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World Trade Organisation

World Trade Organisation

:For other uses of the initials WTO, see WTO (disambiguation). WTO (disambiguation) The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international rules-based and member driven organization which oversees a large number of agreements defining the "rules of trade" between its member states (WTO, 2004a). The WTO is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that was set up in 1947, and operates with the broad goal of reducing or abolishing international trade barriers. It ensures trade among nations operates smoothly, freely and orderly. WTO headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland. On May 13 2005, Pascal Lamy was elected the Director-General. He took over from Supachai Panitchpakdi on September 1, 2005. As of August 19, 2005, there are 148 members in which most of them are developing countries in the organization (WTO, 2004a). All WTO members are required to grant one another most favoured nation status, such that (with some exceptions) trade concessions granted by a WTO member to another country must be granted to all WTO members (WTO, 2004c). In the late 1990s, the WTO became a major target of protests by the anti-globalization movement. See critique.

Origin

The WTO was established on January 1 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), a series of post-war trade treaties intended to facilitate free trade. The GATT principles and agreements were adopted by the WTO, which was charged with administering and extending them. Unlike the GATT, the WTO has a substantial institutional structure. The WTO is effectively the long-delayed successor to the expected International Trade Organization, which was originally intended to follow the GATT. The International Trade Organization charter was agreed at the UN Conference on Trade and Employment in Havana in March 1948, but was blocked by the U.S. Senate (WTO, 2004b). Some historians have argued that the failure may have resulted from fears within the American business community that the International Trade Organization could be used to regulate, rather than liberate, big business (Lisa Wilkins, 1997).

Structure

All WTO members may participate in all councils, committees, etc., except Appellate Body, Dispute Settlement panels, and plurilateral committees. Highest level: Ministerial Conference The topmost decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which has to meet at least every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. Second level: General Council The daily work of the ministerial conference is handled by three groups The General Council, The Dispute Settlement Body and The Trade Policy Review Body. 1. The General Council- is the WTO’s highest-level decision-making body in Geneva, meeting regularly to carry out the functions of the WTO. It has representatives (usually ambassadors or equivalent) from all member governments and has the authority to act on behalf of the ministerial conference which only meets about every two years. The council acts on behalf on the Ministerial Council on all of the WTO affairs. The current chairman is H.E. Ms. Amina Chawahir MOHAMED (Kenya). 2. The Dispute Settlement Body - Made up of all member governments, usually represented by ambassadors or equivalent.The current chairperson is H.E. Mr. Eirik GLENNE (Norway). 3. The Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB) - the WTO General Council meets as the Trade Policy Review Body to undertake trade policy reviews of Members under the TRPM. The TPRB is thus open to all WTO Members. The current chairperson is H.E. Mr. Don STEPHENSON (Canada). Third level: Council for Trade in Goods The Council for Trade in Good works under the General Council. It is made up of three councils - Council for Trade in Goods, Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and Council for Trade in Services - in which the councils work in different fields. Apart from these three councils, six other bodies report to the General Council reporting issues such as trade and development, the environment, regional trading arrangements and administrative issues. 1. Council for Trade in Goods- The workings of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)which covers international trade in goods, are the responsibility of the Council for Trade in Goods. It is made up of representatives from all WTO member countries. The current chairperson is H.E. Mr. Vesa Tapani HIMANEN (Finland). 2. Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights- Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO’s work with other international organizations in the field 3. Council for Trade in Services- The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It’s open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required. The current chairperson is H.E. Ms. Claudia URIBE (Colombia). Fourth level: Subsidiary Bodies Under each of the three councils, there are subsidiary bodies under each one. 1. The Goods Council- subsidiary under the Council for Trade in Goods. It has 11 committees dealing with specific subjects (such as agriculture, market access, subsidies, anti-dumping measures and so on), which include the following. Again, these committees consist of all member countries.
- Information Technology Agreement (ITA) Committee
- State Trading Enterprises
- Textiles Monitoring Body- which has a chairman and 10 members acting under it.
- Groups dealing with notifications- which has the governments inform the WTO about new policies and measures in their countries. 2. The Services Council- subsidiary under the Council for Trade in Services which deals with financial services, domestic regulations and other specific commitments. 3. Dispute Settlement panels and Appellate Body- subsidiary under the Dispute Settlement Body to resolve disputes and the Appellate Body to deal with appeals. Other committees
- Committees on
- Trade and Environment
- Trade and Development (Subcommittee on Least-Developed Countries)
- Regional Trade Agreements
- Balance of Payments Restrictions
- Budget, Finance and Administration
- Working parties on
- Accession
- Working groups on
- Trade, debt and finance
- Trade and technology transfer

Mission

The WTO aims to encourage smooth and free trade by promoting lower trade barriers and providing a platform for the negotiation of trade and to resolve disputes between member nations, when they arise. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. Principles of the trading system The WTO discussions should follow these fundamental principles of trading. 1. A trading system should be discrimination-free in a sense that a country cannot favour another country or discriminate against foreign products or services. 2. A trading system should be freer where there should be little trade barriers(tariffs and non-tariff barriers). 3. A trading system should be predictable where foreign companies and governments can be sure that trade barriers would not be raised and markets will remain open. 4. A trading system should be more competitive. 5. A trading system should be more accommodating for less developed countries, giving them more time to adjust, greater flexibility, and more privileges.

Functions

The WTO has two basic functions: as a negotiating forum for discussions of new and existing trade rules, and as a trade dispute settlement body.

Negotiations

While most international organisations operate on a one country, one vote or even a weighted voting basis, many WTO decisions, such as adopting agreements (and revisions to them) are determined by consensus. This does not necessarily mean that unanimity is found: only that no Member finds a decision so unacceptable that they must insist on their objection. Voting is only employed as a fall-back mechanism or in special cases. The advantage of consensus is that it encourages efforts to find the most widely acceptable decision. Main disadvantages include large time requirements and many rounds of negotiation to develop a consensus decision, and the tendency for final agreements to use ambiguous language on contentious points that makes future interpretation of treaties difficult. Richard Steinberg (2002) argues that although the WTO's consensus governance model provides law-based initial bargaining, trading rounds close through power-based bargaining favouring Europe and the United States, and may not lead to Pareto improvement. The most notable recent failures of consensus, at the Ministerial meetings at Seattle (1999) and Cancún (2003), were due to the refusal of some developing countries to accept proposals. The WTO began the current round of negotiations, the Doha round, at the Fourth Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001 (WTO, 2004d). The talks have been highly contentious and agreement has not been reached, despite continuing talks in Cancún, Geneva, and Paris. The Sixth Ministerial Conference will be held in Hong Kong on December 13 - December 18, 2005.

Dispute resolution

Like most other international organizations, the WTO has no significant power to enforce the decisions it makes when a member brings a complaint against another. If decisions of its Dispute Settlement Body are not complied with, it may authorise "retaliatory measures" on the part of the complaining member, but no other enforcement action is available. This means that economically powerful states like the United States can essentially ignore rulings against them from complaints brought by the economically weak, as the latter states simply do not have the power to hurt US trade enough to force the US to change its position. This has been the case, for example, with the [http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/267abr_e.pdf March 2005 Appellate Body ruling] in case DS 267 declaring US cotton subsidies illegal.

Membership

United States The WTO had 76 members at its foundation. A further 73 members joined over the following ten years, the latest (as of 11 December 2005) admitted being Saudi Arabia on 11 December 2005 during the ministerial conference. A current list of members can be found [http://www.wto.int/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm here]. A number of non-members have been observers (31) at the WTO: Algeria, Andorra, Azerbaijan, Bahamas (process freezed in 2001), Belarus, Bhutan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cape Verde, Equatorial Guinea (expected to start membership negotiations in 2007 or earlier), Ethiopia, Holy See (Vatican; special exception from the rules allows it to remain observer without starting negotiations), Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Lebanese Republic, Libya, Russian Federation, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Serbia and Montenegro (each republic is applying for separate membership), Seychelles (negotiations freezed since 1998), Sudan, Tajikistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu (accession agreed in 2001, but not ratified by Vanuatu itself), Vietnam and Yemen. Many of these countries are seeking membership. Tonga is set become a member in early January 2006. Iran first applied to join the WTO in 1996, but the United States, accusing Tehran of supporting international terrorism, blocked its application 22 times. The U.S. said in March it would drop its veto on a start to Iran's accession negotiations. The U.S. has chosen not to block Iran's latest application for membership as part of a nuclear related deal. Russia, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, is not yet a member either. The following states (16) and territories (2) so far have no official interaction with the WTO: Eritrea, Somalia, Liberia, Syria, Turkmenistan, North Korea, Monaco, San Marino, East Timor, Comoros, Nauru, Tuvalu, Palau, Kiribati, Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Western Sahara, Palestine.

Agreements

The WTO includes more than 20 agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all agreements. A list of WTO agreements can be found [http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm here] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows.

Agreement on Agriculture (AoA)

The AoA came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Its effect has been to reduce tariff protections for small farmers – a key source of income for developing countries – while allowing rich countries to pay their farmers massive subsidies which developing countries could never afford. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market access and export subsidies. Domestic Support The AoA structures domestic support (subsidies) into three categories or "boxes": a Green Box, an Amber Box and a Blue Box. The Green Box contains fixed payments to producers for environmental programs, so long as the payments are "decoupled" from current production levels. The Amber Box contains domestic subsidies that governments have agreed to reduce but not eliminate. The Blue Box contains subsidies which can be increased without limit, so long as payments are linked to production-limiting programs. [http://www.iatp.org/iatp/publications.cfm?accountID=451&refID=25939] The AoA's domestic support system currently allows Europe and the US to spend $380 billion every year on agricultural subsidies alone. These subsidies go not to small farmers, but almost exclusively to big agribusiness – more than 70% of US agriculture subsidies go to 10% of producers, while in the EU half of all support goes to just 1% of producers [http://www.guardian.co.uk/wto/article/0,2763,1642768,00.html]. The effect of these subsidies is to flood global markets with below-cost commodities, depressing prices and undercutting producers in poor countries – a practice known as “dumping”.

General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)

(See General Agreement on Trade in Services

Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) Agreement

(See Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)

Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary (SPS) Agreement

The WTO’s agreement on “sanitary and phytosanitary standards” (SPS) came into effect in 1995, and aims to restrict the use of quarantine measures to allow a “free” flow of international trade. Under the SPS agreement the WTO sets constraints on government policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). Quarantine policies plays a vitally important role in ensuring the protection of human, animal and plant health. But in the eyes of the WTO's SPS agreement, quarantine barriers can be a ‘technical trade barrier’ used to keep out foreign competitors. The SPS agreement gives the WTO the power to override a country's use of the "precautionary principle" – a principle which allows them to act on the side of caution if there is no scientific certainty about potential threats to human health and the environment. Under SPS rules, the burden of proof is on countries to demonstrate scientifically that something is dangerous before it can be regulated, even though scientists agree that it is impossible to predict all forms of damage posed by insects or pest plants. SPS & Genetically-Modified Organisms (GMOs) The US – which grows as much as 80% of the world’s GM crops – has used the SPS agreement to challenge the EU’s laws restricting the import of Genetically-Modified Organisms (GMOs), arguing they are “unjustifiable” and illegal under WTO rules. The WTO is due to decide the case in 2006. If it decides that the EU laws are illegal, the decision will also put in jeopardy the Cartagena Biosafety Protocol – the first legally binding global agreement giving countries the right to reject GM organisms on the basis of the precautionary principle.

Chronology

- 1986-1994 - Uruguay Round of GATT negotiations culminating in the Marrakech Agreement that established the WTO.
- January 1, 1995 - The WTO came into existence.
- May 1, 1995 - Renato Ruggiero became director-general for a 4-year term.
- December 9 - December 13, 1996 - The inaugural ministerial conference in Singapore. Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the "Singapore issues".
- May 18 - May 20, 1998 - 2nd ministerial conference in Geneva, Switzerland.
- September 1, 1999 - Mike Moore became director-general. The post had been fiercely contested; eventually a compromise was reached with Mike Moore and Supachai Panitchpakdi taking half each of a six-year term.
- November 30 - December 3, 1999 - 3rd ministerial conference in Seattle, Washington, USA. The conference itself ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and riots drawing worldwide attention.
- November 9 - November 13, 2001 - 4th ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar begins the Doha round. Issuance of the Doha Declaration.
- December 11, 2001 - The People's Republic of China joined the WTO after 15 years of negotiations (the longest in GATT history).
- January 1, 2002 - The Republic of China (Taiwan) joined under the name "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu."
- September 1, 2002 - Supachai Panitchpakdi became director-general.
- September 10 - September 14, 2003 - 5th ministerial conference in Cancún, Mexico aims at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 (led by India, China and Brazil), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called "Singapore issues" and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke down without progress.
- August 2004 - Geneva talks achieve a framework agreement on the Doha round. Developed countries will lower agricultural subsidies, and in exchange the developing countries will lower tariff barriers to manufactured goods.
- October 2004 - Cambodia becomes last nation so far to join the WTO
- May 2005 - Paris talks aimed at finalising issues for agreement before the December 2005 ministerial conference in Hong Kong are hung over technical issues. The group of five (U.S., Australia, the EU, Brazil and India) fail to agree over chicken, beef and rice. France continues to protest restrictions on subsidies to farmers. Oxfam accuses the EU of delaying tactics which threaten to scupper the Doha round.
- November 11 - WTO General Council successfully adopts Saudi Arabia’s terms of Accession
- December 13 - December 18, 2005 - 6th ministerial conference will be held in Hong Kong.

Critique

The stated aim of the WTO is to promote free trade, stimulate economic growth and hence make people's lives more prosperous. As with any economic development, if growth proceeds in a fast or unbalanced way, it will cause structural unemployment and thus worsen poverty. The WTO also promotes economic globalization and free trade, which anti-globalization activists consider problematic. WTO treaties have been accused of a partial and unfair bias toward multinational corporations and wealthy nations. While the WTO provides equal opportunities for nations to speak, shields governments from lobbying, and encourages good governance, small countries in the WTO are capable of wielding little influence. The WTO itself is criticized as being the tool of powerful lobbies. And while membership is voluntary, critics say that not joining places the non-participating nation under a de facto embargo, creating an international system of forced economic rules discouraging change and experimentation. Despite the WTO aim of helping the developing countries, the influential states in the WTO do focus on their own commercial interests. The needs of the developing countries are often perceived to be ignored. In addition, the issues of health, safety and environment are not principle concerns. Jagdish Bhagwati, although pro-free trade and pro-globalization, has strongly criticised the introduction of TRIPs (forum shifting) into the WTO/GATT framework. His fear is that other non-trade agendas might overwhelm the organization's function. Many nongovernmental organizations, such as the World Federalist Movement, are calling for the creation of a WTO parliamentary assembly to allow for more democratic participation in WTO decisionmaking[http://www.wfm.org/index.php/articles/12]. Dr. Caroline Lucas recommended that such an assembly "have a more prominent role to play in the form of parliamentary scrutiny, and also in the wider efforts to reform the WTO processes, and its rules"[http://www.revistainterforum.com/english/articles/050602artprin_en3.html]. However, Dr. Raoul Marc Jennar argues that a consultative parliamentary assembly would be ineffective for the following reasons[http://www.urfig.org/ana-eng-wto-cpa-pt.htm]:
- It does not resolve the problem of “informal meetings” whereby industrialised countries negotiate the most important decisions;
- It does not reduce the de facto inequality which exists between countries with regards to an effective and efficient participation to all activities within all WTO bodies;
- It does not rectify the multiple violations of the general principles of law which affect the dispute settlement mechanism.

The WTO in fiction

The computer game Deus Ex: Invisible War features a fictional WTO with seemingly more of a military function, providing technology and military support to cities caught in the "Collapse".

WTO meeting in Hong Kong

The next WTO Conference Ministerial will be held in Hong Kong on December 13 - 18, 2005. In general, ministerial conferences are the WTO’s highest decision-making body, which meets at least once every two years to decide the future political direction for the organization. This is the sixth conference and is vital for enabling the four-year-old Doha Development Agenda negotiations forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. An estimated 10,000 protesters are likely to arrive for the WTO meeting; if that turns out to be true, then it will be one of the largest and tightest security campaigns Hong Kong has ever seen. The protesters' main agenda is to stop the WTO talks by staging roadblocks to prevent delegates from getting to the conference. The government has already started to glue down bricks used to pave the pavement, so as to prevent the use of bricks as weapons. Businesses around the Wan Chai area, where the conferences are taking place have been informed to tighten up their security, such as metal gates and boarded-up windows. The areas around the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre, where the meetings will take place will be barricaded from 6pm on December 12.

External links

- [http://www.wto.int/ Official WTO homepage]
- [http://www.wto.int/english/docs_e/legal_e/final_e.htm Agreements administered by the WTO]
- [http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/anrep05_e.pdf WTO 10th Anniversary] — Highlights of the first decade, Annual Report 2005 pages 116-166
- [http://www.wto.int/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min05_e/min05_e.htm 6th Ministerial Conference - WTO information]
- [http://www.wtomc6.gov.hk 6th Ministerial Conference - Hong Kong host government information]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/2429503.stm BBC News — Profile: WTO]
- [http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2005/wto/ CNN - Special: WTO Hong Kong] ongoing coverage
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/wto/ Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: The World Trade Organisation] ongoing coverage
- [http://europa.eu.int/comm/trade/issues/newround/index_en.htm EUROPA - The EU and the WTO]
- [http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/WTO.html USInfo - USA and the WTO]
- [http://hesa.etui-rehs.org/uk/dossiers/dossier.asp#rub37 European Trade Union Institute - WTO and Asbestos]
- [http://www.ictsd.org/ International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development]
- [http://www.3dthree.org/en/pages.php?IDcat=12 www.3dthree.org] — Jargon Explained, Glossaries of Trade terms compiled by 3D (Trade, Human Rights, Equitable Economy)
- [http://slate.msn.com/id/56497/ Slate — Enemies of the WTO: Bogus Arguments against the World Trade Organization] by Paul Krugman
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/fairtrade/story/0,12458,1034971,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Time for Tranformation] — by George Monbiot, September 8, 2003
- [http://www.monthlyreview.org/100tabb.htm Monthly Review - WTO stops world taking over?!]
- [http://www.foei.org/publications/pdfs/tyranny.pdf The Tyranny of Free Trade] Friends of the Earth International, Dec 2005.
- [http://www.tradeobservatory.org/library.cfm?refid=77538 Sailing Close to the Wind: Navigating the WTO Hong Kong Ministerial] Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, Dec 2005.
- [http://www.tradewatchoz.org/guide/New_WTO_Guide.pdf The World Trade Organisation: An Australian Guide], Global Trade Watch, Dec 2005.

Anti-WTO links

- [http://www.gatt.org/ Parody of official WTO page]
- [http://www.wtoaction.org WTOaction.org]
- [http://www.tradeobservatory.org TradeObservatory.org]
- [http://www.globalexchange.org/campaigns/wto/OpposeWTO.html www.globalexchange.org] — Top Reasons to Oppose the WTO
- [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/1999/11/29/ED36269.DTL www.sfgate.com] — Is the World Trade Organization a blessing or a curse? by Kevin Phillips
- [http://www.foodfirst.org/node/1172 www.foodfirst.org] — International Day of Protest Against the WTO
- [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/wto.htm Just Say No to the WTO] — graphic art by Seattle's James Koehnline
- [http://www.oxfam.org/en/programs/campaigns/maketradefair/index.htm/ Oxfam: Make trade fair]
- [http://www.gegenstandpunkt.com/english/wto.html GegenStandpunkt - The Nations’ Struggle for the Wealth of the World and its Latest Battlefields]
- [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0730-05.htm The news showing people fight against World-trade despite arrest]
- [http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/doc/articulos/chossudovskye.html WTO infringes human rights]
- [http://www.globalmon.org.hk/ Globalization Monitor]

References and further readings

- Martin Khor et al (2005), WTO and the Global Trading System: Development Impacts and Reform Proposals, Zed Books
- Fatoumata Jawara and Aileen Kwa (2004), Behind the Scenes at the WTO: The Real World of International Trade Negotiations/Lessons of Cancun, Zed Books
- Braithwaite, John & Peter Drahos (2000), Global Business Regulation, Cambridge University Press.
- Dunkley, Graham (2000)The Free Trade Adventure, Zed Books.
- Steinberg, Richard H. (2002). In the shadow of law or power? Consensus-based bargaining and outcomes in the GATT/WTO. International Organization 56 (2), 339–374.
- World Trade Organization. (2004b). [http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/fact4_e.htm Understanding the WTO - The GATT years: From Havana to Marrakesh]. Retrieved Dec. 11, 2004
- World Trade Organization. (2004c). [http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/fact2_e.htm Understanding the WTO - Principles of the trading system]. Retrieved Dec. 11, 2004.
- World Trade Organization. (2004d). [http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/doha1_e.htm Understanding the WTO - The Doha agenda]. Retrieved Dec 11, 2004.
- World Trade Organization. (2004e). [http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm Understanding the WTO - members]. Retrieved Dec 12, 2004.
- Wilkins, Mira (1997, Nov. 20) [http://www.eh.net/bookreviews/library/0046.shtml Review of Susan Ariel Aaronson, "Trade and the American Dream: A Social History of Postwar Trade Policy"] Economic History Services.
- Chen Lanyan (Institute of International Studies, China), Gendered impact of China's entry into WTO: A conceptual scheme to understand vulnerability, conference paper. [http://www.cityu.edu.hk/searc/Gender_Trade/august23am/Chen%20Lanyan_revised.pdf Gendered impact of China's entry into WTO: A conceptual scheme to understand vulnerability]
- Gigi Franciso (IGTN,Philippines), MODE 4:What we need to know, conference paper. [http://www.cityu.edu.hk/searc/Gender_Trade/publicforum/Gigi%20Francisco_revised.pdf MODE 4:What we need to know] More references at the [http://www.worldtradelaw.net/books4.htm WorldTradeLawnet Bibliography].
- Maria Riley (IGTN, North America, US) Gender, economics, and advocacy: Issues in Agreement on Agriculture, conference paper. [http://www.cityu.edu.hk/searc/Gender_Trade/august22am/Maria%20Riley_revised.pdf Gender, economics, and advocacy: Issues in Agreement on Agriculture]
- Rokeya Kabir (Director, Bangladesh Nari Proghati Sangha Dahka, Bangladesh), conference paper [http://www.cityu.edu.hk/searc/Gender_Trade/august22pm/Rokeya%20Kabir_revised.pdf Experiences and concerns on trade liberalisation and women in Bangladish]
- The WTO and beyond: building on Hong Kong's strengths, Hong Kong : Public Affairs Section, 2005
- Klein, Naomi (1999) No space, no choice, no jobs, no logo : taking aim at the brand bullies New York : Picador USA
- Callinicos, Alex (2003) An anti-capitalist manifesto Cambridge : Polity Press ; Malden, MA : Distributed in the USA by Blackwell Publishers Category:International organizations
- Category:International trade ko:세계무역기구 ja:世界貿易機関

WTO (disambiguation)

The three letter acronym WTO has several meanings.
- Most commonly, it refers to the World Trade Organization.
- the World Tourism Organization
- the World Toilet Organization
- write-to-operator, a macro used in computer programming
- a song by the California punk group Pennywise, which appeared on their sixth album Land of the Free?.

State

:This article discusses states as sovereign political entities; for other meanings, see state (disambiguation). A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood, although some theories do not make this a requirement - for instance, the Montevideo Convention. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory." [http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xweb.htm] The exact meaning of this definition depends on what is understood by "legitimate". For more information see government.

Introduction

The word "state" in contemporary parlance often means the "Westphalian state", in reference to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648. In this sense, the modern state is an entity that enjoys extensive autonomy in its domestic economic and social policy, largely free from interference from other states and powers. A number of modern commentators have claimed that we are experiencing the decline of the Westphalian state as the principal actor of the international system, pointing to economic, cultural, political, and technological changes in the world, such as globalization and the emergence of regional and supernational groupings such as the European Union. The term "state" is also used to describe subnational territorial divisions within a federal system, as in the case of the United States of America. See state (law) and state (non-sovereign). In common speech, the terms country, nation and state are casually used as synonyms, but in a more strict usage they are distinguished:
- country is the geographical area.
- nation designates a people (however, national and international both confusingly refer as well to matters pertaining to what are strictly states, as in "national capital", "international law").
- state refers to the government, and an entity in international law. Currently, the entire land surface of the Earth is divided among the territories of the roughly two hundred states now existing, with the special case of Antarctica, a variety of disputed territories, and a number of areas where state power exists in theory, but not in practice (the most significant of these being Somalia and Iraq).

Etymology

The word "state" originates from the medieval state or throne upon which the head of state (usually a monarch) would sit. By process of metonymy, the word state became used to refer to both the head of state and the power entity he represented (though the former meaning has fallen out of use). A similar association of terms can today be seen in the practice of referring to government buildings as having authority, for example "The White House today released a press statement..."

Formation of the state

The birth of the state, in the broadest sense of the word, coincides with the rise of civilization. For most of the existence of the human species, people lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. That lifestyle began to change with the invention of agriculture around the 9th millennium BC. The practice of agriculture made it necessary for human beings to build permanent settlements and spend most of their lives in close proximity to the land they cultivated. Thus, control over land became an issue for the first time. To express that control, various forms of property rights developed, with people claiming different kinds of rights over various areas of land. Disagreements over the nature and extent of such claims of ownership degenerated into violence and the first "wars". In some parts of the world, notably Mesopotamia and the Nile valley, natural conditions favoured the concentration of land ownership in few hands. Eventually, a small group of people found themselves owning the land on which many other people worked for a living. This control over the land meant control over the people whose livelihoods depended on the land; thus, the first primitive states arose. These states were usually despotic and unstable, with the ruler(s) holding absolute power over their subjects until some other ruler(s) displaced them. Since there were no laws and no infrastructure, and since power was exercised arbitrarily, some political theorists and historians do not consider such early forms of despotic rule to have been states in the proper sense of the word; they are sometimes called proto-states. One of the earliest known sets of laws, the Code of Hammurabi, has been dated to ca. 1700 BC. It was around this time that the concept of law - one of the foundations of the modern state - began to appear. But the rulers of the Ancient Near East had a long tradition of holding absolute power and claiming the status of god-kings (see hydraulic despotism). Thus, laws limiting the power of monarchs did not develop very far in that region. The city-states of Ancient Greece were the first to establish states whose powers were clearly defined in laws (even if the laws themselves could usually be changed quite easily). Also, notably, the idea of democracy was born in ancient Athens (see Athenian democracy). Many institutions of the modern state (especially in Western Europe and areas once dominated by Western-European empires) can trace their origins back to Ancient Rome, which inherited the political traditions of the Greeks and developed them further (particularly the rule of law, albeit in incomplete form). However, the Roman Republic gave way to the Roman Empire - which, in turn, created the concept of universal empire: the idea that the entire world was (or should be) under the authority of one single legitimate state. The fall of the Roman Empire and the Great Migrations changed the character of European politics. The "barbarian" (i.e., non-Roman) kingdoms and chieftains that followed the Roman Empire were ephemeral and transitory and bore little resemblance to the modern state. Even the kingdom of Charlemagne was fleeting; without the tradition of primogeniture, it dissolved into three smaller kingdoms with the Treaty of Verdun in 843. These kingdoms were treated more as land holdings by the royalty that ruled them. Once again, the state became little more than an expression of the ruler's private ownership of a certain area of land. The lack of a real successor to the Roman Empire in Western Europe created a power vacuum. The kingdoms of Western Europe were besieged by invaders on the frontiers - first, the Muslim invasions from the south, then a series of new migrations from the east and finally the Viking invasions from the north. At the same time, the various kingdoms (and smaller political units) were often involved in wars with each other over territory and succession. The solution that evolved out of these affairs was decidedly opposed to the system of independent states and temporary alliances that dominate the modern international system. Religion, which had rarely been a factor in the power calculations of Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, became the cornerstone of an extremely loose pan-European defensive bloc under the aegis of the Catholic Church. This system produced an extensive framework of institutions - sometimes called "feudalism" - that regulated internal conflict and enabled Western Europe to confront exterior threats, even while no individual secular entity was truly independent in the sense of the modern state. This system asserted itself abroad in the form of the Crusades as the Middle Ages progressed. In 1302, Pope Boniface VIII stated that the political powers of Christendom exercised their prerogatives "at the command and sufferance of the priest." This limited the power of kings, who were obliged to pledge their ultimate allegiance to the Pope. The Holy Roman Empire, one of the strongest medieval authorities, emerged as a competitor to Papal power under Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, who invaded Italy to press his claims to secular authority in the mid-12th century. The weakening of the papacy was a major theme of the Middle Ages; the Western Schism in the later 14th century, a dispute over papal succession, was exploited by secular authorities and contributed to their growing power. The emergence of large, stable land holdings by single dynasties - for instance, France and Castile - enabled them to take a more active and independent role than their traditionally subsidiary role in the earlier middle ages. This shift to more independent, more secular actors would become a major point of controversy in Early Modern Europe. The great dynasties of Europe dramatically consolidated power by the beginning of the 16th century; additionally, the external threats to Europe had considerably lessened. The Reformation was to have a powerful impact on the structure of European politics; the dispute was not only theological, but also threatened the very fabric of the ancient political institutions of feudalism. The bloody conflicts that followed, blending the religious and political, pitted those who asserted the authority of the Pope (and in Germany, the Holy Roman Emperor) against those who asserted the authority of secular authorities and their sovereign ability to make internal policy, particularly when that policy reflected religious affiliation, Roman Catholic or Protestant. These conflicts culminated in the Thirty Years' War of the 17th century. In 1648, the powers of Europe signed the Treaty of Westphalia which ended the religious violence for purely political motives and the Church was stripped of temporal power - even though religion continued to play a political role as the foundation of the divine right of kings. The principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" established at Westphalia and previously in the Peace of Augsburg set a precedent of noninterference in other states' internal affairs that was key in the evolution of the modern state. In Germany, the office of the Holy Roman Emperor, the most prominent symbol of lingering institutions of feudalism, was emasculated as a secular authority in favor of the constituent elements of the Holy Roman Empire. The modern state was born. The state continued to develop as monarchs brought nobles and free towns into line and amassed spectacular resources and prestige. The growing numbers of civil servants eventually became known as the bureaucracy after the elevation of the Republican ideal. Nearly a century and a half after the Peace of Westphalia, the state became fully modern through the French Revolution. Claiming 'national will' as its justification, Napoleon and the Grande Armee of France swept over Europe. In response, conquered and neighboring principalities discarded their old systems and adopted the new model of the nation state. The nation state has remained the dominant political entity all over the world ever since, even though the many ideologies of the 19th and 20th century have created numerous different ways of running the affairs of nation states, as well as numerous different forms of internal and external organization (see political system and economic system).

International point of view

The legal criteria for statehood are not obvious. A document that is often quoted on the matter is the Montevideo Convention from 1933, the first article of which states: :The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states. Also, in article 3 it very clearly states that statehood is independent of recognition by other states. This is the declarative theory of statehood. While the Montevideo is a regional American convention and has no legal effect outside the Americas, some have nonetheless seen it as an accurate statement of customary international law. On the other hand, article 3 of the convention is attacked by the advocates of the constitutive theory of statehood, where a state exists only insofar as it is recognized by other states. Which theory is correct is a controversial issue in international law. An example in practice was the collapse of central government in Somalia in the early 1990s: the Montevideo convention would imply that the state of Somalia no longer existed, and the subsequently declared republic of Somaliland (comprising part of the so-called "former" Somalia) may meet the criteria for statehood. However the self-declared republic has not achieved recognition by other states. Article 1 of the convention is also attacked by those who claim that it fails to take into account the complicated situations of military occupation, territorial cession, and governments in exile. Richard W. Hartzell is a leading proponent of this view, and stresses that the four criteria of article 1 need to be expanded to nine. See [http://www.taiwanadvice.com/conventions/montconv.htm The Montevideo Convention and Military Occupation].

The domestic point of view

Looked at from the point of view of an individual nation, the state is a centralized organization of the whole country. Those studying this dimension emphasize the relationship between the state and its people. The English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes argued that in order to avoid a multi-sided civil war, in which life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short", individuals must necessarily surrender many of their "natural rights" -- including that of attacking each other -- to the "Leviathan", a unified and centralized state. In this tradition, Max Weber and Norbert Elias defined the state as an organization of people that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force in a particular geographic area. Also in this tradition, the state differs from the "government": the latter refers to the group of people who make decisions for the state. For Weber, this was an "ideal type", or model, or pure case of the state. Many institutions that have been called "states" do not live up to this definition. For example, in countries such as Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the central state has so far not succeeded in monopolizing the legitimate use of force, and must compete with various local warlords. These cases are sometimes called "failed states". One of the most basic characteristics of a modern state is regulation of property rights, investment, trade and the commodity markets (in food, fuel, etc.) typically using its own currency. Although many states (by their own decision) increasingly cede these powers to trade bloc entities, e.g. North American Free Trade Agreement, European Union, it is always controversial to do so, and opens the question of whether these blocs are in fact simply larger states. The study of political economy, which evolved into the modern study of economics, deals with these specific questions in more detail. However, although states are often influenced in their decisions and no longer hold an absolute jurisdiction over their internal affairs, they are nonetheless much stronger in relation to international organizations or to other states than lower (substate) political subdivisions normally are. But the trend at the moment is for the power of superstate levels of governance to increase, and there is no sign of this increase abating. Many (especially those who favour constitutional theories of international law) therefore reject as outdated the idea of sovereignty, and view the state as just the chief political subdivision of the planet.

Philosophies of the state

Different political philosophies have distinct opinions concerning the state as a domestic organization. In the modern era, these philosophies emerged with the rise of capitalism, which coincided with the (re)emergence of the state as a separate and centralized sector of society. Philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau pondered issues concerning the ideal and actual roles of the state. Recent philosophers like John Rawls and Robert Nozick were more concerned with distributive justice and the morality of exercising political power. There are four theories about the origin (and indirectly the justification) of the state. They are:
- Supernatural or natural authority - In this view, the state is either ordained by a higher power (such as God for the "Divine right of kings") or arises naturally out of a presumed human need for order and authority.
- Natural rights - According to this theory, human beings have certain rights that are "natural" (the implications of this word may vary), and establish states for the protection of those rights.
- Social contract - This idea holds that the state is established by the people (i.e. through the consent of the governed) in order to provide for various collective needs that cannot be satisfied through individual efforts, such as national defense, public roads, education, "the general welfare", etc.
- Conflict - Perhaps the simplest of the theories, it holds that the state did not arise out of any conscious decision, but merely as the result of violent conflict. Various groups of people fought each other for control over land or other resources, and the winning side imposed its domination on the losing side. These four theories can accommodate the full spectrum of political views. In practice, most people (and most political philosophies) subscribe to a combination of two or more of the above theories - arguing, for example, that different states have different origins. The conflict theory, in particular, is often combined with one of the other three in order to separate the illegitimate states (those created through conflict and subjugation) from the legitimate ones. There are at least five major philosophies of the state today, the last four of which correspond to specific political ideologies: contractarianism, liberalism, Marxism, conservatism, and anarchism. Contractarianism, as the name implies, is based on the social contract theory. It is also the only major philosophy of the state that does not fall within any single political ideology - perhaps because several different ideologies have adopted it as their own. Contractarianism is the foundation of modern democracy, as well as most forms of socialism and some types of liberalism. In contractarian thinking, the state should express the public interest, the interests of the whole society, and reconcile it with the separate interests of individuals. The state provides public goods and other kinds of collective consumption, while preventing individuals from free-riding (taking advantage of collective consumption without paying) by forcing them to pay taxes. Liberalism, in the classical sense, is based mainly on the natural rights theory. In this view, some or even all "rights" exist naturally and are not created by the state. For example, John Locke believed that individual property rights existed prior to the creation of the state, while the state's main job should be to preserve those rights. Historically, liberals have been less concerned with determining what the state should do and far more interested in stipulating what the state shouldn't do. The liberal philosophy of the state holds that the powers of any state are restricted by natural rights that exist independently of the human mind and overrule any social contract. However, there has been considerable debate among liberals as to what these natural rights actually are. Critics argue that they do not exist at all, since they are not evident from any observations of nature. On the other hand, there are also liberals who subscribe to the contractarian theory. In most cases, they fall on the left wing of liberalism, being social liberals ("New Deal" liberals; see American liberalism) and arguing for a welfare state. They stand in opposition to adherents of the natural rights theory, who tend to be libertarians, falling on the right wing of liberalism and arguing for a "minimal" state. The Marxist philosophy of the state is based on the conflict theory - specifically, on the idea of class conflict. In this view, the primary role of the state in practice is to enforce the existing system of unequal property and personal rights, class domination, and exploitation. The state also mediates in all types of social conflicts, and supplies necessary social-infrastructural conditions for society as a whole. Under such systems as feudalism, the lords used their own military force to exploit their vassals. Under capitalism, on the other hand, the use of force is centralized in a specialized organization which protects the capitalists' class monopoly of ownership of the means of production, allowing the exploitation of those without such ownership. In modern Marxian theory, such class domination can coincide with other forms of domination (such as patriarchy and ethnic hierarchies). Further, in Marxist theory, classes and other forms of exploitation should be abolished by establishing a socialist system, to be followed later by a communist one. Communism, the final goal, is a classless, propertyless and stateless society; however, socialism still preserves personal property and a (democratic) state. Thus, Marxism is opposed to the state (which it views as illegitimate, in accordance with the conflict theory), but does not wish to abolish the state immediately. As such, there is some overlap between Marxism and contractarianism: the socialist state that Marxists wish to establish as their short-term goal is to be based on a form of social contract. This state ought subsequently to slowly "wither away" as the representative democracy of socialism gradually transforms into the direct democracy of communism. Once the process is complete, the communist social order has been achieved and the state no longer exists as an entity separate from the people. In conservative thinking, which is based on the theory of (super)natural authority, the existing structure of traditions and hierarchies (of class, patriarchy, ethnic dominance, etc.) is seen as benefiting society overall. Thus, in a way, conservatives accept some ideas from both the Marxist and the liberal schools of thought, but view them in a different light: the state forces people to accept class and other kinds of domination, but this is seen as being for their own good. This perspective posits that, in general, current traditions only exist because they have been demonstrably successful in the past. Further, as with the liberals, the state is seen as always existing and/or "natural". Many conservatives, especially in recent decades, have come out in favor of the liberal theory of natural rights. Finally, in anarchist thinking, the state is nothing but an unnecessary and exploitative segment of society. Totally rejecting the Hobbesian notion that only a state can prevent chaos, anarchists argue that the state's monopoly of violence creates chaos. They believe that if the state and its restrictions on individual freedom were abolished, people could figure out how to work together peacefully and individual creativity would be unleashed. Contrary to the Marxist perspective, the anarchists see the state as an unnecessary evil, rather than a tool to be used in the class struggle.

References

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External links

- Franz Oppenheimer; [http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm The State. (1914/1922)]
- Franz Oppenheimer; [http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/fo27a.htm The Idolatry of the State. (1927)] Category:International law Category:International relations Category:Social sciences Category:Political geography ja:国家 simple:State th:รัฐ

Trade barrier

A trade barrier is general term that describes any government policy or regulation that restricts international trade, the barriers can take many forms, including:
- Import duties
- Import licenses
- Export licenses
- Quotas
- Tariffs
- Subsidies
- Non-tariff barriers to trade Most trade barriers work on the same principle: the imposition of some sort of cost on trade that raises the price of the traded products. If two or more nations repeatedly use trade barriers against each other, then a trade war results. Economists generally agree that trade barriers are detrimental and decrease overall economic efficiency, this can be explained by the theory of comparative advantage. In theory, free trade involves the removal of all such barriers, except perhaps those considered necessary for health or national security. In practice, however, even those countries promoting free trade heavily subsidize certain industries, such as agriculture and steel. Examples of free trade areas are: North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), European Free Trade Association, European Union (EU), South American Community of Nations.

Switzerland

The Swiss Confederation or Switzerland (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica) is a landlocked federal republic in Europe, bordering Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Liechtenstein. The country has a strong tradition of political and military neutrality, but also of international cooperation, and is home to many international organisations. Confoederatio Helvetica is the Latin official name. The use of Latin avoids having to choose one of the four official languages. The abbreviation (CH) is similarly used; for example, it is used as Switzerland's ccTLD, .ch. The Latin title Confoederatio Helvetica means Helvetic Confederation. The titles commonly used in French, Italian and Romansh translate as Swiss Confederation, while the German name of Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft translates roughly as "Swiss Oath Fellowship" or "Swiss Commonwealth of the Covenant".

History

Switzerland is a federation of relatively autonomous cantons, some of which have a history of confederacy that goes back more than 700 years, arguably putting them among the world's oldest surviving republics. According to the popular legend, in 1291, representatives of the three forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden signed the Federal Charter. The charter united the involved parties in the struggle against foreign rule by the Habsburgs, who then held the German imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire. At the Battle of Morgarten on November 15, 1315, the Swiss defeated the Habsburg army and secured quasi-independence as the Swiss Confederation. The authenticity of the Federal Charter is disputed, with many historians agreeing that it is in fact a forgery of the 14th century. By 1353, the three original cantons had been joined by the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the city states of Lucerne, Zürich and Berne, forming the "Old Federation" of eight states that persisted during much of the 15th century (although Zürich was expelled from the confederation during the 1440s due to a territorial conflict) and led to a significant increase of power and wealth of the federation, in particular due to the victories over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The traditional listing order of the cantons of Switzerland reflects this state, listing the eight "Old Cantons" first, with the city states preceding the founding cantons, followed by cantons that joined the federation after 1481, in historical order. The Swiss victory in a war against the Swabian League in 1499 amounted to de facto independence from the Holy Roman Empire. In 1506, Pope Julius II engaged the Swiss Guard that continues to serve the Vatican to the present day. The expansion of the federation, and the reputation of invincibility acquired during the earlier wars, suffered a first setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal wars in 1529 and 1531 (Kappeler Kriege). The conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the battles of Villmergen in 1656 and 1712. 1712] Under the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, European countries recognised Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality (ancien régime). In 1798, the armies of the French Revolution conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country and effectively abolished the cantons. The new regime was known as the Helvetic Republic and was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army, had destroyed centuries of tradition, including the right to worship, and had made Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. Uprisings were common and only the presence of French troops kept them from succeeding. The brutal French suppression of the Nidwalden revolt in September was especially infamous. When war broke out between France and other countries Switzerland found itself being invaded by other outside forces from Austria and Russia. The Swiss were divided mainly between "Republicans" who were in favour of a centralised government, and "Federalists" who wanted to restore autonomy to the cantons. The violent conflict between both sides was never-ending. In Paris in 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 Cantons. From then on much of Swiss politics would be about preserving the cantons' right to self-rule and the need for a central government. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise the Swiss neutrality. At this time, the territory of Switzerland was increased for the last time, by the new cantons of Valais, Neuchatel and Geneva. In 1847, a civil war broke out between the Catholic and the Protestant cantons (Sonderbundskrieg). Its immediate cause was a 'special treaty' (Sonderbund) of the Catholic cantons. The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties. Apart from small riots, this was the latest armed conflict on Swiss territory. As a consequence of the civil war, Switzerland adopted a federal constitution in 1848, amending it extensively in 1874 and establishing federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters. In 1891, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy, which remains unique even today. Since then, continued political, economic, and social improvement has characterised Swiss history. In 1920, Switzerland joined the League of Nations, and in 1963 the Council of Europe. Switzerland proclaimed neutrality in World War I and was not involved militarily in the conflict. Neutrality was again proclaimed in World War II, and although a German intervention was both planned and anticipated, it ultimately didn't occur. The massive mobilisation of Swiss armed forces under the leadership of General Henri Guisan is often cited as a decisive factor that the German invasion was never initiated. Modern historical findings, such as the research done by the Bergier commission, indicate that another major factor was the continued trade by Swiss banks with Nazi Germany. Bergier commission Women were granted the right to vote in the first cantons in 1959, at the federal level in 1971, in the last canton, Appenzell Innerrhoden, only in 1990. In 1979, parts of the canton of Berne attained independence, forming the new canton of Jura. On April 18, 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution. In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is not a member state of the EU but applied for membership therein in May 1992. Switzerland has not advanced this application since the rejection, by referendum, of the European Economic Area in December 1992. However, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to that of the EU and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland (together with Liechtenstein) has been surrounded by the EU since Austria's membership in 1995. On June 5, 2005, Swiss voters agreed, by a 55% majority, to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was welcomed by EU commentators as a sign of goodwill by a Switzerland that is traditionally perceived as isolationist.

Politics

Schengen treaty]] The bicameral Swiss parliament, the Federal Assembly, is the primary seat of power, apart from the Federal Council. Both houses, the Council of States and the National Council, have equal powers in all respects, including the right to introduce legislation. Under the 1999 constitution, cantons hold all powers not specifically delegated to the federation. The 46 members of the Council of States (two from each canton and one from former half cantons) are directly elected in each canton, whereas the 200 members of the National Council are elected directly under a system of proportional representation. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. Through referenda citizens may challenge any law voted by federal parliament and through initiatives introduce amendments to the federal constitution, making Switzerland a semi-direct democracy. The top executive body and collective Head of State is the Federal Council, a collegial body of seven members. Although the constitution provides that the Assembly elects and supervises the members of the Council, the latter (and its administration) has gradually assumed a pre-eminent role in directing the legislative process as well as executing federal laws. The President of the Confederation is elected from the seven to assume special representative functions for a one-year term. From 1959 to December 2003, the four major parties were represented in the Federal Council according to the "magic formula", proportional to their representation in federal parliament: 2 Christian Democrats (CVP/PDC), 2 from the Social Democrats (SPS/PSS), 2 Free Democrats (FDP/PRD), and 1 from the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC). This traditional distribution of seats, however, is not backed up by any law, and in the 2003 elections to the Federal Council the CVP/PDC lost their second seat to the SVP/UDC. The function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals of cantonal courts or the administrative rulings of the federal administration. The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six-year terms. See also: International relations of Switzerland

Direct democracy

Switzerland features a system of government not seen at the national level on any other place on earth: Direct democracy. Any citizen may challenge a law that has been passed by parliament. If he is able to gather 50,000 signatures against the law within 100 days, a national vote has to be scheduled where voters decide by a simple majority whether to accept or reject the law. Also, any citizen may seek a decision on an amendment they want to make to the constitution. For such an amendment initiative to be organised, the signatures of 100,000 voters must be collected within 18 months. Such a popular initiative may be formulated as a general proposal or - much more often - be put forward as a precise new text whose wording can no longer be changed by parliament and the government. After a successful vote gathering, the federal council may create a counterproposal to the proposed amendment and put it to vote on the same day. Such counterproposals are usually a compromise between the status quo and the wording of the initiative. Voters will again decide in a national vote whether to accept the initiative amendment, the counterproposal put forward by the government or both. If both are accepted, one has to additionally signal a preference. Initiatives have to be accepted by a double majority of both the popular votes and a majority of the states.

Energy politics

The energy generated in Switzerland comprises around 40 percent nuclear power and 60 percent from hydroelectricity. On May 18, 2003, two referenda regarding the future of nuclear power in Switzerland were held. The referendum Electricity without nuclear asked for a decision on a nuclear power phase-out and Moratorium Plus asked about an extension an existing law forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down: Moratorium Plus by a margin of 41.6% for and 58.4% opposed, and Electricity Without Nuclear by a margin of 33.7% for and 66.3% opposed. The former ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54.5% Yes vs. 45.5% No votes (see Nuclear power phase-out#Switzerland for details).

Cantons (states)

Nuclear power phase-out#Switzerland]] The Swiss Confederation consists of 26 cantons:
- These cantons are represented by only one councillor in the Council of States. Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km² (Basel-Stadt) and 7,105 km² (Grisons). The Cantons comprise a total of 2,889 municipalities. The following are enclaves within Switzerland: Büsingen is territory of Germany, Campione d'Italia is territory of Italy.

Geography

Italy With an area of 41,285 km², Switzerland is a small country. The population is around 7.4 million, resulting in a population density of 184 people per km². Switzerland comprises three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps, the Swiss plateau, and the Jura mountains.The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country. Among the high peaks of the Swiss Alps, the highest of which is the Dufour Peak at 4,634 m, are found countless valleys, some with glaciers. From these the headwaters of several major European rivers such as the Rhine, the Rhône, the Inn, the Aare or the Ticino, flow down into lakes such as Lake Geneva, Lake Zürich, Lake Neuchâtel, and Lake Constance. Lake Constance The northern, more populous part of the country is more open, but can still be mountainous, for example, in the Jura Mountains, a smaller range in the northwest. The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from harsh conditions on the high mountains to the often pleasant Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. A zoomable map of Switzerland is available at either [http://www.swissinfo-geo.org www.swissinfo-geo.org] or [http://www.swissgeo.ch www.swissgeo.ch]; a zoomable satellite picture is at [http://map.search.ch/ map.search.ch].
See also: Swisstopo topographical survey, List of lakes of Switzerland, List of rivers of Switzerland, List of mountain passes in Switzerland.

Economy

Switzerland is a prosperous and stable modern market economy, with a per capita GDP that is higher than those of the big western European economies. For much of the 20th century Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin. However since the early 1990s it has suffered from slow growth, and as of 2005 it had fallen to fourth among European states with populations above one million in terms of Gross Domestic Product per capita at purchasing power parity, behind Ireland, Denmark and Norway (see list). Switzerland is a member of the European Free Trade Association. In recent years, the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the European Union, in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness, but this has not produced strong growth. Full EU membership is a long-term objective of the Swiss government, but there is considerable popular sentiment against this. To this end, it has established an [http://www.europa.admin.ch/e/index.htm Integration Office] under the Department of Foreign and Economic Affairs. To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland's isolation from the rest of Europe, Bern and Brussels signed seven agreements, called Bilateral Agreements I, to further liberalise trade ties in 1999 and entering into force in 2001. This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons. A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and awaits ratification. The second series includes the Schengen treaty and the Dublin Convention. They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation. Preparatory discussions are being opened on four new areas: opening up the electricity market, participation in the European GPS system Galileo, cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products. Switzerland voted against membership in the European Economic Area in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union and European countries through bilateral agreements.
- List of Swiss companies
- Swiss bank

Demographics

Swiss bank (19.2%),
Italian (7.6%),
Romansh (0.6%)]] Switzerland sits at the crossroads of several major European cultures that have heavily influenced the country's languages and culture. Switzerland has three nationwide official languages (German (64%) in the north and centre, French (19%) to the west, and Italian (8%) in the south), plus a fourth national language that is considered official locally (Romansh, a Romance language spoken by a small minority (< 1%) in the southeastern canton of Graubünden and in parts of Ticino). The federal government is obliged to communicate in the three official languages. In the federal parliament, German, French and Italian are the official languages and simultaneous translation is provided. The German spoken in Switzerland is predominantly a group of dialects that are almost unintelligible to Germans and are collectively known as Swiss German, but written communication and broadcasts typically use standard German. Swiss French and Swiss Italian differ far less from their counterparts in France and Italy, respectively. Learning one of the other national languages at school is obligatory for all Swiss, so most Swiss are at least bilingual. English is considered by some as a Swiss lingua franca, and most Swiss people have some command of English; many Swiss documents and websites are available in English. Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 20% of the population. The most popular religion in Switzerland is Roman Catholicism (43% of the population). There are various Protestant denominations (35%), while immigration has brought Islam (4%) and Eastern Orthodoxy (2%) as sizeable minority religions. The stability and prosperity of Switzerland, combined with a linguistically diverse population, has led some to describe the country as a consensus, or consociational state.
- List of Swiss people

Culture

List of Swiss people] The culture of Switzerland is influenced by its neighbours, but over the years a distinctive culture with strong regional differences has developed. Traditionally Switzerland is not considered one of the centres of European culture, but this conception might be deceptive. A number of culturally active Swiss have chosen to move abroad, probably given the limited opportunities in their homeland. At the same time, the neutrality of Switzerland has attracted many creative people from all over the world. In war times the tradition of political asylum helped to attract artists, whilst recently low taxes seem predominant. Strong regionalism in Switzerland makes it difficult to speak of a homogeneous Swiss culture. The influence of German, French and Italian culture on their neighbouring parts and the influence of Anglo-American culture cannot be denied. The Rhaeto-Romanic culture in the eastern mountains of Switzerland is robust. The Swiss are noted for their banks, their chocolate, their cheese, their pocket knives, their watches (particularly the famous Rolex), their private boarding schools and their strengths in engineering and the sciences. The tallest building in Switzerland is the Basler Messeturm.
- Music of Switzerland
- Culture of Switzerland
- Swiss cuisine
- SRG SSR idée suisse

External links

- Governmental websites
- [http://www.admin.ch/ch/index.en.html The Federal Authorities]
- [http://www.parlament.ch/e/homepage.htm The Swiss Parliament]
- [http://www.bger.ch/ Federal Supreme Court] - (in German, French and Italian)
- [http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/ Swiss Federal Statistical Office]
- [http://www.swissinfo.org/ Switzerland's news and information platform] - maintained by the public Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (in 9 languages)
- Historical Dictionary of Switzerland: [http://www.dhs.ch www.dhs.ch] - Country encyclopedia (in German, French and Italian)
- [http://www.swissworld.org/ Swissworld] - an encyclopedic presentation of the country by the Swiss Confederation
- [http://www.about.ch/ About.ch] - another presentation of the country
- [http://www.myswitzerland.com/ Switzerland Tourism] National tourist office
- [http://www.culturelinks.ch/ Culturelinks.ch] - a portal giving access to Swiss culture websites
- [http://www.are.ch/ Spatial Planning in Switzerland] Website of Swiss Federal Office for Spatial Development (land-use planning, transportation, sustainable development)
- [http://map.search.ch/ Map.Search.ch] Maps of Switzerland
- [http://www.justlanded.com/english/switzerland/ Just Landed Switzerland] - Useful info for moving to Switzerland
- Alemannic Wikipedia
- Category:Landlocked countries als:Schweiz zh-min-nan:Sūi-se ko:스위스 ms:Switzerland ja:スイス simple:Switzerland th:ประเทศสวิตเซอร์แลนด์

May 13

May 13 is the 133rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (134th in leap years). There are 232 days remaining.

Events

- 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola.
- 1568 - Battle of Langside: the forces of Mary Queen of Scots are defeated by a confederacy of Scottish Protestants under James Stewart, Earl of Moray, her half-brother.
- 1619 - Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is executed in The Hague after having been accused of treason.
- 1779 - War of Bavarian Succession: Russian and French mediators at the Congress of Teschen negotiate an end to the war. In the agreement Austria receives the part of its territory that was taken from them (the Inn District).
- 1787 - Captain Arthur Phillip leaves Portsmouth, England with eleven ships full of convicts to establish a penal colony in Australia.
- 1830 - Ecuador gains its independence.
- 1846 - Mexican-American War: The United States declares war on Mexico.
- 1848 - First performance of Finland's national anthem.
- 1861 - American Civil War: Queen Victoria of Britain issues a "proclamation of neutrality" which recognizes the breakaway states as having belligerent rights.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Resaca – the battle begins with Union General Sherman fighting toward Atlanta.
- 1865 - American Civil War: Battle of Palmito Ranch – In far south Texas, more than a month after Confederate General Lee's surrender, the last land battle of the Civil War ends with a Confederate victory.
- 1880 - In Menlo Park, New Jersey, Thomas Edison performs the first test of his electric railway.
- 1888 - With the passage of the Lei Áurea ("Golden Law"), Brazil abolishes slavery.
- 1909 - The first Giro d'Italia took place in Milan. Italian cyclist Luigi Ganna was the winner.
- 1912 - In the United Kingdom, the Royal Flying Corps (now the Royal Air Force) was established.
- 1913 - Igor Sikorsky becomes the first man to pilot a four-engine aircraft.
- 1917 - Three peasant children claim to see the Blessed Virgin Mary above a holmoak tree in Cova da Iria near Fatima, Portugal.
- 1940 - World War II: Germany's conquest of France begins as the German army crosses the Meuse River. Churchill makes his "blood, tears, toil and sweat" speech to the House of Commons.
- 1940 - Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands flees the Nazi invasion in the Netherlands to Britain. Princess Juliana takes her children to Canada for their safety.
- 1943 - World War II: German Afrika Korps and Italian troops in North Africa surrender to Allied forces.
- 1948 - 1948 Arab-Israeli War: The Kfar Etzion massacre is committed by Arab irregulars, the day before the declaration of independence of the state of Israel on May 14.
- 1950 - First All-time Formula One Grand Prix. It is held at Silverstone Circuit, England
- 1958 - During a visit to Caracas, Venezuela, Vice President Richard M. Nixon's car is attacked by anti-American demonstrators.
- 1958 - Pierre Pflimlin becomes Prime Minister of