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Worstead

Worstead

Worstead is a village (population 852) in Norfolk, England, south of North Walsham and north of Wroxham. In the Domesday Book, Worstead is called Wrdesteda and Ordested. King Canute gave the village to the abbots of St. Benet's Abbey on the River Bure in the Norfolk Broads. It became very prosperous from the 12th century when weavers from Flanders arrived in the area. They had been encouraged to settle in Norfolk by King Edward III of England who had married a Flemish princess. "Walsham" cloth was light and for summer use, whereas "Worstead" was a heavier cloth. It is still referred to as worsted - the original name of the town. The last weaver, John Cubitt, died in 1882 at the age of 91. The oldest Act of Parliament kept in the House of Lords Record Office is the Taking of Apprentices for Worsteads in the County of Norfolk Act of 1497. Weaving and spinning demonstrations are part of the annual Worstead Festival on the last weekend in July. Category:Villages in Norfolk

Village

:For a list of references which "The Village" could refer to, see The Village A village is a human settlement commonly found in rural areas. It is usually larger than a hamlet and smaller than a town or city. Villages have been the normal unit of community living in most areas of the world throughout its history, up until the Industrial revolution and the ongoing process of urbanization. In many U.S. states, a village is a type of municipal government (see below).

Traditional villages

Although many types and organizational patterns of village life have existed, the typical village was small, consisting of perhaps 5 to 30 families. Homes were situated together for sociability and defense, and land surrounding the living quarters was farmed.

England

In England the main historical distinction between a hamlet and a village is that the latter will have a church, and will therefore usually have been the worship centre of a parish. A village was traditionally distinguished from a town in that a village lacked a regular agricultural market, although today such markets are uncommon even in settlements which clearly are towns. Due to the vagueness of this definition, there is some question as to which is the largest village in England.

United States

Incorporated villages

In twenty U.S. states, the term "village" refers to a specific form of incorporated municipal government, similar to a city but with less authority and geographic scope. However, this is a generality; in many states, there are villages that are an order of magnitude larger than the smallest cities in the state. The distinction is not necessarily based on population, but on the relative powers granted to the different types of municipalities and correspondingly, different obligations to provide specific services to residents. In some states such as New York, Wisconsin, or Michigan, a village is an incorporated municipality, usually, but not always, within a single town or civil township. Residents pay taxes to the village and town or township and may vote in elections for both as well. In some cases, the village may be coterminous with the town or township. There are also many villages which span the boundaries of more than one town or township, and some villages may even straddle county borders. There is no limit to the population of a village in New York. (Hempstead, the largest village in the state, has 55,000 residents, making it more populous than many of the state's cities); however, villages in the state may not exceed five square miles (13 km²) in area. The state of Wisconsin has similar status for villages. The largest village is Menomonee Falls, which has over 25,000 residents. Michigan also has no set population limit for villages and there are many villages that are larger than cities in the state. Villages in Ohio are almost always legally separate from any townships that they may have been incorporated from (there are exceptions, such as Chagrin Falls, where the township includes the entirety of the village). They have no area limitations, but must reincorporate as cities if they grow to over 5,000 in population. Villages have the same home-rule rights as cities with fewer of the responsibilities. Unlike cities, they have the option of being either a "statutory village" and running their governments according to state law (with a six-member council serving four-year terms and a mayor who votes only to break ties) or being a "charter village" and writing a charter to run their government as they see fit. :See Political subdivisions of New York State#Village Village (Oregon)

Unincorporated villages

In many states, the term "village" is used to refer to a relatively small unincorporated community, similar to a hamlet in New York state. This informal usage may be found even in states that have villages as an incorporated municipality, although such usage might be considered incorrect and confusing.

See also


- Village green
- Ville

External links

Village types:
- [http://www.pygmies.info/camps.html African Pygmies Villages] ja:村 th:หมู่บ้าน

North Walsham

North Walsham is a market town (population 11998) in Norfolk, England, south of Cromer and north of Wroxham. It was an Anglo-Saxon settlement. Both North Walsham and the neighbouring Worstead became very prosperous from the 12th century through the arrival of weavers from Flanders. "Walsham" was a light-weight cloth for summer, and "Worsted" a heavier cloth. The 14th century "wool churches" are a testament to the prosperity of the local mill owners. North Walsham's Church of St Nicholas was originally dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary and is one of the UK's largest parish churches. It was also the site of a wayside shrine to St Thomas of Canterbury. North Walsham was involved in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. The peasants' leaders were defeated at the Battle of North Walsham. Horatio Nelson and his brother William were educated at Paston Grammar School in North Walsham, founded by Sir William Paston (of Paston Letters fame) in 1606. The town is on the North Walsham & Dilham Canal, still privately owned by the North Walsham Canal Company. As part of the Millennium celebrations, ten mosaics were commissioned, showing scenes from local history, including the Peasants' Revolt and the Great Fire of North Walsham, also a picture of a Norfolk wherry - an allusion to the canal. North Walsham's Parish church also had the 2nd largest steeple in Norfolk until its collapse in 1724. Plans for its rebuilding were abandoned at the outbreak of World War II. The 90ft tall ruin is now a famous landmark of the area.

References

Office for National Statistics & Norfolk County Council, 2001. "[http://www.norfolk.gov.uk/consumption/groups/public/documents/general_resources/ncc017867.xls Census population and household counts for unparished urban areas and all parishes]. Category:Towns in Norfolk

Domesday Book

:This article is about the 11th century census. See BBC Domesday Project for the multimedia project and Doomsday Book (novel) for the Connie Willis novel. Domesday Book (also known as Domesday, or Book of Winchester), was the record of the great survey of England completed in 1086, executed for William the Conqueror, that was similar to a census by a government of today. He needed information about the country he had just conquered so he could administer it. Whilst spending the Christmas of 1085 in Gloucester, William "had deep speech with his counsellors and sent men all over England to each shire ... to find out ... what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worth." One of the main purposes of the survey was to find out who owned what so they could be taxed on it, and the judgment of the assessors was final -- whatever the book said about who owned the property, or what it was worth, was the law, and there was no appeal. When the book took the name "Domesday" (Middle English spelling of "Doomsday") in the 12th century, it was to emphasize its definitiveness and authority (the analogy refers to the Christian notion of a Last Judgement).

Domesday Book

Domesday Book is really two independent works. One, known as Little Domesday covers Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex. The other, Great Domesday covers the rest of England, except for lands in the north that would later become Westmorland, Cumberland, Northumberland and County Durham (partly because some of these lands were under Scottish control at the time). There are also no surveys of London, Winchester and some other towns. The omission of these two major cities is probably due to their size and complexity, Cumberland is missing due to the fact that it was not conquered until some time after the survey and the Prince-Bishop William of St. Carilef had the exclusive right to tax Durham; the omission of the other counties has not been fully explained. Despite its name, Little Domesday is actually larger - as it is far more detailed, down to numbers of livestock. It has been suggested that Little Domesday represents a first attempt, and that it was found impossible, or at least inconvenient, to complete the work on the same scale for Great Domesday. For both volumes the contents of the returns were entirely rearranged and classified according to fiefs, rather than geographically. Instead of appearing under the Hundreds and townships holdings appear under the names of the local barons, i.e. those who held the lands directly of the crown in fee. In each county the list opened with the holding of the king himself (which had possibly formed the subject of separate inquiry); then came those of the churchmen and religious houses; next were entered those of the lay tenants-in-chief (barones); and last of all those of women, of the king's serjeants (servientes), of the few English thegns who retained land, and so forth. In some counties one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section; in some the clamores (disputed titles to land) were similarly treated apart. But this description applies more specially to the larger and principal volume; in the smaller one the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Apart from the wholly rural portions, which constitute its bulk, Domesday contains entries of interest concerning most of the towns, which were probably made because of their bearing on the fiscal rights of the crown therein. These include fragments of custumals (older customary agreements), records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth. From the towns, from the counties as wholes, and from many of its ancient lordships, the crown was entitled to archaic dues in kind, such as honey. The information of most general interest found in the great record is that on political, personal, ecclesiastical and social history, which only occurs sporadically and, as it were, by accident. Much of this was used by E. A. Freeman for his work on the Norman Conquest.

The Survey

From the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is known that the planning for the survey was conducted in 1085, and from the colophon of the Book that the survey was completed in 1086. It is not known when exactly Domesday Book was compiled. Each county was visited by a group of royal officers (legati), who held a public inquiry, probably in the great assembly known as the county court, which was attended by representatives of every township as well as of the local lords. The unit of inquiry was the Hundred (a subdivision of the county, which then was an administrative entity), and the return for each Hundred was sworn to by twelve local jurors, half of them English and half Normans. What is believed to be a full transcript of these original returns is preserved for several of the Cambridgeshire Hundreds, and is of great illustrative importance. The Inquisitio Eliensis, the "Exon Domesday" (so called from the preservation of the volume at Exeter), which covers Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire, and the second volume of Domesday Book, also all contain the full details which the original returns supplied. Through comparison of what details are recorded in which counties, six "circuits" can be determined. #Berkshire, Hampshire, Kent, Surrey, Sussex #Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire (Exeter Domesday) #Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Middlesex #Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire #Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire, Worcestershire - the Marches #Derbyshire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire

Purpose

For the object of the survey we have three sources of information:
- The passage in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which tells us why it was ordered: : "After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land; how it was occupied, and by what sort of men. Then sent he his men over all England into each shire; commissioning them to find out "How many hundreds of hides were in the shire, what land the king himself had, and what stock upon the land; or, what dues he ought to have by the year from the shire." Also he commissioned them to record in writing, "How much land his archbishops had, and his diocesan bishops, and his abbots, and his earls;" and though I may be prolix and tedious, "What, or how much, each man had, who was an occupier of land in England, either in land or in stock, and how much money it were worth." So very narrowly, indeed, did he commission them to trace it out, that there was not one single hide, nor a yard of land, nay, moreover (it is shameful to tell, though he thought it no shame to do it), not even an ox, nor a cow, nor a swine was there left, that was not set down in his writ. And all the recorded particulars were afterwards brought to him."
- The list, of questions which the jurors were asked, as preserved in the Inquisitio Eliensis
- The contents of Domesday Book and the allied records mentioned above. Although these can by no means be reconciled in every detail, it is now generally recognized that the primary object of the survey was to ascertain and record the fiscal rights of the king. These were mainly
- The national land-tax (geldum), paid on a fixed assessment,
- Certain miscellaneous dues, and
- The proceeds of the crown lands. After a great political convulsion such as the Norman conquest, and the wholesale confiscation of landed estates which followed it, it was William's interest to make sure that the rights of the crown, which he claimed to have inherited, had not suffered in the process. More especially was this the case as his Norman followers were disposed to evade the liabilities of their English predecessors. The Domesday survey therefore recorded the names of the new holders of lands and the assessments on which their tax was to be paid. But it did more than this; by the king's instructions it endeavoured to make a national valuation list, estimating the annual value of all the land in the country, (1) at the time of Edward the Confessor's death, (2) when the new owners received it, (3) at the time of the survey, and further, it reckoned, by command, the potential value as well. It is evident that William desired to know the financial resources of his kingdom, and probable that he wished to compare them with the existing assessment, which was one of considerable antiquity, though there are traces that it had been occasionally modified. The great bulk of Domesday Book is devoted to the somewhat arid details of the assessment and valuation of rural estates, which were as yet the only important source of national wealth. After stating the assessment of the manor, the record sets forth the amount of arable land, and the number of plough teams (each reckoned at eight oxen) available for working it, with the additional number (if any) that might be employed; then the river-meadows, woodland, pasture, fisheries (i.e. weirs in the streams), water-mills, saltpans (if by the sea) and other subsidiary sources of revenue; the peasants are enumerated in their several classes; and finally the annual value of the whole, past and present, is roughly estimated. It is obvious that, both in its values and in its measurements, the survey's reckoning is very crude. The rearrangement, on a feudal basis, of the original returns enabled the Conqueror and his officers to see with ease the extent of a baron's possessions; but it also had the effect of showing how far he had engaged under-tenants, and who those under-tenants were. This was of great importance to William, not only for military reasons, but also because of his firm resolve to make the under-tenants (though the "men" of their lords) swear allegiance directly to himself. As Domesday normally records only the Christian name of an under-tenant, it is vain to seek for the surnames of families claiming a Norman origin; but much has been and is still being done to identify the under-tenants, the great bulk of whom bear foreign names.

Subsequent History

Domesday Book was originally preserved in the royal treasury at Winchester (the Norman kings' capital). It was originally referred to as the Book of Winchester, and refers to itself as such in a late addition. When the treasury moved to Westminster, probably under Henry II, the book went with it. In the Dialogus de scaccario (temp. Hen. II.) it is spoken of as a record from the arbitrament of which there was no appeal (from which its popular name of "Domesday" is said to be derived). In the middle ages its evidence was frequently invoked in the law-courts; and even now there are certain cases in which appeal is made to its testimony. It remained in Westminster until the days of Queen Victoria, being preserved from 1696 onwards in the Chapter House, and only removed in special circumstances, such as when it was sent to Southampton for photozincographic reproduction. The Domesday Book was eventually placed in the Public Record Office, London; it can be now seen in a glass case in the museum at The National Archives, Kew. In 1869 it received a modern binding. The ancient Domesday chest, in which it used to be kept, is also preserved in the building. The printing of Domesday, in "record type", was begun by the government in 1773, and the book was published, in two volumes in 1783; in 1811 a volume of indexes was added, and in 1816 a supplementary volume, separately indexed, containing : #The "Exon Domesday" (for the south-western counties), #The Inquisitio Eliensis, #The Liber Winton (surveys of Winchester early in the 12th century), and #The Boldon Book- a survey of the bishopric of Durham a century later than Domesday. Photographic facsimiles of Domesday Book, for each county separately, were published in 1861-1863, also by the government. Today Domesday Book is available in numerous editions, usually based per county and available with other local history resources. Although unique in character and of priceless value to the student, even scholars are unable to explain portions of its language and of its system. This is partly due to its very early date, which has placed between it and later records a gulf that is hard to bridge. To the topographer, as to the genealogist, its evidence is of primary importance; for it not only contains the earliest survey of a township or manor, but affords in the majority of cases the clue to its subsequent descent.

Bibliography


- Domesday Book: a complete translation (2003). London: Penguin. pp.1456. ISBN 0141439947.
- Maitland, F.W. (1988). Domesday Book and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521349184
- Wood, Michael (2005). The Domesday Quest: In Search of the Roots of England. London: BBC Books. ISBN 0563522747

See also


- Medieval demography

External links


- [http://www.domesdaybook.co.uk/ Domesday Book Online]
- [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/museum/item.asp?item_id=1 Domesday Book - National Archives] Images and transcripts of the Domesday book. Category:History of England Category:manuscripts Category:Historical documents ja:ドゥームズデイ・ブック

Canute

Canute (anglicized form of Knut, from Old Norse knútr meaning "knot", sometimes Cnut; Danish Knud) is the name of several kings of medieval Denmark, two of whom reigned also over England during the first half of the 11th century.
- Canute the Great (994/995-1035) was king of England, Denmark and Norway, celebrated for "trying to hold back the tide," commanding the waves of the sea to retreat as a reprimand of his courtiers;
- His son, Harthacanute (1018/1019-June 8, 1042), inherited the throne;
- Also refer to List of Danish monarchs, List of monarchs of England, and List of Norwegian monarchs. See also:
- Knut Hamsun (1859 - 1952) was a leading Norwegian author.
- Knud Rasmussen (1879 - 1933) was a Greenlandic polar explorer and anthropologist.
- Knute Rockne (1888 - 1931) was a American football player and coach.
- Canute, Oklahoma, United States

St. Benet's Abbey

St. Benet's Abbey is a ruined abbey situated on the River Bure within The Broads National Park in Norfolk, England. Norfolk, England St. Benet's constitutes the remains of the only religious house in Norfolk before the Norman Conquest. It was also the only religious house not closed down by Henry VIII during the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Instead he united the Abbacy with the Bishopric of Norwich and therefore, the Bishops of Norwich have stayed Abbots of St. Benet's to this day. However, the buildings were allowed to fall into decay and the Abbey was abandoned in about 1545. The Bishop of Norwich, as Abbot, arrives once a year, standing in the bow of a wherry and preaches at the annual service on the first day of August. King Canute gave the abbey the manor of Worstead. On 2nd August 1987 a cross made from oak from the Royal Estate at Sandringham was erected on the site of the High Altar. The site was enclosed by a wall with battlements in 1327. In more recent times, a farmer built a windpump inside the abbey structures. Category:Visitor attractions in Norfolk Category:Ruins Category:Buildings and structures in Norfolk Category:Abbeys and priories in England

River Bure

The River Bure (pronounced burr) is a river in the county of Norfolk, England, most of it in The Broads National Park. The Bure rises near Aylsham which was the original head of navigation. Nowadays, the head of navigation is 10 miles downstream at Coltishall Bridge. After Aylsham Lock and Burgh Bridge, the Bure passes through Buxton Lamas, Coltishall, Belaugh, Wroxham, Horning, Ludham Bridge, past St. Benet's Abbey, though Oby, Acle, Stokesby, along the northern border of the Halvergate Marshes, through Mautby, Runham and Great Yarmouth where it meets Breydon Water and flows into the sea at Gorleston. It has two tributaries, the River Thurne and the River Ant. There is also Muck Fleet which connects the Trinity Broads (Ormesby, Rollesby and Filby Broad) to the main network. The Norfolk wherry used on the River Bure is the Bure wherry (54 ft. × 12 ft. 8 in. max.)

See also


- Bure Valley Railway, a heritage railway
- Bure Valley Way, a long distance footpath
- Bure Marshes NNR - National Nature Reserve Bure

Norfolk Broads

The Norfolk Broads are the northern part of The Broads National Park. A southern part of the national park lies within Suffolk, and so The Broads are sometimes collectively referred to as the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, but many people simply call the entire system the Norfolk Broads. They are a man made creation, resulting from peat being excavated for use as fuel. These workings were then flooded by the rising water table. Suffolk Suffolk] Suffolk Suffolk] Suffolk] Suffolk] Suffolk

- Category:Inland navigations

Weaver

Many:see text The Weavers are small passerine birds related to the finches. These are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills, most of which breed in sub-Saharan Africa, with fewer species in tropical Asia. The males of many species are brightly coloured, usually in red or yellow and black. Weavers get their name from the large woven nests many species make. These are elaborate structures of grass and twigs which may be suspended from a branch or have tubular entrance extensions. The buffalo-weavers, however, form massive untidy stick nests in their colonies, which may have several spherical woven nests within. These are gregarious birds which often breed colonially. They sometimes cause crop damage, notably the Red-billed Quelea, reputed to be the world's most numerous bird. Red-billed Quelea Red-billed Quelea. The nests are the spherical suspended objects]]
- Family: Ploceidae
  - White-billed Buffalo-weaver, Bubalornis albirostris
  - Red-billed Buffalo-weaver, Bubalornis niger
  - White-headed Buffalo-weaver, Dinemellia dinemelli
  - Speckle-fronted Weaver, Sporopipes frontalis
  - Scaly Weaver, Sporopipes squamifrons
  - White-browed Sparrow-weaver, Plocepasser mahali
  - Chestnut-crowned Sparrow-weaver, Plocepasser superciliosus
  - Chestnut-backed Sparrow-weaver, Plocepasser rufoscapulatus
  - Donaldson-Smith's Sparrow-weaver, Plocepasser donaldsoni
  - Rufous-tailed Weaver, Histurgops ruficauda
  - Grey-headed Social-weaver, Pseudonigrita arnaudi
  - Black-capped Social-weaver, Pseudonigrita cabanisi
  - Social Weaver, Philetairus socius
  - Bannerman's Weaver, Ploceus bannermani
  - Bates' Weaver, Ploceus batesi
  - Black-chinned Weaver, Ploceus nigrimentum
  - Baglafecht Weaver, Ploceus baglafecht
  - Bertrand's Weaver, Ploceus bertrandi
  - Slender-billed Weaver, Ploceus pelzelni
  - Loango Weaver, Ploceus subpersonatus
  - Little Weaver, Ploceus luteolus
  - Lesser Masked-weaver, Ploceus intermedius
  - Spectacled Weaver, Ploceus ocularis
  - Black-necked Weaver, Ploceus nigricollis
  - Black-billed Weaver, Ploceus melanogaster
  - Strange Weaver, Ploceus alienus
  - Bocage's Weaver, Ploceus temporalis
  - Cape Weaver, Ploceus capensis
  - African Golden-weaver, Ploceus subaureus
  - Holub's Golden-weaver, Ploceus xanthops
  - Principe Golden-weaver, Ploceus princeps
  - Orange Weaver, Ploceus aurantius
  - Golden Palm Weaver, Ploceus bojeri
  - Taveta Golden-weaver, Ploceus castaneiceps
  - Southern Brown-throated Weaver, Ploceus xanthopterus
  - Northern Brown-throated Weaver, Ploceus castanops
  - Kilombero Weaver, Ploceus burnieri
  - Rueppell's Weaver, Ploceus galbula
  - Heuglin's Masked-weaver, Ploceus heuglini
  - Northern Masked-weaver, Ploceus taeniopterus
  - African Masked-weaver, Ploceus velatus
  - Lufira Masked-weaver, Ploceus reichardi
  - Village Weaver, Ploceus cucullatus
  - Giant Weaver, Ploceus grandis
  - Speke's Weaver, Ploceus spekei
  - Fox's Weaver, Ploceus spekeoides
  - Vieillot's Weaver, Ploceus nigerrimus
  - Weyns' Weaver, Ploceus weynsi
  - Clarke's Weaver, Ploceus golandi
  - Black-headed Weaver, Ploceus melanocephalus
  - Salvadori's Weaver, Ploceus dichrocephalus
  - Golden-backed Weaver, Ploceus jacksoni
  - Cinnamon Weaver, Ploceus badius
  - Chestnut Weaver, Ploceus rubiginosus
  - Golden-naped Weaver, Ploceus aureonucha
  - Yellow-mantled Weaver, Ploceus tricolor
  - Maxwell's Black Weaver, Ploceus albinucha
  - Nelicourvi Weaver, Ploceus nelicourvi
  - Sakalava Weaver, Ploceus sakalava
  - Streaked Weaver, Ploceus manyar
  - Baya Weaver, Ploceus philippinus
  - Asian Golden Weaver, Ploceus hypoxanthus
  - Yellow Weaver, Ploceus megarhynchus
  - Bengal Weaver, Ploceus benghalensis
  - Forest Weaver, Ploceus bicolor
  - Preuss' Weaver, Ploceus preussi
  - Yellow-capped Weaver, Ploceus dorsomaculatus
  - Usambara Weaver, Ploceus nicolli
  - Olive-headed Weaver, Ploceus olivaceiceps
  - Brown-capped Weaver, Ploceus insignis
  - Bar-winged Weaver, Ploceus angolensis
  - Sao Tome Weaver, Ploceus sanctithomae
  - Compact Weaver, Pachyphantes superciliosus
  - Yellow-legged Malimbe, Malimbus flavipes
  - Red-crowned Malimbe, Malimbus coronatus
  - Black-throated Malimbe, Malimbus cassini
  - Ballmann's Malimbe, Malimbus ballmanni
  - Rachel's Malimbe, Malimbus racheliae
  - Red-vented Malimbe, Malimbus scutatus
  - Ibadan Malimbe, Malimbus ibadanensis
  - Red-bellied Malimbe, Malimbus erythrogaster
  - Gray's Malimbe, Malimbus nitens
  - Crested Malimbe, Malimbus malimbicus
  - Red-headed Malimbe, Malimbus rubricollis
  - Red-headed Weaver, Anaplectes rubriceps
  - Bob-tailed Weaver, Brachycope anomala
  - Cardinal Quelea, Quelea cardinalis
  - Red-headed Quelea, Quelea erythrops
  - Red-billed Quelea, Quelea quelea
  - Red Fody, Foudia madagascariensis
  - Red-headed Fody, Foudia eminentissima
  - Forest Fody, Foudia omissa
  - Mauritius Fody, Foudia rubra
  - Seychelles Fody, Foudia sechellarum
  - Rodrigues Fody, Foudia flavicans
  - Yellow-crowned Bishop, Euplectes afer
  - Fire-fronted Bishop, Euplectes diadematus
  - Black Bishop, Euplectes gierowii
  - Black-winged Red Bishop, Euplectes hordeaceus
  - Orange Bishop, Euplectes franciscanus
  - Northern Red Bishop, Euplectes orix
  - Zanzibar Bishop, Euplectes nigroventris
  - Golden-backed Bishop, Euplectes aureus
  - Yellow Bishop, Euplectes capensis
  - Fan-tailed Widowbird, Euplectes axillaris
  - Yellow-shouldered Widowbird, Euplectes macrourus
  - White-winged Widowbird, Euplectes albonotatus
  - Red-collared Widowbird, Euplectes ardens
  - Marsh Widowbird, Euplectes hartlaubi
  - Buff-shouldered Widowbird, Euplectes psammocromius
  - Long-tailed Widowbird, Euplectes progne
  - Jackson's Widowbird, Euplectes jacksoni
  - Parasitic Weaver, Anomalospiza imberbis
  - Grosbeak Weaver Amblyospiza albifrons
- Category:Wildlife of Africa

Edward III of England

Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377) was one of the most successful English kings of medieval times. His fifty-year reign began when his father Edward II of England was deposed on 25 January 1327, and lasted until 1377. Among his immediate predecessors, only Henry III ruled as long, and it would be over 400 years before another monarch would occupy the throne for that duration. Edward's reign was marked by an expansion of English territory through wars in Scotland and France. Edward's parentage and his prodigious offspring provided the basis for two lengthy and significant events in British and European history, the Hundred Years' War and the Wars of the Roses, respectively.

Early life

Edward, the son of Edward II of England and Isabella of France, daughter of King Philip the Fair, was born in 1312 at Windsor Castle. In 1320, he was created Earl of Chester. In 1325, his father ceded the Duchy of Aquitaine to him, and the young Edward was sent to France along with his mother to meet his uncle, the French King Charles IV. Upon their return from France, the powerful Queen and her lover, Roger Mortimer, forced the weak and unpopular Edward II to abdicate, installing Edward III as king in 1327. Edward II was subsequently imprisoned (allegedly murdered, he was in fact well-treated in captivity), and Isabella and Roger Mortimer effectively ruled England during the young king's first few years on the throne.

Early reign

Edward III was crowned on 25 January 1327, at the age of 14, and married Philippa of Hainault in 1328. The couple eventually produced thirty seven children, including five sons who reached maturity. Their eldest son and Edward's heir, Edward the Black Prince, born in 1330, would become a famed military leader. In the same year as Edward's marriage, his uncle Charles IV of France died without male heirs, leaving a pregnant wife, thus making Edward (through Isabella) the senior surviving male descendant of King Philip IV, Charles' and Isabella's father, and potentially giving Edward the senior Capetian dynasty claim to the French throne. (Edward's younger brother John, Earl of Cornwall, was then the only other living male descending from Philip IV. Later, daughters of Louis X and Philip V produced further male issue, such as King Charles II of Navarre, Hereditary Duke Philip of Burgundy and Count Louis of Flanders.) In 1330, the eighteen-year old Edward seized control over the English court, overthrowing Mortimer, who was executed, and removing Isabella from power but sparing her life. The reign of Edward III was marked by continued war with Scotland, but much more by the war with France. His first major military success was the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333, which he won in support of his puppet, the new Scottish king, Edward Balliol, in detriment to his own brother-in-law David II of Scotland, the Bruce claimant and husband of Edward's sister Joan of the Tower, princess of England.

The Hundred Years' War

Edward's claim to join the English and French thrones was contested by French nobles who invoked Salic law, which held that the royal succession could not pass through a female line (such as Edward's mother Isabella, or Queen Joan II of Navarre), and who therefore asserted that the legitimate King of France was Philip VI, Edward's cousin and heir to Charles of Valois, a younger son of Philip III. Edward declared war on Philip VI in 1337, and declared himself king of France on January 26 1340. The conflict thus commenced eventually became known as the Hundred Years' War, continuing sporadically to the 1450s. In 1346, Edward defeated the French at the Battle of Crecy, accompanied in this campaign by his sixteen year old son the Black Prince. The Black Prince commanded England's victorious army at the Battle of Poitiers, in 1356. The first phase of the Hundred Years' War was concluded in 1360 with the Treaty of Brétigny, marking the height of English influence in France and providing three million crowns' ransom for the capture of the French King John II. While these victories were eventually reversed, and then won and lost again in the resulting generations of war, English and, later, British monarchs would continue to claim the title "King of France" until the Act of Union which led to the creation of the United Kingdom in 1801. Edward III quartered his coat of arms with "France Ancient", the Azure semé-de-lis (a blue shield with a tight pattern of small golden fleur de lis of the French royal house), and it remained a part of the English Coat of Arms until removed by George III. For more information see English Kings of France.

Domestic events and personal life

English Kings of France While the king and the prince campaigned abroad, the government was left largely in the hands of the prince's younger brother, John of Gaunt. Economic prosperity from the developing wool trade created new wealth in the kingdom, but the ravages of the bubonic plague, or Black Death, had a significant impact on the lives of his subjects. Commercial taxes became a major source of royal revenue, which had previously been largely from taxes on land. Parliament became divided into two houses. During Edward's reign, French was still the language of the English noblesse following the Norman invasion, but this was changed. The king also founded an order of knighthood, the Order of the Garter, allegedly as a result of an incident when a lady, with whom he was dancing at a court ball, dropped an item of intimate apparel (possibly a sanitary belt, though sources describe it as being made of velvet). Gallantly picking it up to assuage her embarrassment, Edward tied it around his own leg, and remarked Honi soit qui mal y pense ('Shame on him who thinks evil of it'), which became the motto of the Order of the Garter. The woman in the case is known only as the "Countess of Salisbury". Some say it was Edward's daughter-in-law, Joan of Kent, but a more likely candidate is Joan's mother-in-law from her first marriage. Despite having an unusually happy marriage, and producing thirteen children with Philippa, Edward was a notorious womaniser. After Philippa's death in 1369, Edward's mistress, Alice Perrers, became a byword for corruption. Facing a resurgent French monarchy and losses in France, Edward asked parliament to grant him more funds by taxing the wine and wool trades, but this was badly received in 1374-1375 as a new outbreak of bubonic plague struck. The "Good Parliament" of 1376 criticised Edward's councillors, including Alice Perrers' family, and advised him to limit his ambitions to suit his revenues. Edward died of a stroke in 1377 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The Prince Edward pre-deceased him in 1376, and Edward III was succeeded by his young grandson, King Richard II of England, son of Edward the Black Prince.

Issue

The sons and the Wars of the Roses

Richard II of England The Wars of the Roses were a civil war over the throne of England fought among the descendants of King Edward III through his five surviving adult sons. Each branch of the family had competing claims through seniority, legitimacy, and/or the gender of their ancestors. (1) Edward, the Black Prince (1330-1376), Duke of Cornwall, Prince of Wales The eldest son of Edward III predeceased his father and never became king. Edward's only surviving child was Richard II who ascended to the throne but produced no heirs. Richard II designated as his heir presumptive his cousin Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March, senior heir in female line, the grandson of Lionel of Antwerp, but this succession never took place as Richard II was eventually deposed and succeeded by another of Richard's cousins: Henry IV, "Bolingbroke", who was senior heir in male line. (2) William (16 February 1335-8 July 1335), he was buried at the cathedral by York. (3) Lionel of Antwerp (1338-1368), Duke of Clarence Lionel also predeceased his father. Lionel's only child, Philippa, married into the powerful Mortimer family, which as noted above had exerted enormous influence during the reigns of Edward II and Edward III. Philippa's son Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March was the designated heir of Richard II (but predeceased him, leaving his young son Edmund as heir presumptive. Anne Mortimer, Edmund's eldest sister, Lionel of Antwerp's great-granddaughter, married Richard, Earl of Cambridge of the House of York, merging the Lionel/Mortimer line into the York line. (4) John of Gaunt (1340-1399), Duke of Lancaster. From John of Gaunt descended legitimate male heirs, the Lancasters (Henry IV, who deposed Richard II, and then Henry V and Henry VI). This line ended when Henry VI was successfully deposed by Edward IV, of the York faction, and Henry's son Edward was killed. The Lancaster Kings derived their ancestry also, through Blanche, wife of John Gaunt, from Edmund of Lancaster the Crouchback, who was son of Henry III of England - a legend without foundation was developed to claim that Edmund was elder than his brother Edward I but overpassed in succession of Henry III because of physical infirmity. John of Gaunt's illegitimate heirs were the Beauforts, his descendants through his mistress (later, his wife) Katherine Swynford; Gaunt's great-granddaughter Margaret Beaufort married into the House of Tudor, producing a single child who would become Henry VII. While the Beaufort offspring had been legitimized after Gaunt's eventual marriage to Swynford, this was on the condition that they be barred from ascending the throne. Undeterred by this, upon the failure of the primary Lancastrian line, the Tudors claimed precedence to the Yorks and eventually succeeded them. [Note: John of Gaunt also had legitimate descendants through his daughters Philippa, Queen of Portugal, the mother of King Duarte of Portugal, Elizabeth, Duchess of Exeter, the mother of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter, and Queen Catalina of Castile, a grand-daughter of King Pedro I and the mother of King Juan II, but these Castilians engaged in their own wars over the Spanish succession and did not assert any claims to the English throne in the Wars of the Roses - and they all were of female line, something the Lancaster Claim avoided because they were originally secondary to certain senior female descents such as Mortimers.] (5) Edmund of Langley (1341-1402), Duke of York. His descendants were the Yorks. He had two sons: Edward, Duke of York, killed fighting alongside Henry V at the battle of Agincourt, and Richard, Earl of Cambridge, executed by Henry V for treason (involving a plot to place heir presumptive Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, Cambridge's brother-in-law and cousin, on the throne). As noted above, Richard had married Anne Mortimer, this giving their son and the House of York, through Lionel of Antwerp, a more senior claim than that of both the Lancasters, who were descended from a younger son than Lionel, and the Tudors, whose legitimized Beaufort ancestors had been debarred from the throne. (6) Thomas (1347). (7) William (24 June 1348-5 September 1348). (8) Thomas of Woodstock (1355-1397), Duke of Gloucester. Duke of Gloucester Thomas, who was one of the Lords Appellant influential under Richard II, was murdered or executed for treason, likely by the order of Richard II; his eventual heir was his daughter Anne, who married into the Stafford family, whose heirs became the Dukes of Buckingham. Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, descended on his father's side from Thomas of Woodstock, and on his mother's side from John Beaufort, rebelled against Richard III in 1483 but failed to depose him. This failed rebellion left Henry Tudor as the Lancasters' primary candidate for the throne. Thus, the senior Plantagenet line was ended with the death of Richard II, but not before the execution of Thomas of Woodstock for treason. The heirs presumptive through Lionel of Antwerp were passed over in favour of the powerful Henry IV, descendant of Edward III through John of Gaunt. These Lancaster Kings initially survived the treason of their Edmund of Langley (York) cousins but eventually were deposed by the merged Lionel/Edmund line in the person of Edward IV. Internecine killing among the Yorks left Richard III as King, supported and then betrayed by his cousin Buckingham the descendant of Thomas of Woodstock. Finally, the Yorks were dislodged by the remaining Lancastrian candidate, Henry VII of the House of Tudor, another descendant of John of Gaunt, who married the eldest daughter of Yorkist King Edward IV. ----

The daughters


- Isabella Plantagenet (1332-1382), married Enguerrand VII de Coucy, 1st Earl of Bedford
- Joan Plantagenet (1335-1348), died of the plague in Bordeaux, on her way to marry Peter I of Castile
- Blanche Plantagenet (1342)
- Mary Plantagenet (1344-1362), married John V, Duke of Brittany
- Margaret Plantagenet (1346-1361), married John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke See also : English monarchs family tree

External link


- [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=2 Chivalry during the Reign of King Edward III] Edward III of England Edward III of England Category:Natives of Berkshire Category:House of Anjou Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Category:English monarchs Category:Hundred Years' War Category:Earls in the Peerage of England ja:エドワード3世 (イングランド王)

Flemish

Flemish (in Dutch Vlaams, French flamand, German flämisch) can either refer to
- Anything belonging to Flanders or to its inhabitants, the Flemings.
- The current Flemish Community in Belgium.
- The current Flemish Region in Belgium.
- The historical county of Flanders.
- The local dialects of Dutch spoken in this region: see Flemish (linguistics).
- The Flemish dialects spoken in the north of France, west of Belgium and south-west of the Netherlands: West Flemish. If you're looking for information about the 'Flemish language' please see Dutch language. According to the different meanings, the translations result in different words in certain languages.

Act of Parliament

In Westminster System parliaments, an Act of Parliament is a part of the law passed by the Parliament. It can also be a private bill. It usually starts as a draft proposal, known as a White Paper. A Bill is then introduced into the House of Commons or House of Representatives or the House of Lords or Senate. By constitutional convention, Bills which contain significant provisions relating to taxation or public expenditure start in the House of Commons; in Canada this is the law. In the UK, Law Commission bills and consolidation bills start in the House of Lords. In some countries, the bill receives different names if initiated by the Government (Project) or by the Parliament (Proposition), like in Spain and Portugal.

Procedure

UK

In the UK, each bill passes through the following stages: # Pre-legislative scrutiny: It is increasingly common for a small number of Government bills to be published in draft before they are presented in Parliament. These bills are then considered either by the relevant select committee of the House of Commons or by an ad hoc Joint Committee of both Houses. This is not strictly speaking part of the legislative process, but it provides an opportunity for the Committee to express a view on the bill and propose amendments before it is introduced. # First reading: This is a formality; no vote occurs. The Bill is presented and ordered to be printed and, in the case of Private Members' bills, a date is set for second reading. #
- In the case of a Government Bill, Explanatory Notes, which try to explain the effect of the Bill in more simple language are also usually ordered to be printed. #
- A Government Bill can be introduced first into either House. Bills which deal primarily with taxation or public expenditure begin their passage in the Commons, since the financial privileges of that House mean that it has primacy in these matters (see Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949). Conversely, bills relating to the judicial system, Law Commission bills and consolidation bills begin their passage in the House of Lords which by convention has primacy in these matters. # Second reading: A debate on the general principles of the bill is followed by a vote. Normally, the Second Reading of a Government bill is approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this Reading usually signifies a major loss. If the bill is read a second time, it is proceeds to the committee stage. #
- Procedural Orders and Resolutions: Immediately after Second Reading, in the case of Government Bills, the House normally passes forthwith (i.e. without debate) a Programme Order, setting out the timetable for the committee and remaining stages of the Bill. It may also pass a separate Money Resolution, authorising any expenditure arising from the Bill; and/or a Ways and Means Resolution, authorising any new taxes or charges the Bill creates. #
- Bills are not programmed in the House of Lords. # Committee stage: This usually takes place in a standing committee in the Commons and on the Floor of the House in the Lords. In the United Kingdom, the House of Commons utilizes the following committees on bills: #
- Standing Committee: Despite the name, a standing committee is a committee specifically constituted for a certain bill. Its membership reflects the strengths of the parties in the House. #
- Special Standing Committee: The committee investigates the issues and principles of the bill before sending it to a regular Standing Committee. This procedure has been used very rarely in recent years (the Adoption and Children Bill in 2001-02 is the only recent example); the pre-legislative scrutiny process (see above) is now preferred. #
- Select Committee: A specialized committee that normally conducts oversight hearings for a certain Department considers the bill. This procedure has not been used in recent years, with the exception of the quinquennial Armed Forces Bill, which is always referred to a select committee. #
- Committee of the Whole House: The whole house sits as a committee in the House of Commons to consider a bill. Bills usually considered in this way are: the principal parts of the annual Finance Bill, bills of first-class constitutional importance, and bills which aer so un-controversial that the committee stage may be dispensed with quickly and easily on the floor of the House, without the need to nomniate a committee (some Private Members' Bills are usually dealt with this way each year). This is also the procedure used in the upper house. #
- Grand Committee (House of Lords): This is a recent new procedure used for some bills which is intended to speed up business. Although it takes place in a separate room, it is technically still a committee of the whole House in that all members can attend and participate. Procedure is the same as for a Committee in the main Chamber, but there are no votes. #: The committee considers each clause of the bill, and may make amendments to it. Significant amendments may be made at committee stage. In some cases, whole groups of clauses are inserted or removed. However, almost all the amendments which are agreed to in committee will have been tabled by the Government to correct deficiencies in the bill, to enact changes to policy made since the bill was introduced (or, in some cases, to import material which was not ready when the bill was presented), or to reflect concessions made as a result of earlier debate. # Consideration (or Report) stage: this takes place on the Floor of the House, and is a further opportunity to amend the bill. Unlike committee stage, the House need not consider every clause of the bill, only those to which amendments have been tabled. # Third reading: a debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. In the Lords, further amendments may be made on third reading, in the Commons it is usually a short debate followed by a single vote; amendments are not permitted. # Passage: The Bill is then sent to the other House (to the Lords, if it originated in the Commons; to the Commons, if it is a Lords Bill), which may amend it. The Commons may reject a bill from the Lords outright; the Lords may amend a bill from the Commons but, if they reject it, the Commons may force it through without the Lords' consent in the following Session of Parliament, as is detailed below. Furthermore, the Lords can neither initiate nor amend Money Bills, bills dealing exclusively with public expenditure or the raising of revenue. If the other House amends the Bill, the Bill and amendments are sent back for a further stage. # Consideration of Lords/Commons Amendments: The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House. It may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu or reject them. A Bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other. If each House insists on disagreeing with the other, the Bill is lost, unless the Parliament Acts are invoked. # The Parliament Acts: Under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, which do not apply for bills seeking to extend Parliament's length to more than five years, if the Lords reject a bill originated in the House of Commons, then the Commons may pass that bill again in the next session. The Bill is then submitted for Royal Assent even though the Lords did not pass it. Also, if the Lords do not approve of a Money Bill within thirty days of passage in the Commons, the bill is submitted for Royal Assent nevertheless.

Australia

In Australia, the bill passes through the following stages: # First Reading: Again, this stage is a mere formality. # Second Reading: As in the UK, the stage involves a debate on the general principles of the bill is followed by a vote. Again, the Second Reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this Reading signifies a major loss. If the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail # Consideration in Detail: This usually takes place on the Floor of the House. Generally, committees are not used to consider the bill in detail. # Third reading: A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage. # Passage: The Bill is then sent to the other House (to the Senate, if it originated in the House of Representatives; to the Representatives, if it is a Senate Bill), which may amend it. If the other House amends the Bill, the Bill and amendments are sent back to the original House for a further stage. # Consideration of Senate/Representatives Amendments: The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House. It may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend Money Bills, though it can "request" the House to make amendments. A Bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other. If each House insists on disagreeing with the other, the Bill is lost. # Disagreement between the Houses: Often, when a bill cannot be passed in the same form by both Houses, it is "laid aside." Sometimes, a special constitutional procedure allowing the passage of the bill without the agreement of both houses is allowed. If the House twice passes the same bill, and the Senate twice fails to pass that bill (either through rejection or through the passage of unacceptable amendments), then the Governor-General may dissolve both Houses of Parliament. If the House again passes the bill after the election, but the deadlock between the Houses persists, then the Governor-General may convene a joint sitting of both Houses, where a final decision will be taken on the bill. The procedure only applies if the bill originated in the House of Representatives. Six double-dissolutions have occurred, though a joint session only became necessary once.

Canada

In Canada, the bill passes through the following stages: # First Reading: Again, this stage is a mere formality. # Second Reading: As in the UK, the stage involves a debate on the general principles of the bill is followed by a vote. Again, the Second Reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this Reading signifies a major loss. If the bill is read a second time, then it progresses to the committee stage. # Committee stage: This usually takes place in a standing committee in the Commons. #
- Standing Committee: The standing committee is a permanent one; each committee deals with bills in specific subject areas. Canada's standing committees is similar to the UK's select committees. #
- Special Committee: The procedure is not used often. #
- Legislative Committee: A legislative committee is especially appointed for a certain bill, like the UK's standing committees. #
- Committee of the Whole House: The whole house sits as a committee in the House of Commons to consider appropriation bills. #: The committee considers each clause of the bill, and may make amendments to it. Significant amendments may be made at committee stage. In some cases, whole groups of clauses are inserted or removed. However, almost all the amendments which are agreed to in committee will have been tabled by the Government to correct deficiencies in the bill or to enact changes to policy made since the bill was introduced (or, in some cases, to import material which was not ready when the bill was presented). # Consideration (or Report) stage: this takes place on the Floor of the House, and is a further opportunity to amend the bill. # Third reading: A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage. # Passage: The Bill is then sent to the other House (to the Senate, if it originated in the House of Commons; to the Commons, if it is a Senate Bill), which may amend it. If the other House amends the Bill, the Bill and amendments are sent back to the original House for a further stage. # Consideration of Senate/Commons Amendments: The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House. It may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu or reject them. If each House insists on disagreeing with the other, the Bill is lost. # Disagreement between the Houses: There is no specific procedure under which the Senate's disagreement can be overruled by the Commons. The Senate's rejection is absolute. The debate on each stage is actually debate on a specific motion. For the first reading, there is no debate. For the second and third readings, the motion is "That this bill be now read a second [third] time." In the Committee stage, the debate is on the motions for specific amendments and the motion "That the clause [as amended] stand part of the bill," which is presented on every clause, whether amended or not. In the Report stage, the debate is on the motions for specific amendments. The final motion is "That the bill do now pass." Since the mid-19th century, in most but not all cases, the votes by the House of Commons are a formality in which the vote is predetermined by party lines. Because the Westminster system requires the government to keep the support of the House of Commons, the rejection of a bill by Commons is a major political crisis. Therefore, the government will in almost all cases ensure passage of a bill by a combination of modifying the bill so that it is acceptable to members of the ruling party and pressuring party members to vote for the bill. Unlike the American or UK systems, a Member of Parliament rarely votes against party instructions. Exceptions are cases of political crisis or matters of conscience such as the age of consent, in which the government may declare a free vote in which Members of Parliament are absolved of the requirement of voting with their party. It can either fail or pass and then go on to final, formal examination by the Governor General who invariably gives it the Royal Assent. Although the Governor General can in theory refuse to endorse a bill at this stage, this power has not been used in recent times. See also: List of Acts of Parliament of Canada

New Zealand

In New Zealand, the bill passes through the following stages: # First Reading: MPs debate and vote on the bill. If a bill is approved, it passes on to the committee stage. # Select Committee stage: The bill is considered by a Select Committee, which scrutinises the bill in detail and hears public submissions on the matter. The Committee may recommend amendments to the bill. # Second Reading: The general principles of the bill are debated, and a vote is held. If the bill is approved, it is put before a Committee of the House. # Committee of the House: The bill is debated and voted on, clause by clause, by the whole House sitting as a committee. # Third Reading: Summarising arguments are made, and a final vote is taken. If the bill is approved, it is passed to the Governor-General for Royal Assent. New Zealand has no upper house, and so no approval is necessary.

UK Details

Types of Acts

Acts of Parliament are of three types - # Public Acts are for laws of general application (e.g. reforming the criminal justice system), which affect a general class or category of persons. Such a class or category might include, for example, all citizens, all people above or below a certain age, all pensioners, prisoners, local authorities or public limited companies. # Private Acts affect a specific person (real or legal) differently from others. They include acts to confer powers on certain local authorities (but not others), acts affecting certain companies established by Act of Parliament (e.g. TSB, Transas), and acts which allow major works projects (e.g. the Channel Tunnel Rail Link), which grant special powers on the company undertaking the work (e.g. the compulsory purchase of land). Personal acts are a sub-category of private acts, which confer specific rights or duties on a named individual or individuals (e.g. allowing two persons to marry even though they are within a "prohibited degree of consanguinity or affinity"). # Hybrid Acts combine elements of both Public and Private acts. They are very rare, though the [http://www.parliament.uk/about_commons/prbohoc/hybrid_bills.cfm Crossrail Bill], a hybrid bill to build a railway across London from west to east, is currently before the House of Commons. Private Bills, common in the 19th Century, are now rare, as new planning legislation introduced in the 1960s removed the need for many of them. They are subject to a different procedure from that for Public Bills, described above, involving a quasi-judicial committee of three MPs. It is important not to confuse Private Bills with Private Member's Bills; the latter are classed as Public Bills.

Sovereignty

In the UK, Parliament has almost unlimited sovereignty. (In particular its sovereignty over the Church of Scotland was disputed for three centuries with Parliament finally admitting its lack of sovereignty in the 1920s.) As such Acts of Parliament are generally without limit or constraint. Although in modern times, European Law and Human Rights Legislation can overturn some Acts, this is only because another Act has declared so. Similarly, although Parliament has devolved significant powers to the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly, it is free to overrule or even abolish either institution, although this would be unlikely in practice. British law is also made through Statutory Instruments (SIs). These are laws which are made in the name of a Government minister, exercising legislative powers delegated to him or her by Act of Parliament. Some of these must be approved by Parliament before they can become law, others need only be laid before Parliament a certain number of days (usually 40) before coming into force. They are used because they are much faster and simpler to implement than a full act of Parliament, and are more easily amended to reflect changing circumstances. SIs are sometimes described as "secondary legislation, not second class legislation". They have the same force as an Act of Parliament, and much of the UK's law is made in this way. There are literally thousands of SIs each year, compared with around 50 Acts. Statutory Instruments are also used to bring Acts into force. Most Acts have sections that come into effect upon Royal Assent, or at a set date thereafter. However, other sections are brought into force using a SI which is titled [Bill Name] Commencement Order No. #. There can be as many as half a dozen Commencement Orders with some legislation. International treaties are not effective in domestic UK law until enforced by an Act of Parliament (e.g. The European Communities Act, which brought the UK into the European Union, the Single European Act which allowed for the creation of the single European internal market or the Outer Space Act which deals with international treaties on Space).

Historical Records

All UK Acts of Parliament since 1497 are kept in the House of Lords Record Office, including the oldest Act: The "Taking of Apprentices for Worsteads in the County of Norfolk" Act 1497, a reference to the wool worsted manufacture at Worstead in Norfolk, England. Acts before 1962 are referenced using 'Year of reign', 'Monarch', c., 'Chapter number' - e.g. 16 Charles II c. 2 - to define a chapter of the appropriate statute book. Since 1962, the regnal year has been replaced by the calendar year. All recent Acts have a short title, or citation (e.g. Local Government Act 2003, National Health Service Act 1974).

Acts of Historical Importance

The most important Acts in UK history are listed below:
- Act of Union 1536 - united England and Wales
- Bill of Rights 1689 - placed (or restated) limits on the monarch's power
- Act of Settlement 1701 - established a line of succession for the monarchy
- Act of Union 1707 - united England and Scotland into Great Britain
- Act of Union 1800 - united Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom
- Reform Act 1832 - with later Reform Acts and Representation of the People Acts, extended the franchise and removed rotten boroughs
- Parliament Act 1911 (amended 1949) - allowed the House of Commons to overrule the House of Lords after a delay
- Statute of Westminster 1931 - gave constitutional independence to the British dominions overseas
- European Communities Act 1972 - made the UK part of what is now the European Union providing for the application of European Law
- Scotland Act 1998 - established an autonomous Scottish Parliament
- Government of Wales Act 1998 - Creation of a National Assembly For Wales See also: List of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom

Topical Acts

Current Acts of Parliament of special interest:
- Identity Cards Bill - under discussion in Parliament
- Terrorism Act 2000
- Freedom of Information Act 2000

External links


- All Acts of Parliament (since 1988) and Statutory Instruments are available free on-line under Crown copyright terms from the Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI) [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/]
- [http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/l01.pdf Parliamentary Stages of a Government Bill (pdf)] from the House of Commons Information Office. Category:Westminster System Category:Statutory law

1497

Events


- 7 February - followers of Girolamo Savonarola burn thousands of "immoral" objects at the Bonfire of the Vanities in Florence on Shrove Tuesday.
- May 10 - Amerigo Vespucci allegedly leaves Cádiz for his first voyage to the New World.
- May 13 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola.
- May 20 - John Cabot sets sail from Bristol on his ship the Mathew looking for a route to the west (other documents give a May 2 date).
- June 17 - Battle of Deptford Bridge - Forces under King Henry VII soundly defeat troops led by Michael An Gof.
- June 24 - John Cabot lands in North America, either an island or the mainland.
- July 8 - Vasco da Gama begins his expedition to India.
- December 5 - King Manuel I of Portugal proclaims an edict in which he demands that Jews convert to Christianity or leave the country
- Ivan the Great issues his law code, the Sudebnik

Births


- January 26 - Emperor Go-Nara of Japan (died 1557)
- February 16 - Philipp Melanchthon, German humanist and reformer (died 1560)
- Francesco Berni, Italian poet (died 1536)
- Jean Fernel, French physician (died 1558)
- John Heywood, English playwright (died 1580)
- Francesco da Milano, Italian composer (died 1543)
- Mori Motonari, Japanese daimyo (died 1571)
- Anne Stanhope, English noblewoman (died 1587)

Deaths


- February 6 - Johannes Ockeghem, Flemish composer
- June 14 - Giovanni Borgia, Duke of Borgia (assassinated)
- Albert Brudzewski, Polish astronomer (born 1445)
- Elijah Delmedigo, Italian philosopher (born 1460)
- Philip II, Duke of Savoy (born 1443) Category:1497 ko:1497년 simple:1497

Category:Villages in Norfolk

Category:Norfolk Norfolk

Cardinal Local School District, Geauga County, Ohio

Cardinal Local School District is a public school district in Geauga County, Ohio, serving the village of Middlefield and the townships of Middlefield, Huntsburg and Parkman. As of 2005, 1467 students attended the district's five schools. The district is located in the center of the world's fourth largest Amish settlement (Ohio's second largest). Amish students are permitted to cease attending public schools after the eighth grade to work on their family farms. Consequently, no Amish students attend Cardinal High School.

Schools


- Cardinal High School, grades 9-12.
- Cardinal Middle School, grades 6-9.
- A.J. Jordak Elementary, grades PK-10.
- Huntsburg Elementary, grades PK-5.
- Parkman Elementary, grades PK-5.

See also


- List of school districts in Ohio

External links


- [http://www.cardinal.k12.oh.us/ Cardinal Local School District official site] Category: School districts in Ohio
- Cardinal Local School District

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