne, comtesse de la Fayette, French writer (b. 1634)
- June 2 - John Wildman, English soldier and politician
- July 12 - John Ashby, English admiral
- September 19 - Janez Vajkard Valvasor, Slovenian nobleman and polymath (b. 1641)
- October 1 - Pedro Abarca, Spanish theologian (b. 1619)
- William Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1616) Category:1693 ko:1693년

Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson (April 13 (April 2 Old Style), 1743 – July 4, 1826) was the third President of the United States (1801–1809), author of the United States Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founders of the United States. Achievements of his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806). A political philosopher who promoted classical liberalism, republicanism, and the separation of church and state, he was the author of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786), which was the basis of the Establishment Clause of the U.S. Constitution. He was also the founder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated American politics for over a quarter-century. Jefferson also served as second Governor of Virginia (1779–1781), first United States Secretary of State (1789–1795), and second Vice President (1797–1801). In addition to his political career, Jefferson was also an agriculturalist, horticulturist, architect, etymologist, archaeologist, mathematician, surveyor, paleontologist, author, lawyer, inventor, and founder of the University of Virginia. Many people consider him to be among the most brilliant men ever to occupy the Presidency. President John F. Kennedy welcomed 49 Nobel Prize winners to the White House in 1962, saying, "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent, of human knowledge, that has ever been gathered at the White House, with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone."

Early life and education

Jefferson was born on April 2, 1743 according to the Julian calendar ("old style") used at the time, but under the Gregorian calendar ("new style") adopted during his lifetime, he was born on April 13. Jefferson was born into a prosperous Virginia family. His father was Peter Jefferson, a planter and surveyor who owned a plantation in Albemarle County called Shadwell. His mother was Jane Randolph. Both parents were from families that had been settled in Virginia for several generations. Albemarle County In 1752, Jefferson began attending a local school run by William Douglas, a Scottish reverend. In 1757, when Jefferson was 14 years old, his father died. Jefferson inherited about 5,000 acres (20 km²) of land and dozens of slaves, out of which he created his home which would eventually be known as Monticello. After his father's death he was taught at the school of the learned James Maury, a reverend, from 1758 to 1760. The school was in Fredericksburg parish, twelve miles from Shadwell, and Jefferson boarded with Maury's family. There he received a classical education and studied history and natural science. At the age of nine, Jefferson began studying the classical languages of Latin and Greek as well as French. Jefferson entered the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg at the age of 16 and spent two years there, from 1760 to 1762. There Jefferson studied mathematics, metaphysics, and philosophy under professor William Small, who introduced the enthusiastic Jefferson to the writings of British Empiricists, including John Locke, Bacon, and Sir Issac Newton. At William & Mary he reportedly studied 15 hours a day, perfected French, carried his Greek grammar book wherever he went, practiced the violin, and favored Tacitus and Homer. In college, Jefferson was a member of the secret Flat Hat Club, now the namesake of the college's daily student newspaper. After graduating in 1762 with highest honors, Jefferson studied law with his friend and mentor George Wythe and was admitted to the Virginia bar in 1767. In 1772 he married a widow, Martha Wayles Skelton (1748-82). They had six children, but only one survived to adulthood. Jefferson never remarried. In 1778, Jefferson's "Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge" led to several academic reforms at his alma mater, including an elective system of study -- the first in an American university. In 1779, at Jefferson's behest, the College of William and Mary appointed George Wythe the first Professor of Law in America. In 1783, Jefferson was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws by William and Mary. As Governor of Virginia, Jefferson continued to advocate educational reforms at that college including the nation's first elective system of course study and student-policed honor code.

Political career to 1800

honor code Jefferson practiced law and served in the Virginia House of Burgesses. In 1774, he wrote A Summary View of the Rights of British America which was intended as instructions for the Virginia delegates to a national congress. The pamphlet was a powerful argument of American terms for a settlement with Britain, helped speed the way to independence, and marked Jefferson as one of the most thoughtful patriot spokesmen. Jefferson was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence, and a source of many other contributions to American political and civil culture. The Continental Congress delegated the task of writing the Declaration to a committee which included Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. The committee met and unanimously solicited Jefferson to prepare the draft of the Declaration alone. During the Revolution, Jefferson played a leading role in implementing the separation of church and state in Virginia. In Virginia, prior to the American Revolution, the Anglican Church was government sanctioned and funded, and its doctrine was made mandatory for Christians. As he wrote in his Notes on Virginia, a law was in effect in Virginia that "if a person brought up a Christian denies the being of a God, or the Trinity …he is punishable on the first offense by incapacity to hold any office …; on the second by a disability to sue, to take any gift or legacy …, and by three year' imprisonment." Prospective officer-holders, presumably including Jefferson, were required to swear that they did not believe in transubstantiation, a measure intended to exclude Roman Catholics from office. In 1779, toward the end of the Revolution, Jefferson drafted "A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom," and he regarded passage of this bill as a high achievement. However, the dis-establishment of the official church did not come easily, and Jefferson described the debates as "…the severest contests in which I have ever been engaged," because even though a majority of Virginia's citizens were dissenting Christians, Anglican churchman controlled a majority of the legislature. For Jefferson, separation of church and state was not an abstract right, but a necessary reform of a religious "Tyranny" of one Christian sect over many other Christians. He also regarded separation as being a very personal freedom, and for example he noted that individual members of a given congregation should not be compelled by law to support financially their own parish church. During the Articles of Confederation period after the end of the American Revolutionary War, Jefferson served as governor of Virginia (1779-1781), and minister to France (1785–1789). He did not attend the Constitutional Convention. He did generally support the new Constitution, although he thought the document flawed for lack of a Bill of Rights. After returning from France, Jefferson served as the first Secretary of State under George Washington (1790–1793). After battling inside the cabinet with Alexander Hamilton, Jefferson and James Madison founded and led the Democratic-Republican Party. Jefferson strongly supported France against Britain when war broke out between those powerful nations in 1793. However when the Jay Treaty proved that Washington and Hamilton supported Britain, Jefferson retired to Monticello. He was elected Vice President (1797–1801), writing [http://www.constitution.org/tj/tj-mpp.htm A Manual of Parliamentary Practice] that is still in use. With a Quasi-War with France underway (that is, an undeclared naval war), the Federalists started a navy, built up the army, levied new taxes, and readied for war. Jefferson interpreted the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 as an attack on his party more than on dangerous enemy aliens. He and Madison rallied support by anonymously writing the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions which declared that the United States Constitution only established an agreement between the central government and the states and that the federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it; should the federal government assume such powers, its acts under them would be void. Their importance lies in that they were later considered to be the first statements of