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Wiman Joseon

Wiman Joseon

Wiman Joseon (194 BC - 108 BC), was a continuation of Gojoseon, beginning with the rule of Wiman. It is generally classified as a part of the Gojoseon period, while some consider it a separate period of ancient Korean history. Wiman was originally a refugee from the Chinese state of Yan. He succeeded in driving out King Jun of Gojoseon and taking over the throne. He made the capital in Wanggeomseong (王險城), today's P'yŏngyang. Although culturally Sinicized, Wiman Joseon was not a colony of China. Wiman Joseon expanded to control a vast territory and became strong economically by controlling trade between China's Han Dynasty and the outlying regions to the northeast. Feeling increasingly threatened by the growing Wiman Joseon, and fearing she would ally with the Xiongnu, Emperor Wu of Han China launched an attack on Wiman Joseon in 109 BC. After a year of battle, Wanggeomseong was captured and Wiman Joseon was destroyed. Han China established four commanderies in the captured areas, of which Lelang or Nangnang was the most important.

194 BC

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC - 194 BC - 193 BC 192 BC 191 BC 190 BC 189 BC ---- Events
- Battle of Mutina: Romans are victorious over the Gauls.
- In the Battle of Gythium, Philopoemen of the Achaean League, assisted by the Romans, defeats the Spartans under Nabis.
- Liternum and Puteoli become Roman colonies.
- Construction of the first city wall of Chang'an began.
- Wiman Joseon kingdom of northern Korea founded by Chinese Han Dynasty general Wiman. Births
- Deaths
- Eratosthenes, Greek mathematician and astronomer
- Concubine Qi, favoured concubine of Emperor Han Gaozu
- ko:194년

Gojoseon

Gojoseon ("ancient" Joseon, to distinguish from the later Joseon Dynasty) was the first Korean kingdom. According to legend, it was founded in 2333 BC by Dangun in the basins of the Liao and Taedong Rivers, ruling over northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria until 108 BC. Historians generally refer to this entire period as Gojoseon, but some classify Gija Joseon and Wiman Joseon as separate periods.

Founding legend

Dangun Wanggeom is the legendary founder of Korea. The oldest existing record of this founding myth appears in the Samguk Yusa, a 13th-century collection of legends and stories. A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi. Dangun's ancestry begins with his grandfather Hwanin (환인; 桓因;), the "Lord of Heaven" (a name which also appears in Indian Buddhist texts). Hwanin had a son Hwanung who yearned to live on the earth among the valleys and the mountains. Hwanin chose Mount Taebaek for his son to settle down in and sent him with 3,000 helpers to rule the earth and provide humans with great happiness. Hwanung descended to Mount Taebaek and founded a city, which he named Sinsi (신시; 神市), or "City of God." Along with his ministers of clouds, rain, and wind, he instituted laws and moral codes and taught the humans various arts, medicine, and agriculture. A tiger and a bear living in a cave together prayed to Hwanung that they may become human. Upon hearing their prayers, Hwanung called them to him and gave them 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of mugwort. He then ordered them to only eat this sacred food and remain out of the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger shortly gave up and left the cave. However, the bear remained and after 21 days was transformed into a woman. The bear-woman (Ungnyeo; 웅녀; 熊女) was very grateful and made offerings to Hwanung. She lacked a husband, however, and soon became sad and prayed beneath a sandalwood tree to be blessed with a child. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took her for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son, who was named Dangun Wanggeom (단군 왕검; 檀君王儉). Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the reign of the Emperor Yao (the legendary Chinese sage Yao), the year of Gengyin, built the walled city of P'yŏngyang, and called the kingdom Joseon. He then moved his capital to Asadal on Mount Baegak (or Mount Gunghol). 1,500 years later, in the year Kimyo, King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty enfeoffed Jizi to Joseon, and Dangun moved his capital to Jangdangyeong. Finally, he returned to Asadal and became a mountain god at the age of 1,908.

History

Gojoseon is said to have been established in 2333 BC, based on the description of the Dongguk Tonggam (1485), but the date differs among historical sources; nevertheless, all of them put it during Yao's reign (traditional dates: 2357 BC-2256 BC). Samguk Yusa says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of Yao's reign, while Sejong Sillok says the first year and Dongguk Tonggam says the 25th year. The people of Gojoseon are called in Chinese records Dong-i, "eastern bowmen," belonging to the Tungusic family and linguistically affiliated with the Altaic. They propagated in Manchuria, far eastern China, north of the Yangtze River, and the Korean Peninsula. Gojoseon eventually consolidated in Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula, and was praised by Confucius and Mencius for the decorum of its people. However, it was called arrogant and cruel by the Yan. The Bronze Age began around 2500 – 1000 BC. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular huts and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/977] Around 2000 BC, a new pottery culture is evidenced, with painted designs, in Manchuria and northern Korea. Bronze daggers, and mirrors have been excavated from the Korean bronze age. Bronze was employed as weaponry and helped in the conquest of Neolithic communities. Archeological evidence of walled-town states are found from this time. Gija, a subject of the Yan state, entered Gojoseon and introduced the culture of Yin around the 11th century BCE. Gojoseon clashed with the Zhou during China's Warring States Period (475-221 BC), and lost the territories west of the Liao River to the Yan people in the third century BC. By this time, iron culture was developing and the warring states pushed the refugees eastward. Around this time, Jin-guk existed in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about this state, except it was the apparent predecessor to the Samhan confederacies. Among the Yan refugees, Wiman entered the service of Gojoseon as military commander with a base on the Amnokgang river. He usurped control from King Jun in 194 BC. In 109 BC, the Han emperor Wudi began a massive invasion of Gojoseon near the Liao River. Gojoseon fell after over a year of war, and four Chinese commanderies were set up in southern Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula: Lelang or Luolang (樂浪; Korean: Nangnang), Xuantu (玄菟; Hyeondo), Zhenfan (真番; Jinbeon), and Lintun (臨屯; Imdun). Numerous small states and confederations arose from the remnants of Gojoseon. Three of the commanderies fell quickly to the Koreans of Samhan, and the last, Lelang (Korean: Nangnang) was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313.

Annals of Danguns

Hwandan-gogi is a controversial text said to detail ancient Korean history, but its authenticity has been widely questioned. It appears to be partly based on other known "alternative history" texts. The Annals of the Danguns are recorded in Gyuwon Sahwa (1675), which is described by its author as a nationalistic, rather than mainstream, history. #Dangun Wanggeom BC 2333-BC 2240 #Dangun Buru BC 2240-BC 2182 #Dangun Garuk BC 2182-BC 2137 #Dangun Osagu BC 2137-BC 2099 #Dangun Gueul BC 2099-BC 2083 #Dangun Dalmun BC 2083-BC 2047 #Dangun Hanyul BC 2047-BC 1993 #Dangun Useohan BC 1993-BC 1985 #Dangun Asul BC 1985-BC 1950 #Dangun Noeul BC 1950-BC 1891 #Dangun Dohae BC 1891-BC 1834 #Dangun Ahan BC 1834-BC 1782 #Dangun Holdal (a.k.a. Daeumdal) BC 1782-BC 1721 #Dangun Gobul BC 1721-BC 1661 #Dangun Daeum (a.k.a. Huhuldal) BC 1661-BC 1610 #Dangun Wina BC 1610-BC 1552 #Dangun Yeoul BC 1552-BC 1484 #Dangun Dongum BC 1484-BC 1435 #Dangun Gumoso BC 1435-BC 1380 #Dangun Sotae BC 1337-BC 1285 #Dangun Saekbullu BC 1285-BC 1237 #Dangun Aheul BC 1237-BC 1161 #Dangun Solna BC 1150-BC 1062 #Dangun Churo BC 1062-BC 997 #Dangun Dumil BC 997-BC 971 #Dangun Haemo BC 971-BC 943 #Dangun Mahyu BC 943-BC 909 #Dangun Naehyu BC 909-BC 874 #Dangun Deungol BC 874-BC 849 #Dangun Chumil BC 849-BC 819 #Dangun Gammul BC 819-BC 795 #Dangun Orumun BC 795-BC 772 #Dangun Sabeol BC 772-BC 704 #Dangun Maeruk BC 704-BC 646 #Dangun Mamul BC 646-BC 590 #Dangun Damul BC 590-BC 545 #Dangun Duhol BC 545-BC 509 #Dangun Daleum BC 509-BC 491 #Dangun Umcha BC 491-BC 471 #Dangun Uleuji BC 471-BC 461 #Dangun Mulli BC 461-BC 425 #Dangun Gumul BC 425-BC 396 #Dangun Yeoru BC 396-BC 341 #Dangun Boeul BC 341-BC 295 #Dangun Goyeolga BC 295-BC 237

Wei Man

Wei Man was a Chinese general who established the Wiman Joseon kingdom in northwestern Korea in the 2nd century BC. He was the first figure in the history of Korea who was recorded in documents of the same age. The Records of the Grand Historian simply calls him Man, so the surname Wei was probably added later.

Korea

Man was a general of the Yan Principality, whose prince Lu Wan (盧綰), Emperor Gao's old ally, ruled. However, Lu Wan fled to the Xiongnu in 195 B.C. because he was suspected of rebellion and was attacked by the Emperor. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Man led 1,000 people, dressed in barbarian costume, crossed the Pei River(浿水; Chŏngchŏn River?) into Korea. He organized natives in Zhenfan and Chaoxian and Chinese refugees from Yan and Qi and came to the crown. He put the capital in Wangxian (P'yŏngyang), and his kingdom came to be known as Wiman Joseon today. Since the Han Empire was not completely stabilized yet, the Governor of Liaodong appointed Man as an outer subject, provided that he did not prevent natives to go up to the empire. With the support of the Han Empire, he expanded the territory by conquering a lot of small towns. His kingdom was eventually conquered by Emperor Wu in 108 B.C during the reign of his grandson Youqu. Weilue, which was written about 400 years later, says that Man took power in a coup from King Zhun, a descendant of the Chinese sage Jizi. Zhun fled to the south and proclaimed himself the King of Han. Some scholars believe that this story came from the Han clan, who claimed themselves as descendants of Jizi, and have spread to China because of Chinese direct rule of the northern Korean peninsula.

Korean history

This article is about the history of Korea. It covers the time up to the division of Korea before the Korean War. See History of North Korea and History of South Korea for the post-war period. See also Names of Korea.

Prehistory

Archaeological evidence shows that humans first inhabited the peninsula about 700,000 years ago. Tool-making artifacts from the Palaeolithic period (70,000 BC to 40,000 BC) have been found in present-day North Hamgyong, South P'yongan, Gyeonggi, and north and south Chungcheong Provinces. The people were cave dwellers and built homes, using fire for food and warmth. They hunted, gathered and fished with stone tools. Earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 7000 BC, and evidence of Mesolithic Pit-Comb Ware culture is found throughout the peninsula. In the late Neolithic period, around 6000 - 4000 BC, pottery designs of parallel wavy lines or lightning flash shapes are found in the western and southern coasts. The Korean peninsula around 3000 BC had numerous settlements. Its pottery was similar to pottery in the Russian Maritime Province, in the Amur and Sungari River basins of Manchuria, and in Mongolia.

Gojoseon (? - 108 BC)

Main articles: Gojoseon, Dangun, Founding Myth of Korea According to legend, Korea's first kingdom, Gojoseon (고조선, then called Joseon), was founded by Dangun in 2333 BC, in southern Manchuria and northern Korean peninsula. The people of Gojoseon belonged to the Tungusic family and were linguistically affiliated with the Altaic. Around 2000 BC, a new pottery culture is evidenced, with painted designs, in Manchuria and northern Korea. The Bronze Age began around 2000 - 1000 BC. Bronze daggers, mirrors, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of walled-town states. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular huts and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/977] Gija, a subject of the Yin state, is thought to have brought Yin cultural influence to Korea around the 11th century BC. By third century BC, iron culture was developing and the warring states pushed the refugees eastward and south to neighboring islands. Around this time, a state called Jin arose in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about Jin, except it was the apparent precursor to the Samhan confederacies. Among the Chinese refugees, Wiman became a Gojoseon commander, then usurped control from King Jun in 194 BC. Wiman Joseon was sinicized, but not a Chinese colony. In 109 BC, the Chinese began a massive invasion of Gojoseon near the Liao River. Gojoseon fell after over a year of war, in 108 BC. China then established four commanderies in northwestern Korea and Manchuria.

Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea (108 BC - 3rd century)

- Main article: Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea After the fall of Gojoseon, the southern part of the peninsula consolidated into three confederations (collectively Samhan): Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. The Mahan and Jinhan confederations reconquered three of the Chinese commanderies in 82 BC and 75 BC. In the north, Goguryeo was founded in southern Manchuria in 37 BC, claiming to be the successor to a branch of Buyeo. Among the other various small states in former Gojoseon territory were the neighboring Buyeo, and Okjeo and Dongye in the northeast of the Korean peninsula, all of which were later conquered by Goguryeo. The last Chinese commandery, at Lelang, was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313 AD. Mahan was later absorbed into Baekje, Jinhan was absorbed into Silla, and Byeonhan was succeeded by Gaya, which was in turn annexed by Silla. Because of this continuity, this period is often combined into the Three Kingdoms period.

Three Kingdoms (3rd century - 668)

Main article: Three Kingdoms of Korea Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla are called the Three Kingdoms. Baekje was founded in 18 BC in the southwest of the Korean Peninsula, by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. It deveoped a strong centralized government based in Seoul by the fourth century, and at its peak, controlled most of the western Korean peninsula. Culturally, Baekje acquired Chinese civilization through its relationship with the Southern Dynasties in China. It played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural developments, including Chinese characters, Buddhism, iron processing, sword making, compass, etc into ancient Japan. Baekje was conquered by the Silla-Tang forces in 660. The earliest founded and largest of the three, Goguryeo, reached its zenith in the fifth century when occupying the Liaodong Plains in Manchuria and today's Seoul area. The Goguryeo kings controlled not only Koreans but also Chinese and other Tungusic tribes in Manchuria and North Korea. Having successfully repelled the Sui and Tang Dynasty of China, the kingdom continued to hold the Chinese from invading the Korean peninsula until conquered by the allied Silla-Tang forces in 668. Silla artifacts, including unique gold metalwork, shows influence from the northern nomadic steppes, differentiating it from the culture of Goguryeo and Baekje where Chinese influence was more pronounced. Silla expanded rapidly by occupying the Han River basin and annexing the Nakdong River chiefdom of Gaya in 562. Silla deepened its relations with the Tang Dynasty, with her newly-gained access to the Yellow Sea. After conquering Goguryeo and Baekje with her Tang allies, the Silla kingdom drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula and occupied the lands south of Pyongyang.

Balhae and Unified Silla

Main articles: Balhae, Unified Silla In 660, King Munmu of Silla ordered his armies to attack Baekje. General Kim Yu-shin, aided by Tang forces, defeated General Ge-Baek and conquered Baekje. In 661, he moved on Goguryeo but was repelled. King Munmu ordered General Kim to launch another campaign in 667 and, in 668, Goguryeo fell. The post-668 Silla kingdom is often referred to as Unified Silla. Unified Silla lasted for 267 years until, under King Gyeongsun, it fell to Goryeo in 935. The state of Balhae (also Bohai or Pohai in Roman text after its Chinese name 渤海) was founded in the former lands of Goguryeo by Dae Joyeong. Balhae controlled the northernmost areas of the Korean Peninsula, parts of Manchuria (but not the Liaodong Peninsula), and expanded into the region which is today's Russian Maritime Province. Balhae styled itself as Goguryeo's successor state. It also modelled itself on the Tang Empire, for example in the layout of its capitals. In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae culture flourished, especially during the long reign of the third king, Mun Wang (r. 737-793). Like Silla culture, the culture of Balhae was strongly influenced by Buddhism. However, Balhae was severely weakened (many presume in-fighting) by the tenth century, and the Khitan Liao Dynasty conquered Balhae in 926. No historical records from Balhae have survived, and the Liao left no histories of Balhae. Goryeo (see below) absorbed some Balhae territory and received Balhae refugees, including the royal family, but compiled no known histories of Balhae either. The Samguk Sagi, for instance, includes passages on Balhae, but does not include a dynastic history of Balhae (as it does of the Three Kingdoms). The eighteenth century Joseon historian Yu Deukgong advocated the proper study of Balhae as part of Korean history, and coined the term "South-North Nations Period" to refer to this era.
Goryeo
Main article: Goryeo The kingdom of Goryeo was founded in 918 and replaced Silla as the dominant power in Korea in the years 935-936. ("Goryeo" is a short form of "Goguryeo" and the source of the English name "Korea.") The kingdom lasted until 1392. During this period laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished, and spread throughout the peninsula. In 1231 the Mongols invaded Korea and after 25 years of struggle the royal family surrendered by signing a treaty with the Mongols. For the following 100 years the Goryeo ruled, but under the interference of the Mongols. In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal struggles. King Kongmin was free at last to reform a Goryeo government. King Kongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars. Another problem was that Japanese pirates were no longer hit-and-run bandits, but organized military marauders raiding deep into the country. It was at that time that General Yi Seonggye distinguished himself by repelling the pirates in a series of successful engagements. The Goryeo kingdom would last until 1392,when Yi Seonggye,who had heavy support,would easily take power in a coup.
Joseon
Main article: Joseon Dynasty In 1392 a Korean general, Yi Seonggye, was sent to China to campaign against the Ming Dynasty, but instead he allied himself with the Chinese, and returned to overthrow the Goryeo king and establish a new dynasty. The Joseon Dynasty moved the capital to Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day Seoul) in 1394 and adopted Confucianism as the country's official religion, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. During this period, the Hangul alphabet was invented by King Sejong in 1443. Joseon (as Korea was called during the Joseon Dynasty) dealt with invasions by Japan from 1592 to 1598 (see Seven-Year War). Korea's most famous military figure, Admiral Yi Sun-sin was instrumental in defeating the Japanese. After the invasions from Manchuria in 1627 and 1636, the dynasty submitted herself to the Qing Empire. On the other hand, Korea permitted the Japanese to trade at Pusan and sent missions to the capital of Edo in Japan from time to time. Europeans were never permitted to trade at Korean ports until the 1880s. Domestic politics was plagued by internal power struggles among Confucian bureaucrats. In spite of some efforts to introduce Western technology through the Jesuit missions at Beijing, the Korean economy remained backward due to weak currency circulation. Peasants, suffering from famine and exploitation, often fled the country into Manchuria.
19th century
During the 19th century, Korea tried to control the opening of the country to unlimited foreign trade and influence by closing the borders to all nations but China. In 1853 the USS South America, an American gunboat, visited Pusan for 10 days and had amiable contact with local Korean officials there. Several Americans who were shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Joseon court which ruled Korea, was well aware of the foreign invasions and treaties thereby within Qing China as well as the Opium Wars there, and reasonably followed a cautious policy of slow exchange with the west. In 1866 the General Sherman Incident put Korea and the United States on a collision course. In 1871, the United States met Korea militarily, in what the Koreans call the Sinmiyangyo and in America is called the 1871 US Korea Campaign. A rapidly modernizing Japan forced Korea to open its ports and successfully challenged the Qing Empire, which claimed sovereignty over Korea, in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). The Japanese murdered Queen Myeongseong, who resisted their exploitation by seeking Russian help, but they were forced to retreat from Korea for a while. In 1897, Joseon was renamed Daehan Jeguk (Korean Empire), and King Gojong became Emperor Gojong. A period of Russian influence followed, until Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Korea could not effectively resist Japanese aggression except limited guerrilla attacks in the mountains. It became a so-called protectorate of Japan on 25 July 1907, the 1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal.
Japanese Occupation

- Main article: Korea under Japanese rule In 1910 Japan annexed Korea by the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty which was signed under duress. (See also: Japanese war crimes) Korea continued to be ruled by Japan under a Governor-General of Korea until Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945. European based transport and communication networks were established across the nation. This facilitated Japanese commerce, but modernization had little if any effect on the Korean people, it being used to serve Japanese trade needs, and their tight centralized controls. The Japanese removed the Joseon hierarchy and revamped Korea's taxation system to evict tenant farmers, export Korean rice crops to Japan which provoked Korean famines; and brought in a punitive series of measures which included murdering those who refused to pay taxes in the provinces; forced slavery in roadworks, mines, and factories first in Korea, then enforced working slavery of Koreans in Japan and its occupied territories. After the former Korean emperor Gojong had died, with a rumor of poisoning, anti-Japanese rallies took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the March 1st (Samil) Movement). This was also inspired by United States president Woodrow Wilson's speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self determination and an end to colonial rule for Europeans. No comment was made by Wilson on Korean independence as a pro-Japan faction in the USA sought trade inroads into China through the Korean peninsula. A declaration of independence was read in Seoul and, according to Korean record, an estimated 2 million people took part in peaceful, pro-independence rallies. (The Japanese record claims less than half million.) This protest in the countryside was suppressed by Japanese government. An estimated 7,000 were arrested, 553 killed and 1409 wounded. Many Korean Christians were crucified or burnt alive in churches as they fought for Korean independence within the Korean independence movements. Continued anti-Japanese rallies, such as the nationwide uprising of students in November 1929, led to the strengthening of military rule in 1931. After the outbreaks of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and World War II Japan attempted to wipe out Korea as a nation. Worship at Japanese Shinto shrines was made compulsory. The school curriculum was radically modified to eliminate teaching in the Korean language within Korea. The continuance of Korean culture itself began to be illegal. Newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean and the study of Korean history was banned at university with Korean textbooks burnt, destroyed, or made illegal. Some Koreans left the Korean peninsula to Manchuria and Primorsky Krai. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as Dongnipgun (Independence Army) which would travel in and out of the Korean-Chinese boundary, fighting guerilla warfare with the Japanese forces. During the Period of Japanese Rule, a self-professed Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established in Shanghai. On December 11, 1941 this "provisional government" declared war again and fought with its Korean Restoration Army alongside the Allied Forces. Seven days after the sundering of the friendship Pact, Soviet tanks invaded Korea from Siberia, meeting little to no resistance. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese rule. US forces under General Hodge would not arrive to southern part of Korea until September 8th. Colonel Dean Rusk proposed splitting Korea at the 38th parallel at an emergency US meeting to determine spheres of influence during this time. The Modernization in Korea (e.g. western style educational system, transportation networks etc.), which had launched since the beginning of the 20th century, continued during the Period of Japanese Rule (1910-1945). The further development of Korea by Japanese served their needs, and were denied to Koreans other than participating in forced slave labour to build roads, and buildings. This is often used as a defense of Japanese policies, while opponents point out that Japanese commercial interests were always put first and that Korean economic development was prevented. Modernization in Korea can be said definitely to have begun in the post-1945 period under the stewardship of America and its allies in a way that benefited Korea itself.

The division of Korea

Main article: Division of Korea The unconditional surrender of Japan, the earlier collapse of Nazi Germany, combined with fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology, led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones effectively starting on September 8, 1945, with the United States administering the southern half of the peninsula and the Soviet Union taking over the area north of the 38th parallel. This division was meant to be temporary and was first intended to return a unified Korea back to its people until the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China could arrange a trusteeship administration. At the Cairo Conference on 22 November 1943, it was agreed that Korea would be free "in due course as one unified country”; at a later meeting in Yalta in February 1945, it was agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea. In December 1945, a conference convened in Moscow to discuss the future of Korea. A 5-year trusteeship was discussed, and a joint Soviet-American commission was established. The commission met intermittently in Seoul but deadlocked over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no solution in sight, the United States submitted the Korean question to the UN General Assembly. Initial hopes for a unified, independent Korea quickly evaporated as the politics of the Cold War and opposition to the trusteeship plan from Korean anti-communists resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate nations with diametrically opposed political, economic, and social systems. In June 1950 the Korean War broke out, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for the time being. See History of North Korea and History of South Korea for the post-war period.

References

- Yang, S.C. (1999). The North and South Korean political systems: A comparative analysis. (Rev. Ed.). Seoul: Hollym. ISBN 1-56591-105-9

External links

- http://www.scottshaw.com/history/ The History of the Korean Martial Arts ko:한국의 역사 ja:朝鮮の歴史

China

to protect the north from nomadic invaders and has been rebuilt several times since.]] China () refers to a number of states and cultures that have existed and are viewed as having succeeded one another in continental East Asia, dating back at least 3,500 years. China as it exists today has been variously described in different points of view as a single civilization or multiple civilizations, as a single state or multiple states, and as a single nation or multiple nations. With one of the world's longest periods of mostly uninterrupted civilization and the world's longest continuously used written language system, China's history has been largely characterized by repeated divisions and reunifications amid alternating periods of peace and war, and violent imperial dynastic change. The country's territorial extent expanded outwards from a core area in the North China Plain, and varied according to its moving fortunes to include multiple regions of East, Northeast, and Central Asia. For centuries, Imperial China was also one of the world's most technologically advanced civilizations, and East Asia's dominant cultural influence, with an impact lasting to the present day throughout the region. By the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however, China's political, economic, and military influence declined relative to growing regional power Japan and the influence of Western powers. Semi-colonialism developed by the late nineteenth century in parts of China, and the country was invaded by the Empire of Japan during World War II. The imperial system in China ended with the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) under Sun Yat-sen in 1912; however, the next four decades of ROC rule were marred by warlord control, the Second Sino-Japanese War (WWII), and the Chinese Civil War which pitted Chinese Nationalists against the Communist forces. After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the Republic of China (ROC) to retreat to the island of Taiwan, which it had governed since the end of World War II. Since then, the ROC has maintained administrative control over Taiwan, the Pescadores, several islands off the coast of Fujian province, and some islands in the South China Sea.

Terminology

"Zhongguo"

South China Sea China is called Zhongguo in Mandarin Chinese (Simplified: 中国, Traditional: 中國; also romanized as Jhongguo or Chung-kuo), which is usually translated as "Middle Kingdom", but could also be translated as "Central State" or "Central Country". Zhong (中) means "middle" or "center" while guo (国 or 國) means "country," "kingdom," "state," or "land", referring to the claim that China stood at the centre of that society's "known world", surrounded by lesser tributary states. The term has not been used consistently throughout Chinese history, however, and carries certain cultural and political connotations both positive and negative, some ideological, and early states considered part of Chinese history are not called "Zhongguo". During the Spring and Autumn Period, it was used only to describe the states politically descended from the Western Zhou Dynasty, in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley, to the exclusion of states such as Chu and Qin. The "Chinese" thus defined their nation as culturally and politically distinct from - and as the axis mundi of surrounding nations; a concept that continued well into the Qing Dynasty, although being continually redefined while the central political influence expanded territorially, and its culture assimilated alien influences. Thus Zhongguo quickly came to include areas farther south, as the cultural and political unit (not yet a "nation" or "country" in the modern sense) spread in a southerly direction, including the Yangtze River and Pearl River systems, and by the Tang Dynasty it even included "barbarian" regimes such as the Xianbei and Xiongnu. Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, and the island of Taiwan, over time, came to be dominated (to a greater or lesser extent) by, or officially ruled by, imperial China, and are often included as a part of Zhongguo, though acceptance or denial of such claims remains politically controversial, especially where Zhongguo means PRC. During the Han Dynasty and before, Zhongguo had three distinctive meanings: # The area around the capital or imperial domain. The Book of Poetry explicitly gives this definition. # Territories under the direct authority of the "central" authorities. The Historical Records states: "Eight mountains are famed in the empire. Three are with the Man and Yi barbarians. Five are in Zhongguo." # The area now called the North China Plain. The Sanguo Zhi records the following monologue: "If we can lead the host of Wu and Yue (the area of southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang) to oppose Zhongguo, then we should break off relations with them soon." In this sense, the term is synonymous with Hua (華) and Xia (夏). During the period of division after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the term Zhongguo was subjected to transformation as a result of the surge of nomadic peoples from the northern frontier. This was doubly so after the loss of the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization, to these peoples. For example, the Xianbei called their Northern Wei regime Zhongguo, contrasting it with the Southern Dynasties, which they called the Yi (夷), meaning "barbarian". The southern dynasties, for their part, recently exiled from the north, called the Northern Wei Lu (虏), meaning "criminal" or "prisoner". In this way Zhongguo came to represent political legitimacy. It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of Liao, Jin and Song. The term Zhongguo came to be related to geographic, cultural and political identity and less to ethnic origin. The Republic of China, as it controlled mainland China, and later, the People's Republic of China, have used Zhongguo as an entity existing theoretically to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control as well as those outside of it (people in the Republic of China on Taiwan now usually use Zhongguo to refer to the PRC and use Taiwan to refer to itself). Thus it is asserted that all 56 officially recognized ethnic groups are Zhongguo ren (中國人), or Zhongguo people. Their disparate histories are collectively the history of Zhongguo.

"China"

Song in ancient times, was the imperial capital of 13 different historical dynasties (including the Han and Tang dynasties) in China.]] English and many other languages use forms of the name China (and the prefix Sino-), which is believed to have derived from the name of the Qin dynasty that first unified the country, even though it is not completely resolved and the origins are still controversial to an extent [http://www.bartleby.com/61/80/C0298000.html]. Despite the fact that the Qin dynasty was short-lived and was often regarded as overly tyrannical it unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor", hence, the subsequent Silk Road traders would identify themselves by that name. Alternate theories on the origin of the word "China" exist. In any circumstance, the word China passed through many languages along the Silk Road before it finally reached Europe and England. The Western "China", transliterated to Shina (支那) has also been used by Japanese since the nineteenth century, and has since evolved into a derogatory term in that language. The term "China" can narrowly mean China proper, or, often, China proper and Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang, a combination essentially coterminous with the 20th and 21st century political entity China; the boundaries between these regions do not necessarily follow provincial boundaries. In many contexts, "China" is commonly used to refer to the People's Republic of China or mainland China, while "Taiwan" is used to refer to the Republic of China. Informally, in economic or business contexts, "the Greater China region" (大中華地區) refers to Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, more akin to the classical usage of Zhongguo, or to the meaning of the "Han ethnic group", who make up the bulk of Mainland China. In many contexts it may be more appropriate to speak of "mainland China" (中國大陸,zhōngguó dàlù in Mandarin), especially when contrasting it with other, politically different regions like Hong Kong, Macau, and territories administered by the Republic of China (Taiwan).

History

:Main articles: History of China, History of the Republic of China (1912–1949; 1949–Present on Taiwan), History of People's Republic of China (1949–Present) History of People's Republic of China China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing independently, the others being ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), India (Indus Valley Civilization), the Mayans, and, some hold, Ancient Egypt—though it may have been learned from the Sumerians. The first dynasty according to Chinese historical sources was the Xia Dynasty. Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the existence of the Xia Dynasty. But since then, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the Xia dynasty at the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. However, the first confirmed dynasty is the Shang, who settled along the Huang He river, dating from the 18th to the 12th centuries BC. The Shang were in turn invaded by the Zhou (12th to 5th centuries BC), whose centralized authority was slowly eroded by the ceding of state-like authority to warlords ruling small states; eventually, in the Spring and Autumn period, many strong independent states, in continuous war, paid but nominal deference to the Zhou state as the Imperial centre. They were all unified under one emperor in 221 BC by Qin Shi Huang, ushering in the Qin Dynasty, the first unified centralized Chinese state. This state, however, did not last for long, as it was way too authoritarian, destroying many sources of competition for power that were also sources of good governance and development, such as scholars and intellectuals. After the fall of authoritarian Qin Dynasty in 207 BC came the Han Dynasty which lasted until 220 AD. A period of disunion followed again. In 580, China was reunited under the Sui. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, China reached its golden age. For a long period of time, especially between the 7th and 14th centuries, China was one of the most advanced civilizations in the world in technology, literature, and art. The Song Dynasty fell to the invading Mongols in 1279. The Mongols, under Kublai Khan, established the Yuan Dynasty. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty, which lasted until 1644. After the Ming dynasty, came the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, which lasted until the overthrow of Puyi in 1911. Oftentimes regime change was violent and strongly opposed and the ruler class needed to take special measures to ensure their rule and the loyalty of the overthrown dynasty. For example, after the foreign Qing (Manchus) conquered China, because they were ever suspicious of the Han Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population. However, these restrictions proved ineffective against the assimilation of Manchus into the Chinese identity and culture. In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of Central Asia, which it had been at war with for several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europe in that respect. This set the stage for the 19th century, in which China adopted a defensive posture against European imperialism while itself engaging in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. See Imperialism in Asia. However the primary cause of the decline of the Chinese empire was not European and American interference, as the ethnocentric Western historians would lead many to believe. On the contrary it was a series of internal upheavals. Most prominent of these was the Taiping Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862. The civil war was started by an extremist believer in a school of thought partly influenced by Christianity who believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the imperial forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history - costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First World War). Prior to this conflict a number of Islamic Rebellions, especially in Central Asia, had occurred. Later, a second major rebellion took place, although this latter uprising was considerably smaller than the cataclysmic Taiping Civil War. This second conflict was the Boxer Rebellion which aimed to repel Westerners. Although secretly supporting the rebels, the Empress, Ci Xi, aided foreign forces in suppressing the uprising. Ci Xi, 1949.]] In 1912, after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the Emperor of China disappeared and the Republic of China was established. The following three decades were a period of disunion — the Warlord Era, the Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese Civil War. The latter ended in 1949 with the Communist Party of China in control of mainland China. The CPC established a communist state—the People's Republic of China—that laid claim to be the successor state of the Republic of China. Meanwhile, the disorganized and potentially corrupt ROC government of the Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, where it continued to be recognized as the legitimate government of all China by the Western bloc and the United Nations until the 1970s, when most nations and the UN switched recognition to the PRC. The United Kingdom and Portugal transferred their colonies of Hong Kong and Macau on the southern Chinese coast to the PRC in 1997 and 1999, respectively. China used in a modern context often refers to just the territory of the PRC, or to "Mainland China" (the territory of the PRC excluding Hong Kong and Macau). The PRC does not recognize the ROC, as it claims to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of China including Taiwan. On the other hand, the ROC—while never formally renouncing its earlier claims or changing official maps that show its territory as including both the modern-day PRC, Mongolia and Tibet—has moved away from this former identity representing its rule over all of China, and increasingly identifies itself as Taiwan. The PRC has historically resisted the ROC's identification of itself as Taiwan, especially in light of the movement supported by residents of Taiwan and others who advocate Taiwan's identity as an independent political entity. Significant disputes persist as to the nature and extent of China, possible Chinese reunification and the political status of Taiwan.

Chinese Pre-history

Archeological evidence suggests that the earliest occupants in China date as long as 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago by an ancient human relative (hominin) known as Homo erectus. One particular cave in Zhoukoudian (now known as Peking) has fossilised evidence dating to 300,000 and 550,000 years old. Evidence of primitive stone tool technology and animal bones in association to H. erectus have been studied since the late 18th century to 19th century in various areas of Eastern Asia including Indonesia (in particular the Island of Java) and Malaysia. Originally it is thought that these early hominis first evolved in Africa during the Pleistocene. It is thought that human evolution first took place in Africa expanding 7 million years. By 2 million years ago the first wave of migration from the species in association with H. erectus settled into various areas in the Old World. Fully modern humans (homo sapiens) are believed to originally have evolved roughly 200,000 and 168,000 years ago in Ethiopia or Southern Africa (ei. Homo sapiens idaltu). By 100,000 to 50,000 years ago modern human beings settled in all parts of the Old world (including the New World, Americas 25,000 to 11,000 BCE). By less than 100,000 years ago all proto-human populations disappeared as modern humans took over or drove other human species into extinction. It remains a controversial subject to whether fully modern humans evolved from separate H. erectus populations (known as "multiregional") as some evidence in ancient bones show a transitional change from H. erectus to H. sapiens having archaic features. However it is now more widely accepted that all modern humans genetically share a direct ancestor, a female nicknamed "Mitochondrial Eve" from Eastern Africa 150,000 years BCE. This model is known as Mitochondrial Eve Hypothesis. The earliest evidence examples of fully modern humans in China come from Liujiang, China where a cranium dates 67,000 years BCE. Another is a partial skeleton from Minatogawa being just 18,000 years old.

Political history

Before unification by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, "China" did not exist as a coherent entity. The Chinese civilization consisted of a patchwork of several states, each ruled by a king (王), duke (公), marquess (侯), or earl (伯). Although there was a central king who held nominal power, and powerful hegemons sometimes held considerable influence, each state was ruled as an independent political entity. This is also the time of the beginnings of Confucian philosophy and that of many other philosophies that greatly influenced Chinese philosophy-political thought. This ended with the Qin Dynasty unification, during which the office of the emperor was set up, and a system of bureaucratic administration established. After the Qin, China experienced about 13 more dynasties, many of which continued the extensive system of kingdoms, dukedoms, earldoms, and marquisates. The territory varied with several expansions and contractions depending on the strength of each emperor and dynasty. However the emperor had ultimate, supreme, and unquestionable authority as the political and religious leader of China. The emperor also consulted civil and martial ministers, especially the prime minister. Political power sometimes fell into the hands of powerful officials, eunuchs, or imperial relatives, often at the expense of a child heriditary emperor. This happened especially since the emperor often was many layers of power removed from the outside world, making him susceptible to manipulation because his sources for information could manipulate that information causing him to make incorrect decisions, especially when their age at becoming emperor often had no bottom limit, with rule passing heriditarily but also given "in trust" to another relative. Political relations with dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international marriages, military aids, treaties, and gifts. (see section "Geography, Political" below for examples), Luoyang, Chang'an (today's Xi'an), Nanjing, and Beijing are the four cities most commonly designated as capitals of China over the course of history. Chinese was the official language, though periods of Mongol and Manchu conquest saw the arrival of Mongol and Manchu as alternate official languages. On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) was established, signaling the end of the Manchu-dominated Qing Empire. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon forced Sun to step aside and took the presidency for himself (formally it was a negotiation where Sun agreed to step aside for what was then perceived as a strong reformer, Yuan). Before long, Yuan attempted to have himself proclaimed emperor of a new dynasty; however, he died soon of natural causes before fully taking power over all of the Chinese empire. After Yuan's downfall, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing (thus failing to fit the definition of a state). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. state In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang with heavy Leninist influences. Ironically, both the Kuomintang and the CCP have heavy Leninist influences. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CPC), many provisions of the 1947 ROC constitution were never put into actual practice on the mainland. By early 1950, the CPC had defeated the Kuomintang on the mainland, and the ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Beginning in the late 1970s, Taiwan began the implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under ROC control (i.e., Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Today, the political scene in the ROC is vibrant, with active participation by all sectors of society. But rather than the usual conservative-liberal policy distinctions that are the hallmarks of most democracies around the world, the main cleavage in ROC politics is the unification with China in the long-run vs. formal independence issue. However, Greens are generally more liberal (i.e. more environmentally friendly) and Blues are generally regarded as more conservative. environmentally friendly Meanwhile, Mao Zedong, the leader of the communists, proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949 in Beijing, saying China had stood up. From the beginning, the PRC has been a dictatorial one-party state under the Communist Party. However, post-1978 reforms have led to the relaxation, in varying degrees, of party control over many areas of society. Nonetheless, the Communist Party still has absolute control over political aspects of society, and it continuously seeks to eradicate threats to its rule. Examples of this include the jailing of political opponents and journalists, general control of the press, regulation of religions and other non-party organizations, censorship of the press, literature and film, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, a popular demonstration held in Beijing at Tiananmen Square was violently put to an end by the Chinese government. Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989 The attempted eradication of the Falun Gong movement is also held by its supporters to be motivated by fear of Falun Gong's growing influence. Today, however, there is much more freedom in intellectual thought in non-political areas and propaganda, while still continuing, has lessened.

Territory

Historical overview

propaganda The Zhou Dynasty, which preceded the unification of China by Shi Huangdi, was originally the region around the Yellow River. Since then, the territory has expanded outward in all directions, and was largest during the Tang, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. The Qing Dynasty included parts of modern Russian Far East and Central Asia (west of Xinjiang). Xinjiang Along with provincial administrators, some foreign monarchs sent envoys to offer gifts to the Emperor of China and the Emperor returned compliments to them. The Chinese thought that the barbarians attached themselves to the virtue of the Emperor, while the foreign governments sometimes disagreed. Since the end of the 19th century, China has tried to reinterpret this relationship as suzerainty or suzerainty-dependency, but this no longer has any real conception in modern international political theories. The Qing Empire reduced the territorial value of the Great Wall of China as a barrier of China proper after they merged their homeland (Manchuria) north of the wall with China proper south of it. In 1683 after the surrender of the Kingdom of Tungning established by Koxinga, Taiwan including the Pescadores became a part of the Qing Empire, originally as one prefecture, then two, and later a province. Taiwan was subsequently ceded to Japan after the first Sino-Japanese War in 1895. At the end of the second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, Japan relinquished the sovereignty of the island in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, and the Republic of China took over. Since then, the de jure sovereignty of Taiwan has been under dispute between the PRC, and the now democratic ROC and Taiwan independence supporters.

Historical political divisions

Historically, top-level political divisions of China have altered as the administration changed. Top levels included circuits and provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships (see below for examples). Historically, most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known by the politically-correct term of China proper (since it doesn't include places it doesn't control, such as Mongolia or Taiwan). Various dynasties also exhibited expansionism by engaging in incursions into more peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China cemented the incorporation of these territories into China. These territories are separated by borders that are vague at best, and do not correspond well to contemporary political divisions. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan plateau; Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found to the north of the Great Wall of China, and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World War II-era puppet state of Manchukuo; Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang; and historic Tibet is conceived as occupying all of the Tibetan Plateau. China is also traditionally thought of as comprising North China (北方) and South China (南方), the geographic boundary between which north and south is largely generalized as Huai River (淮河) and Qinling Mountains (秦岭).

Geography and climate

Qinling Mountains

China within East Asia. ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/reference_maps/pdf/asia.pdf PDF])

China is composed of a vast variety of highly different landscapes, with mostly plateaus and mountains in the west, and lower lands on the east. As a result, principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Huang He (central-east), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific. Most of China's arable lands lie along the two major rivers, the Yangtze and the Huang He, and each are the centers around which are founded China's major ancient civilizations. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea are found extensive and densely populated alluvial plains; the shore of the South China Sea is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges. To the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, with the Himalayas, containing the highest point Mount Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus among more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. Due to a prolonged drought and perhaps poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China. Dust blows all the way to southern China, Taiwan, and has even been measured on the West Coast of the United States. United States native to the bamboo forests of central and southern China.]] During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam. The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (within which lies Beijing) has a climate with winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (within which Shanghai is situated) has a generally temperate climate. The southern zone (within which lies Guangzhou and other southern provinces) has a generally subtropical climate. The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaux.

Demographics

Shandong.]] Over a hundred ethnic groups have existed in China. In terms of numbers, however, the pre-eminent ethnic group in China is the Han, which is a group so diverse in its culture and language that some conceive of it as a larger overarching group bringing together many smaller, distinct ethnic groups sharing common traits in language and culture. Throughout history, many ethnic groups have been assimilated into neighbouring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace. Several previously distinct ethnic groups have been Sinicized into the Han, causing its population to increase dramatically; at the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. Many times in the past millenia many foreign groups have, in turn, shaped Han language and culture, for example the queue is a pig tail hairstyle strictly enforced by the Manchurians on the Han populace. The term Zhonghua Minzu is sometimes used to describe a notion of a "Chinese nationality" transcending ethnic divisions. The government of the People's Republic of China now officially recognizes a total of 56 ethnic groups, of which the largest is the Han Chinese. China's overall population is 1.3 billion. With the global human population currently estimated at about 6.4 billion, China is home to approximately 20%, or one-fifth of the human species, homo sapiens. The lack of birth control and promotion of population growth during the rule of Mao Zedong resulted in a demographic explosion, culminating in over 1.3 billion people today. As a response to the problems this is causing, the government of the PRC has enacted a birth control policy, commonly known as the One-child policy. The Han speak several mutually unintelligible tongues, classified by modern linguists as being separate languages, but regarded within the Chinese languages as "dialects" or "local languages" (topolects) within a single Chinese language (the word for "area languages" has an implication of dialect rather than a separate language, although on the basis of use, these topolects can be found to be separate and mutually unintelligible, and are so classified by many linguists). The various spoken varieties of Chinese share a common written standard, "Vernacular Chinese" or "baihua", which has been used since the early 20th Century and is based on Standard Mandarin, the standard spoken language, in grammar and vocabulary. In addition, another, more ancient written standard, Classical Chinese, was used for writing Chinese by the literati for thousands of years before the 20th Century. Classical Chinese is no longer the predominant form of written Chinese, though it continues to be a part of high school curricula and is hence intelligible to some degree to many Chinese people. Other than Standard Mandarin, spoken variants are usually not written; the exception is Standard Cantonese, which is sometimes written as Written Cantonese in informal contexts. Written Cantonese.]]

Culture

Religion

The major religions of China are:
- Taoism - exact numbers unknown
- Buddhism - exact numbers unknown [about 8%]
- Christianity - 2 to 4% (this is a Western number, the Chinese official number is much smaller than 1%)
- Islam - 1% to 2%
- Falun Gong - exact numbers unknown (claim not to be a "religion", though from a scholarly perspective is a spiritual practice, claimed numbers of followers of the Falun Dafa are also regarded as unreliable) While the People's Republic of China is officially atheist it does allow religion under strict supervision. Historically, Taoism and Buddhism has been the dominant religion of Chinese societies, and continues to be so in Chinese societies outside of direct PRC control. In recent years, Falun Gong, a spiritual practice drawing upon Buddhism and Taoism, has attracted great controversy after the government of the People's Republic of China labeled it an evil cult and began an attempt to eradicate it. The Falun Gong itself denies that it is a cult or a religion, even though there is solid evidence that determines Falun Gong as a rather" abormal" cult, several members have been seen to burn themselves alive even before the Chinese government has reacted to Falun Gong, unfortuantely, most people are oblivious of this fact and even a majority of members are oblivious to this. The Falun Gong says that it has approximately 70-100 million followers, which is a bit higher than estimates by outside groups, though exact numbers are unknown. They regularly protest against their suppression, both domestically and internationally.

Arts, scholarship, and literature

Falun Gong.]] Chinese literature has a long and prolific continuous history, in part because of the development of printmaking during the Song Dynasty. Before that, manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were manually written by ink brush (previously scratching shells) and distributed. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on these works in both printed and written form. Members of royalty frequently participated in these discussions. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant and more, from oracle bones to Qing edicts, are discovered each day, which had been formally ground up for use in Chinese medicine. oracle bones For centuries, opportunity for economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the imperial examinations. This led to a meritocracy, though in practice this was possible only among those who were not female or too poor to afford test preparation, as doing well still required tutorship. Nevertheless it was a system distinct from the European system of blood nobility. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets have been, for the most part, highly respected, and played a key role in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities. (See List of Chinese authors, and List of Chinese language poets). The Chinese have created numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng, xiao, and erhu, that have spread throughout East and Southeast Asia, and especially areas under its influence. The sheng is the basis for several Western free-reed instruments. Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout the Chinese history, and were "simplified" in the mid-20th century on mainland China. Calligraphy is a major art-form in China, above that of painting and music. Because of its association with elite scholar-official bosses, it later on became commercialized, where works by famous artists became prized possessions. The great variation and beauty in the Chinese landscape is often the inspiration for great works of Chinese art. See Chinese painting for more details. Calligraphy, sushi, and bonsai are all millennia-old art that later spread to Japan and Korea.

Science and technology

Korea In addition to the cultural innovations mentioned above, technological inventions from China include:
- Compass
- Block Printmaking / Printing Technology
- Paper
- Asian abacus
- Gunpowder
- Crossbow
- Stirrup
- Lacquer
- Rudder
- Seismograph
- Silk
- Porcelain
- Paper money
- The Glider
- The Hot air balloon
- Fireworks
- Parachute Other areas of technological study:
- The main applications of mathematics in traditional China were architecture and geography. Pi (π) was calculated by 5th century mathematician Zu Chongzhi to the seventh digit. The decimal system was used in China as early as 14 Century BC. "Pascal's" Triangle was discovered by mathematician Liu Ju-Hsieh, long before Pascal was born.
- Studies in biology have been extensive, and historic records are consulted even today, such as pharmacopoeias of medicinal plant<

Yan (state)

)]] Yan (pinyin: yan1, simplified Chinese/traditional Chinese: 燕) was a state during the Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods in China. Its capital was Ji (nowadays Beijing). As the most northeastern of all the Chinese states during this time period, it suffered several invasions from the north. The states of Zhao and Qi were its main enemies. The border between the Zhao and the Yan became the area where the two armies often clashed. However, the strongest opposition came from the Qi instead. In 314 BC, taking advantage of a succession crisis within the Yan, Qi invaded and in a little over several months practically conquered the country. However, due to the misconduct of Qi troops during the conquest of Yan a revolt eventually drove them away. Yan's new king, King Zhao of Yan then plotted with the states of Zhao, Qin, Han and Wei for a joint expedition against the Qi. Led by the brilliant tactician Yue Yi, it was highly successful and within a year most of the Qi's seventy walled cities had fallen, with the exception of Zimu and Lu. However with the death of King Zhao and the expulsion of Yue Yi to Zhao by the new king, King Wei of the Yan, Tian Shan managed to recapture all of the cities from the 5 kingdoms. Still, it survived through most of the Warring States period. In 227 BC, the Yan Prince Dan sent an assassin named Jing Ke to kill the king of Qin, later First Emperor of Qin, without success. Enraged, the king of Qin called on Wang Zhan to destroy the Yan. Crushing them at Yishui, Ji fell the following year and the ruler, King Qi of Yan, fled to the Liaodong Peninsula. In 222 BC Liaodong fell as well, and Yan was totally conquered by Qin.

External link

- [http://www.baodingtravel.com/ev/yanxiadu.htm Yan State Capital Relics in Baoding] Category:Ancient Chinese states ja:燕 (春秋) ko:연나라

Pyongyang

:For the graphic novel by Guy Delisle, see Pyongyang (comic). P'yŏngyang (평양 / 平壤) is the capital city of North Korea, located in the northwest of the country, situated on the Taedong River. The official population of the city is not disclosed; given as 2,741,260 in 1993, it was reported as 2.5 and 3.8 million in 2002 and 2003 by Chosen Soren, a pro-North Korean organization. Pyongyang is located at 39°2' North, 125°45' East (39.0333, 125.75). The city was split from the South P'yŏngan province in 1946. It is administered as a Directly Governed City (Chikhalsi), on the same level as provincial governments, not a Special City (Teukbyeolsi) as Seoul is in South Korea. Some sources, mostly older and South Korean, refer to Pyongyang as a Special City, but it has been reported that even the South Korean government adopted the Directly Governed City terminology in 1994.

History

According to legend, the city was founded in 2333 BC as Wanggŏmsŏng (왕검성; 王儉城). It became a major city under the Go-Joseon Dynasty. Goguryeo moved its capital here in 427. The Tang Empire and Silla allied and defeated Goguryeo in 668. In 676 it was taken by Silla but left in the border between Silla and Balhae until the Goryeo dynasty, when the city was revived as Sŏgyŏng (서경; 西京; "Western Capital," although never actually a capital of Goryeo). It was the provincial capital of the P'yŏngan Province during the Joseon Dynasty, becoming provincial capital of South P'yŏngan Province from 1896 and through the period of Japanese rule. In 1945, Japanese rule ended and it was occupied by Soviet forces, and became the temporary capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea at its establishment in 1948 while it aimed to recapture its official capital at that time of Seoul. It was severely damaged in the Korean War, during which it was briefly occupied by South Korean forces. After the war, the city was quickly rebuilt with Soviet help, with many buildings built in Stalinist architecture.

Historic names

One of its many historic names is Ryugyŏng (류경; 柳京), or "capital of willows", as willow trees have always been numerous throughout the city's history, and many poems written about these willows. Even today, Pyongyang has numerous willow trees planted everywhere, and many buildings and places are named with "Ryugyŏng", the most notable of all being its uncompleted Ryugyong Hotel. Its other historic names include Kisŏng, Hwangsŏng, Rangnang, Sŏgyŏng, Sŏdo, Hogyŏng, Changan, etc.

Administrative divisions

P'yŏngyang is divided into 19 wards ("Kuyŏk") and 4 counties ("Kun").
- Chung-guyŏk (중구역; 中區域)
- P'yŏngch'ŏn-guyŏk (평천구역; 平川區域)
- Pot'onggang-guyŏk (보통강구역; 普通江區域)
- Moranbong-guyŏk (모란봉구역; 牡丹峰區域)
- Sŏsŏng-guyŏk (서성구역; 西城區域)
- Sŏn'gyo-guyŏk (선교구역; 船橋區域)
- Tongdaewŏn-guyŏk (동대원구역; 東大院區域)
- Taedonggang-guyŏk (대동강구역; 大同江區域)
- Sadong-guyŏk (사동구역; 寺洞區域)
- Taesŏng-guyŏk (대성구역; 大城區域)
- Man'gyŏngdae-guyŏk (만경대구역; 萬景台區域)
- Hyŏngjesan-guyŏk (형제산구역; 兄弟山區域)
- Ryongsŏng-guyŏk (룡성구역; 龍城區域)
- Samsŏk-guyŏk (삼석구역; 三石區域)
- Sŭngho-guyŏk (승호구역; 勝湖區域)
- Ryŏkp'o-guyŏk (력포구역; 力浦區域)
- Rakrang-guyŏk (락랑구역; 樂浪區域)
- Sunan-guyŏk (순안구역; 順安區域)
- Ŭnjŏng-guyŏk (은정구역; 恩情區域)
- Kangnam-gun (강남군; 江南郡)
- Chunghwa-gun (중화군; 中和郡)
- Sangwŏn-gun (상원군; 祥原郡)
- Kangdong-gun (강동군; 江東郡)

Landmarks

Rangnang The capital has been completely rebuilt since the Korean War (1950–1953). It is designed with wide avenues, imposing monuments, and monolithic buildings. The tallest structure in the city is the uncompleted 1,082 foot (330 m) Ryugyong Hotel. This hotel has 105 floors, encloses 3.9 million square feet (360,000 m²) of floor space, and topped by seven rotating restaurants. However, construction has been stalled since the early 1990s. The building stands now as an empty shell. Some notable landmarks in the city include the Arch of Triumph (a larger replica of Paris's Arc de Triomphe), the reputed birthplace of