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Williams Carter Wickham

Williams Carter Wickham

Williams Carter Wickham (September 21, 1820–July 23, 1888) was an important Confederate general who fought in the Virginia campaigns. After the war, he held various political posts and was the President of the Chesapeake & Ohio railroad company. Wickham was the son of William Fanning Wickham and Anne Butler Carter. His mother was first cousins with Robert E. Lee, while his father was the son of John Wickham, the constitutional lawyer. Wickham was born in Richmond, Virginia, but spent much of his youth on his father's 3,200 acre plantation called Hickory Hill just north of Richmond. Wickham was graduated from the University of Virginia and was admitted to the bar in 1842. He was married to Lucy Penn Taylor and had several children. He became a justice and was elected to the Virginia house of delegates in 1849. In 1858 he was commissioned captain of Virginia volunteer cavalry, and in 1861 he was elected by the people of Henrico to the state convention as a Unionist, where he voted against the articles of secession. Following the secession of Virginia, he took his company, the Hanover Dragoons, into service. After participating in the first battle of Bull Run, Wickham was commissioned by Governor Letcher as lieutenant-colonel of the Fourth Virginia cavalry in September, 1861. On May 4, 1862, he incurred a severe saber wound during a cavalry charge at Williamsburg. In this state of injury, he was captured, but quickly paroled. In August, 1862, he was commissioned colonel of the Fourth Virginia cavalry. At the battle of Sharpsburg, he was wounded again in the neck by a shell fragment. Recovering, he participated in the battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. Wickham was commissioned brigadier-general on September 9, 1863, and put in command of Wickham's brigade of Fitzhugh Lee's division. On May 11, 1864 he fought under General Jeb Stuart at the Battle of Yellow Tavern. Stuart was mortally wounded during this engagement, with his final order being: "Order Wickham to dismount his brigade and attack." In September, 1864, after the Confederate defeat at the Battle of Fisher's Hill, he blocked at Milford an attempt by General Philip Sheridan to encircle and destroy the Confederate forces of General Jubal Anderson Early. He then attacked the Federal cavalry at Waynesboro and forced them to retreat to Bridgewater. Wickham resigned his commission on October 5, 1864 and took his seat in the Confederate Congress, to which he had been elected while in the field. Recognizing that the days of the Confederacy were over, he participated in the Hampton Roads Conference in an attempt to bring an early end to the war. After the surrender of the Confederacy, Wickham was active in improving harmony between the states and reorganizing Virginia's economy, which had been ruined by the war. He became a Republican and voted for General Ulysses S. Grant as a member of the electoral college of Virginia in 1872. He became President of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway company, and oversaw the construction of a railway from Richmond to the coal fields of West Virginia. After his death in 1888, a statue was raised in his honor in Richmond's Monroe Park. Wickham Wickham Wickham

September 21

September 21 is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years). There are 101 days remaining.

Events


- 454 - Roman Emperor Valentinian III assassinates Aëtius in his own throne room.
- 1745 - Battle of Prestonpans: A Hanoverian army under the command of John Cope is defeated, in ten minutes, by the Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart
- 1765 - Antoine de Beauterne announced he had killed the Beast of Gévaudan.
- 1780 - American Revolutionary War: Benedict Arnold gives the British the plans to West Point.
- 1792 - The French National Convention votes to abolish the monarchy.
- 1827 - Joseph Smith, Jr., claims that the angel Moroni gave him a record of gold plates, one-third of which is translated into The Book of Mormon.
- 1860 - In the Second Opium War, an Anglo-French force defeats Chinese troops at the Battle of Baliqiao.
- 1896 - British force under Horatio Kitchener takes Dongola in the Sudan.
- 1897 - The Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus letter is published in the New York Sun.
- 1898 - Empress Dowager Cixi seizes power and ends the Hundred Days' Reform in China.
- 1921 - Oppau explosion, a storage silo at a fertilizer producing plant exploded in Oppau, Germany, 500—600 killed.
- 1937 - J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit is published.
- 1939 - Romanian Prime Minister Armand Calinescu is assassinated by pro-Nazi members of the Iron Guard.
- 1942 - The B-29 Superfortress makes its debut.
- 1950 - George Marshall sworn in as the 3rd Secretary of Defense of United States.
- 1964 - Malta becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- 1970 - Monday Night Football premieres.
- 1972 - Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos issues Proclamation No. 1081 placing the entire country under martial law.
- 1981 - Belize is granted full independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1991 - Armenia is granted independence from Soviet Union.
- 1993 - Russian President Boris Yeltsin suspends parliament and scraps the then-functioning constitution, thus triggering the Russian constitutional crisis of 1993.
- 1993 - Grunge rock band Nirvana releases its album In Utero.
- 1999 - Chi-Chi earthquake occurs in central Taiwan, leaving about 2,400 people dead.
- 2001 - Deep Space 1 flies within 2,200 km of Comet Borrelly.
-
- 2002 - International Day of Peace recognized by the United Nations as a full day of ceasefire and nonviolence.
- 2003 - Galileo mission terminated by sending the probe into Jupiter's atmosphere, where it is crushed by the pressure at the lower altitudes.
- 2004 - The Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) People's War and the Maoist Communist Centre of India merge to form the Communist Party of India (Maoist).
- 2004 - Punk rock band Green Day releases its critically acclaimed album American Idiot.

Births


- 1328 - Hongwu Emperor of China (d. 1398)
- 1411 - Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, claimant to the English throne (d. 1460)
- 1415 - Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1493)
- 1428 - Jingtai Emperor of China (d. 1457)
- 1452 - Girolamo Savonarola, Dominican priest and ruler of Florence (d. 1498)
- 1629 - Philip Cardinal Howard, English Catholic cardinal (d. 1694)
- 1645 - Louis Joliet, Canadian explorer (d. 1700)
- 1756 - John MacAdam, Scottish engineer and road-builder (d. 1836)
- 1840 - Murad V, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1904)
- 1842 - Abd-ul-Hamid II, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1918)
- 1853 - Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1926)
- 1863 - John Bunny, American film comedian (d. 1915)
- 1866 - H. G. Wells, English writer (d. 1946)
- 1866 - Charles Nicolle, French bacteriologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1936)
- 1873 - Papa Jack Laine, American musician (d. 1966)
- 1874 - Gustav Holst, English composer (d. 1934)
- 1895 - Sergei Yesenin, Russian poet (d. 1925)
- 1902 - Luis Cernuda, Spanish poet (d. 1963)
- 1912 - Chuck Jones, American animator (d. 2002)
- 1919 - Mario Bunge, Argentine philosopher and physicist
- 1919 - Fazlur Rahman, Pakistani scholar (d. 1988)
- 1920 - Jay Ward, American animator (d. 1988)
- 1926 - Donald A. Glaser, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1929 - Bernard Williams, English philosopher (d. 2003)
- 1929 - Sándor Kocsis, Hungarian footballer (d. 1979)
- 1931 - Larry Hagman, American actor
- 1934 - Leonard Cohen, Canadian singer and songwriter
- 1935 - Henry Gibson, American actor
- 1944 - Fannie Flagg, American actress and novelist
- 1944 - Hamilton Jordan, Carter's 1ST Chief of Staff
- 1945 - Jerry Bruckheimer, American film and television producer
- 1946 - Moritz Leuenberger, Swiss Federal Councilor
- 1947 - Stephen King, American author
- 1947 - Marsha Norman, American playwright
- 1949 - Artis Gilmore, American basketball player
- 1950 - Charles Clarke, British politician
- 1950 - Bill Murray, American actor
- 1951 - Aslan Maskhadov, Chechen rebel leader
- 1952 - Neil Peart, Canadian drummer (Rush)
- 1953 - Arie Luyendyk, Dutch race car driver
- 1954 - Shinzo Abe, Japanese politician
- 1955 - Mika Kaurismäki, Finnish director
- 1957 - Ethan Coen, American film director
- 1959 - Dave Coulier, American actor
- 1960 - David James Elliott, Canadian actor
- 1961 - Nancy Travis, American actress
- 1962 - Rob Morrow, American actor
- 1963 - Angus Macfadyen, Scottish actor
- 1963 - Curtly Ambrose, West Indian cricketer
- 1963 - Cecil Fielder, baseball player
- 1965 - Cheryl Hines, American actress
- 1967 - Faith Hill, American singer
- 1967 - Tyler Stewart, Canadian drummer (Barenaked Ladies)
- 1968 - Ricki Lake, American actress and talk show hostess
- 1971 - Luke Wilson, American actor
- 1971 - Alfonso Ribeiro, Dominican-born actor
- 1972 - Liam Gallagher, British singer (Oasis)
- 1972 - Jon Kitna, American football player
- 1972 - David Silveria, American drummer (KoЯn)
- 1974 - Andy Todd, English footballer
- 1975 - Doug Davis, baseball player
- 1979 - Richard Dunne, Irish footballer
- 1979 - Chris Gayle, West Indian cricketer
- 1979 - Julian Gray, English footballer
- 1980 - Kareena Kapoor, Indian actress
- 1981 - Nicole Richie, American actress
- 1983 - Maggie Grace, American actress
- 1983 - Hart Hancock, American musician (Amphoteric)

Deaths


- 454 - Aëtius, Roman general
- 1217 - Lembitu of Lehola, Estonian soldier
- 1327 - King Edward II of England (b. 1284)
- 1397 - Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel, English military leader (executed) (b. 1346)
- 1542 - Juan Boscán Almogáver, Spanish poet
- 1558 - Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1500)
- 1576 - Gerolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician (b. 1501)
- 1586 - Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, French church leader (b. 1517)
- 1626 - François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières, Constable of France (b. 1543)
- 1719 - Johann Heinrich Acker, German writer (b. 1647)
- 1743 - Jai Singh II, King of Amber-Juiper (b. 1688)
- 1748 - John Balguy, English philosopher (b. 1686)
- 1796 - François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers, French general (b. 1769)
- 1798 - George Read, American lawyer and signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1733)
- 1832 - Sir Walter Scott, Scottish writer (b. 1771)
- 1860 - Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher (b. 1788)
- 1897 - Wilhelm Wattenbach, German historian (b. 1819)
- 1904 - Chief Joseph, Nez Perce leader (b. 1840)
- 1926 - Leon Charles Thevenin, French telegraph engineer (b. 1857)
- 1938 - Ivana Brlic-Mazuranic Croatian writer (b. 1874)
- 1954 - Kokichi Mikimoto, Japanese inventor (b. 1858)
- 1957 - King Haakon VII of Norway (b. 1872)
- 1971 - Bernardo Houssay, Argentine physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887)
- 1974 - Walter Brennan, American actor (b. 1894)
- 1974 - Jacqueline Susann, American novelist (b. 1918)
- 1987 - Jaco Pastorius, American bassist (b. 1951)
- 1995 - Rudy Perpich, American politician (b. 1928)
- 1998 - Florence Griffith Joyner, American athlete (b. 1959)
- 2002 - Robert L. Forward, American physicist and writer (b. 1932)
- 2004 - Barry Noble Wakeman, American naturalist and educator (b. 1939)

Holidays and observances

International


- International Day of Peace of the United Nations, as propagated by Peace One Day
- RC Saints - Matthew the Evangelist Also see September 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)

National


- Independence Day in Malta (1964), Belize (1981) & Armenia (1991)
- Philippines - Thanksgiving Day
- Mabon - Neopagan festival of Mabon
- In ancient Greece, the eighth day of the Eleusinian Mysteries, when the secret rites in the Telesterion finish and the feast, Pannychis, begins.

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/21 BBC: On This Day] ----- September 20 · September 22 · August 21 · October 21 · more historical anniversaries ko:9월 21일 ms:21 September ja:9月21日 simple:September 21 th:21 กันยายน

July 23

July 23 is the 204th day (205th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 161 days remaining.

Events


- 1503 - Orbital calculations suggest that on this day Pluto moved outside Neptune's orbit, remaining there for 233 years.
- 1632 - 300 colonists bound for New France depart Dieppe, France.
- 1829 - In the United States, William Austin Burt patents the first typewriter.
- 1862 - American Civil War: Henry W. Halleck takes command of the Union Army.
- 1903 - Dr. Ernst Pfenning of Chicago, Illinois becomes the first owner of a Ford Model A.
- 1914 - Austria-Hungary issues an ultimatum to Serbia allowing the Austrians to find out who killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand. When Serbia denies Austria-Hungary their demands World War I is sparked on July 28, 1914
- 1926 - Fox Film buys the patents of the Movietone sound system for recording sound onto film.
- 1936 - In Catalonia, Spain, the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia is founded through the merger of socialist and communist parties.
- 1940 - US Under Secretary of State Sumner Welles`s declaration on the US non-recognition policy of the Soviet annexation and incorporation of three Baltic States - Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
- 1942- The Treblinka extermination camp is opened
- 1952 - General Muhammad Naguib leads the Free Officers Movement (formed by Gamal Abdel Nasser - the real power behind the coup) in the overthrow of King Farouk of Egypt.
- 1956 - The Loi Cadre is passed by the French Republic in order to order French overseas territory affairs.
- 1961 - Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) founded in Nicaragua.
- 1962 - Telstar relays the first live trans-Atlantic television signal.
- 1967 - 12th Street Riot: In Detroit, Michigan, one of the worst riots in United States history begins on 12th Street in the predominantly African American inner city (43 killed, 342 injured and ~1,400 buildings burned).
- 1970 - Qaboos ibn Sa’id, becomes Sultan of Oman.
- 1972 - The United States launches Landsat 1, first Earth-resources satellite.
- 1973 - Robert Anton Wilson, the occultist/philosopher, either achieved contact with extraterrestrials from Sirius or started a long-term period of having wild hallucinations, depending on which way you want to look at it.
- 1982 - The International Whaling Commission decides to end commercial whaling by 1985-86.
- 1983 - Gimli Glider: Air Canada flight 143 crash-lands in Gimli, Manitoba.
- 1984 - Vanessa Williams becomes the first Miss America to resign when she surrenders her crown after nude photos of her appeared in Penthouse magazine.
- 1986 - In London, Prince Andrew, Duke of York marries Sarah Ferguson at Westminster Abbey.
- 1997 - Digital Equipment Company files antitrust charges against chipmaker Intel.
- 1999 - Crown Prince Mohammed Ben Al-Hassan, is crowned King Mohammed VI of Morroco at the death of his father.
- 1999 - Hijack of ANA Flight 61 in Tokyo.
- 2001 - Megawati Soekarnoputri becomes the fifth President of Indonesia, replacing Abdurrahman Wahid.
- 2003 - Operation Warrior Sweep is the first major military deployment of the Afghan National Army.
- 2004 - Eleven years after its destruction, Stari most (the Old Bridge) in Mostar is reopened.

Births


- 1301 - Duke Otto of Austria (d. 1339)
- 1339 - King Louis I of Naples (d. 1384)
- 1626 - Sabbatai Zevi, Ottoman Jewish religious leader
- 1649 - Pope Clement XI (d. 1721)
- 1705 - Francis Blomefield, English topographer (d. 1752)
- 1734 - Antonio Maria Gaspare Sacchini, Italian composer (d. 1786)
- 1777 - Philipp Otto Runge, German painter (d. 1810)
- 1796 - Franz Berwald, Swedish composer (d. 1868)
- 1838 - Edouard Judas Colonne, French violinist (d. 1910)
- 1865 - Max Heindel, Danish Christian occultist, astrologer, and mystic (d. 1919)
- 1884 - Emil Jannings, Swiss actor (d. 1950)
- 1886 - Salvador de Madariaga, Spanish League of Nations official (d. 1978)
- 1888 - Raymond Chandler, American author (d. 1959)
- 1892 - Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia (d. 1975)
- 1893 - Karl Menninger, American psychiatrist (d. 1990)
- 1894 - Arthur Treacher, English character actor (d. 1975)
- 1895 - Aileen Pringle, American actress (d. 1989)
- 1899 - Gustav Heinemann, President of Germany (d. 1976)
- 1906 - Vladimir Prelog, Croatian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
- 1918 - Bueno de Mesquita Dutch comedian and actor (d. 2005)
- 1918 - Pee Wee Reese baseball player (d. 1999)
- 1921 - Calvert DeForest, American actor
- 1923 - Witto Aloma, baseball player (d. 1997)
- 1933 - Bert Convy, American game show host, actor, and singer (d. 1991)
- 1936 - Shiv Kumar Batalvi, Punjabi revolutionary (d. 1973)
- 1936 - Don Drysdale, baseball player (d. 1993)
- 1936 - Anthony Kennedy, U.S. Supreme Court Justice
- 1938 - Juliet Anderson, American porn star
- 1938 - Götz George, German actor
- 1938 - Bert Newton, Australian actor and television show host
- 1940 - Don Imus, American talk radio host
- 1942 - Myra Hindley, English murderer (d. 2002)
- 1943 - Tony Joe White, American singer and songwriter
- 1947 - Gardner Dozois, American author
- 1947 - David Essex, English singer
- 1950 - Alex Kozinski, Romanian-born judge
- 1951 - Edie McClurg, American actress
- 1957 - Theo van Gogh, Dutch film director (assassinated) (d. 2004)
- 1961 - Martin Gore, English musician and songwriter (Depeche Mode)
- 1961 - Woody Harrelson, American actor
- 1965 - Slash, English-born guitarist (Guns N Roses)
- 1967 - Philip Seymour Hoffman, American actor
- 1968 - Gary Payton, American basketball player
- 1970 - Thea Dorn, German writer
- 1971 - Dalvin DeGrate, American singer
- 1971 - Alison Krauss, American singer and fiddler
- 1973 - Nomar Garciaparra, baseball player
- 1973 - Francis Healy, Scottish rock musician (Travis)
- 1973 - Monica Lewinsky, White House intern
- 1974 - Terry Glenn, American football player
- 1974 - Maurice Greene, American athlete
- 1974 - Stephanie March, American actress
- 1976 - Judit Polgár, Hungarian chess player
- 1978 - Stefanie Sun, Singapore singer
- 1980 - Michelle Williams, American singer
- 1981 - Steve Jocz, Canadian drummer (Sum41)
- 1983 - Rebecca Cartwright, Australian actress
- 1986 - Tomas Cunha e Silva, Portuguese driver
- 1989 - Daniel Radcliffe, English actor

Deaths


- 1227 - Qiu Chuji, Chinese Taoist (b. 1148)
- 1373 - Saint Birgitta, Swedish saint (b. 1303)
- 1403 - Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, English rebel (executed) (born 1343)
- 1531 - Louis de Brézé, seigneur d'Anet, Marshal of Normandy and husband of Diane de Poitiers
- 1584 - John Day, English printer (b. 1522)
- 1692 - Gilles Ménage, French scholar (b. 1613)
- 1727 - Simon Harcourt, 1st Viscount Harcourt, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain
- 1757 - Domenico Scarlatti, Italian composer (b. 1685)
- 1764 - Gilbert Tennent, Irish-born religious leader (b. 1703)
- 1773 - George Edwards, English naturalist (b. 1693)
- 1781 - John Joachim Zubly, Swiss-born Continental Congressman (b. 1724)
- 1793 - Roger Sherman, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1721)
- 1853 - Andries Pretorius, Boer leader (b. 1798)
- 1878 - Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Bohemian physician (b. 1804)
- 1885 - Ulysses S. Grant, 18th President of the United States (b. 1822)
- 1916 - Sir William Ramsay, Scottish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
- 1920 - Conrad Kohrs, German-born rancher (b. 1835)
- 1924 - Frank Frost Abbott, American classical scholar (b. 1850)
- 1942 - Adam Czerniakow, Polish engineer (suicide) (b. 1880)
- 1948 - D. W. Griffith, American film director (b. 1875)
- 1951 - Henri Philippe Pétain, leader of Vichy France (b. 1856)
- 1955 - Cordell Hull, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1871)
- 1966 - Montgomery Clift, American actor (b. 1920)
- 1968 - Henry Hallett Dale, English scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1875)
- 1971 - Van Heflin, American actor (b. 1910)
- 1973 - Eddie Rickenbacker, American pilot (b. 1890)
- 1982 - Vic Morrow, American actor (b. 1929)
- 1983 - Georges Auric, French composer (b. 1899)
- 1985 - Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (b. 1923)
- 1989 - Donald Barthelme, American author (b. 1931)
- 1997 - Chuhei Nambu, Japanese athlete (b. 1904)
- 1999 - King Hassan II of Morocco (b. 1929)
- 2001 - Eudora Welty, American author (b. 1909)
- 2002 - Leo McKern, Australian actor (b. 1920)
- 2002 - Dr. William L. Pierce, American author and activist (b. 1933)
- 2002 - Chaim Potok, American novelist and rabbi (b. 1929)
- 2003 - James E. Davis, New York City councilman (murdered) (b. 1962)
- 2004 - Mehmood, Indian actor (b. 1932)
- 2004 - Carlos Paredes, Portuguese musician and composer (b. 1925)

Holidays and observances


- Egypt - Revolution Day (1952)
- Libya - Revolution Day
- Papua New Guinea - Remembrance Day
- Roman Empire - Neptunalia held in honor of Neptune
- Rastafari movement - Celebration of the birthday of Haile Selassie
- Astrology: First day of sun sign Leo

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/23 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/7/23 This Day in History] ---- July 22 - July 24 - June 23 - August 23 -- listing of all days ko:7월 23일 ms:23 Julai ja:7月23日 simple:July 23 th:23 กรกฎาคม

1888

1888 is a leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar). In Germany, 1888 is known as the 1888 Year of Three Emperors.

Events


- January 3 - 91cm telescope first used at Lick Observatory
- January 12 - Blizzards in Dakota and Montana, Minnesota, Nebraska and Texas - 235 dead, many of which were children on their way home from school
- January 24 - Jacob L. Wortman patents the typewriter ribbon.
- January 26 - Australia celebrates the first centennary of European settlement.
- January 27 - In Washington, DC the National Geographic Society is founded.
- March 11 - The "Great Blizzard of '88" begins along the eastern seaboard of the United States, shutting down commerce and killing more than 400.
- March 22 - The Football League is formed
- April 11 - The Concertgebouw in Amsterdam is inaugurated.
- May 13 - Brazil abolishes slavery.
- May 28 - Celtic played their first official match against Rangers and won 5-2
- June 3 - "Kingdom of Sedang" formed in modern-day Vietnam
- June 19 - In Chicago, Illinois, Republican Convention opens at Auditorium Building. General Benjamin Harrison & Levi Morton will win the nominations.
- July 27 - British parliament passes an act that permits bicycles on road on condition that they are equipped with a bell that should be rung while on the carriageway. The law is abolished 1930
- August 7 - The body of Martha Tabram was found, a possible murder victim of Jack the Ripper
- August 31 - Mary Ann Nichols is murdered. She is perhaps the first of Jack the Ripper's victims.
- September 4 - George Eastman registers the trademark Kodak, and receives a patent for his camera which uses roll film.
- September 6 - Charles Turner becomes the first bowler to take 250 wickets in an English season - a feat since accomplished only by Tom Richardson (twice), J.T. Hearne, Wilfred Rhodes (twice) and Tich Freeman (six times).
- September 8 - In London, the body of Annie Chapman is found. She is generally considered the second victim of Jack the Ripper.
- September 8 - In England the first 6 Football League matches ever were played.
- September 30 - In London, the bodies of Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes are found. They are generally considered Jack the Ripper's third and fourth victim respectively.
- October 9 - The Washington Monument officially opens to the general public.
- November 6 - U.S. presidential election, 1888: Democrat incumbent Grover Cleveland wins the overall popular vote, but is voted out of office because he loses in the Electoral College to Republican challenger Benjamin Harrison.
- November 9 - In London the body of Mary Jane Kelly is found. She is typically considered the fifth and last of Jack the Ripper's victims. A number of similar murders actually follow, but police attribute them to copycat killers.
- Gramophone patented by Emile Berliner
- Annie Besant organizes a match girl strike
- John Robert Gregg first published Gregg Shorthand
- Slavery abolished in Brazil
- Sarawak and Borneo become British protectorates
- Susan B. Anthony organizes a congress for women's rights in Washington DC
- National library in Athens, Greece
- First railways in China
- Kodak camera increases the popularity of photography as a hobby.
- The first recorded film, Roundhay Garden Scene, is made in Roundhay in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. The film is two seconds (4 frames) in length.
- First sightings of the dolphin Pelorus Jack in Cook Strait, New Zealand

Births

January-March


- January 1 - Victor Goldschmidt, Swiss geochemist (d. 1947)
- January 8 - Matt Moore, Irish-born actor (d. 1960)
- January 24 - Vicki Baum, Austrian writer (d. 1960)
  - Ernst Heinkel, German aircraft designer (d. 1958)
- February 2 - Frederick Lane, Australian swimmer (d. 1969)
- February 17 - Otto Stern, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1969)
- February 19 - José Eustasio Rivera, Colombian writer (d. 1928)
- February 20 - Georges Bernanos, French writer (d. 1948)
- February 25 - John Foster Dulles, United States Secretary of State (d. 1959)
- February 27 - Lotte Lehmann, German singer (d. 1976)
- March 1 - Ewart Astill, English cricketer (Leicestershire) (d. 1948)
- March 4 - Knute Rockne, American football player and coach (d. 1931)
- March 10 - Barry Fitzgerald, Irish actor (d. 1966)
- March 12 - Vaslav Nijinsky, Ukrainian ballet dancer (d. 1950)
- March 17 - Frank Buck, big game hunter (d. 1950)
- March 26 - Elsa Brändström, Russian nurse (d. 1948)

April-June


- April 4 - Tris Speaker, Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 1958)
- April 6 - Hans Richter, German filmmaker (d. 1976)
- April 18 - Duffy Lewis, Major League Baseball player (d. 1979)
- April 26 - Anita Loos, American writer (d. 1981)
- April 27 - Florence La Badie, Canadian actress (d. 1917)
- May 10 - Karl Barth, Protestant theologian (d. 1968)
  - Max Steiner, Austrian-American composer (d. 1971)
- May 11 - Irving Berlin, American composer (d. 1989)
- May 17 - Tich Freeman, English cricketer (d. 1965)
- May 23 - Zack Wheat, Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 1972)
- May 25 - Miles Malleson, English actor (d. 1969)
- May 27 - Louis Durey, French composer (d. 1979)
- June 3 - Tom Brown, American jazz musician (d. 1958)
- June 6 - Pete Wendling, American composer, pianist, and piano roll recording artist (d. 1974)
- June 9 - Ida Rentoul Outhwaite, Australian illustrator (d. 1960)
- June 13 - Fernando Pessoa, Portuguese writer (d. 1935)
- June 24 - Gerrit Rietveld, Dutch architect (d. 1964)

July-October


- July 5 - Herbert Spencer Gasser, American physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1963)
- July 10 - Giorgio Chirico, Italian painter (d. 1978)
- July 16 - Frits Zernike, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1966)
- July 17 - Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Israeli writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)
- July 22 - Selman Waksman, Ukrainian-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1973)
- July 23 - Raymond Chandler, American novelist (d. 1959)
- August 14 - John Logie Baird, Scottish inventor (d. 1946)
- August 16 - Armand J. Piron, American jazz musician (d. 1943)
- September 5 - Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, President of India (d. 1975)
- September 6 - Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., American politician (d. 1969)
- September 12 - Maurice Chevalier, French singer and actor (d. 1972)
- September 16 - Frans Eemil Sillanpää, Finnish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1964)
- September 26 - J. Frank Dobie, American folklorist and journalist (d. 1964)
- September 26 - T. S. Eliot, American-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)
- October 6 - Roland Garros, French pilot (d. 1918)
- October 7 - Henry A. Wallace, Vice President of the United States (d. 1965)
- October 8 - Ernst Kretschmer, German psychiatrist (d. 1964)
- October 9 - Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin, Russian politician (d. 1938)
- October 16 - Eugene O'Neill, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1953)
- October 16 - Paul Popenoe, American eugenicist (d. 1979)

November-December


- November 7 - Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, Indian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980)
- November 15 - Harald Sverdrup, Norwegian scientist (d. 1957)
- November 23 - Harpo Marx, American comedian (d. 1964)
- November 26 - Francisco Canaro, Uruguayan-born violinist and composer (d. 1964)
- November 30 - Ralph Hartley, American electronics researcher and inventor (d. 1970)
- December 4 - King Alexander of Yugoslavia (d. 1934)
- December 19 - Fritz Reiner, Hungarian conductor (d. 1963)
- December 28 - F.W. Murnau, German film director (d. 1931)

Deaths


- January 19 - Anton de Bary, German biologist (b. 1831)
- January 29 - Edward Lear, British artist and writer (b. 1812)
- February 3 - Henry Maine, British jurist (b. 1822)
- March 6 - Louisa May Alcott, American novelist (b. 1832)
- March 9 - German Emperor Wilhelm I (b. 1797)
- March 12 - Henry Bergh, founder of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (b. 1811)
- April 15 - Matthew Arnold, English poet (b. 1822)
- April 15 - Father Damien, Belgian priest (b. 1811)
- June 15 - German Emperor Friedrich III (b. 1840)
- July 20 - Paul Langerhans, German pathologist and biologist (b. 1847)
- August 9 - Charles Cros, French poet (b. 1831)
- August 23 - Philip Henry Gosse, British scientist (b. 1810)
- August 24 - Rudolf Clausius, German physicist, contributions to thermodynamics (b. 1822)
- October 16 - John Wentworth, Mayor of Chicago (b. 1815)
- December 31 - Samson Raphael Hirsch, German rabbi (b. 1808)

Marriages


- January 1 - Elias Disney & Flora Disney
- April 11 - Henry Ford & Clara Jane Bryant
- May 2 - Josephus Daniels & Addie Worth Bagley
- September 5 - Billy Sunday & Helen Amelia Thompson
- September 11 - Robert Homans & Agnes Mary Josephine Mellon
- November 29 - Axel Blixen-Finecke & Bertha Henriette Marie Castenschiold
- December 20 - Charles Urban & Julia Avery Category:1888 ko:1888년 ms:1888 simple:1888 th:พ.ศ. 2431

Confederate States of America

:For other meanings of confederate and confederacy, see confederacy (disambiguation) The Confederate States of America—also referred to as the Confederate States, CSA, the Confederacy and Dixie (colloquially)—was a splinter nation off the United States of America that existed between 1861 and 1865. It was located in North America, occupying the south-eastern portions of the current United States. As its existence was contested by the United States for the whole of its short-lived history, there was never a definitive delineation of Confederate States' northern boundary. Its southern land boundary was with Mexico. It was otherwise bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. For most of its life the Confederacy was engaged in the Civil War against the Union forces, mostly in defense. However, the Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee, also made limited incursions into Union territory.

History

The Confederate States were formed on February 4, 1861, by six Southern slave states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana) after confirmation of the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States. Jefferson Davis was selected as its first President the next day. Texas joined the Confederacy on March 2 and then replaced its governor, Sam Houston, when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. These seven states seceded1 from the United States and took control of military/naval installations, ports, and custom houses within their boundaries, triggering the American Civil War. A month after the Confederacy was formed, on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President of the United States. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called the secession "legally void". He stated he had no intent to invade southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of federal property and collection of various federal taxes, duties and imposts. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union. On April 12 South Carolina troops fired upon the Federal troops stationed at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina until the troops surrendered. Following the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln called for all remaining states in the Union to send troops to recapture Sumter and other forts, defend the capital, and preserve the Union. Most Northerners believed that a quick victory for the Union would crush the nascent rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days. This resulted in four more states voting to secede: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the Confederacy for a total of 11. Once Virginia seceded, the Confederate capital was moved from Montgomery, Alabama to Richmond, Virginia The government of Kentucky remained in the Union after a short-lived attempt at neutrality, but a rival faction from that state was also accepted as members of the Confederacy. A more complex situation surrounds the Missouri Secession, but in any event Missouri was also considered a member of the Confederate States. The number of Confederate states is thus sometimes considered to be 13. The five tribal governments of the Indian Territory—which became Oklahoma in 1907—also mainly supported the Confederacy. The southern part of New Mexico Territory (including parts of the Gadsden Purchase) joined with the Confederacy as Arizona Territory. These first settlers petitioned the Confederate government for annexation of their lands, prompting an expedition in which territory south of the 34th parallel was governed by the Confederacy. Arizona troops were also officially recognized within the armies of the Confederacy. Preceding his New Mexico Campaign, General Sibley issued a proclamation to the people of New Mexico his intentions of taking possession of the territory in the name of the Confederate States. Confederate troops briefly occupied the territorial capital of Santa Fe between March 13 and April 8, 1862. Not all jurisdictions where slavery was still legal joined the Confederacy. In 1861 martial law was declared in Maryland (the state which borders the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C., on three sides) to block attempts at secession. Delaware, also a slave state, never considered secession, nor did the capital of the U.S., Washington, D.C.. In 1861, during the war, a unionist rump legislature in Wheeling, Virginia seceded from Virginia, claiming 48 counties, and joined the United States in 1863 as the state of West Virginia, with a constitution that would have gradually abolished slavery[http://www.ls.net/~newriver/va/vasecesh.htm]. Similar attempts to secede from the Confederacy in parts of other states (notably in eastern Tennessee) were held in check by Confederacy declarations of martial law[http://www.aotc.net/Marxen.htm][http://web.utk.edu/~jharvey2/kville%20before%20siege.htm]. The surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by General Lee at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865 is generally taken as the end of the Confederate States. President Davis was captured at Irwinville, Georgia on May 10 and the remaining Confederate armies surrendered by June 1865. The last Confederate flag was hauled down on CSS Shenandoah on November 6, 1865.

Government and politics

Constitution

1865 The Confederate States Constitution provides much insight into the motivations for secession from the Union. Based to a certain extent on both the Articles of Confederation and on the United States Constitution, it reflected a stronger philosophy of states' rights, curtailing the power of the central authority, and also contained explicit protection of the institution of slavery, though international slave trading was prohibited. It differed from the US Constitution chiefly by addressing the grievances of the secessionist states against the federal government of the United States. For example, the Confederate government was prohibited from instituting protective tariffs, making southern ports more attractive to international traders. Prior to the declarations of secession, most southerners regarded protective tariffs as a measure that enriched the northern states at the expense of the south. The Confederate government was also prohibited from using revenues collected in one state for funding internal improvements in another state. At the same time, however, much of the Confederate constitution was a word-for-word duplicate of the US one. At the drafting of the Constitution of the Confederacy, a few radical proposals such as allowing only slave states to join and the reinstatement of the Atlantic slave trade were turned down. The Constitution specifically did not include a provision allowing states to secede, since the southerners considered this to be a right intrinsic to a sovereign state which the United States Constitution had not required them to renounce, and thus including it as such would have weakened their original argument for secession. The President of the Confederacy was to be elected to a six-year term and could not be reelected. The only president was Jefferson Davis; the Confederacy was defeated by the federal government before he completed his term. One unique power granted to the Confederate president was the ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power held by some state governors. The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two thirds majorities that are required in the US Congress. Printed currency in the forms of bills and stamps was authorized and put into circulation, although by the individual states in the Confederacy's name. The government considered issuing Confederate coinage. Plans, dies and 4 "proofs" were created, but a lack of bullion prevented any public coinage. Although the preamble refers to "each State acting in its sovereign and independent character", it also refers to the formation of a "permanent federal government". Also, although slavery was protected in the constitution, it also prohibited the importation of new slaves from outside the Confederacy (except from slaveholding states or territories of the United States).

Capital

US Congress The capital of the Confederacy was Montgomery, Alabama, from February 4, 1861, until May 29, 1861, when it was moved to Richmond, Virginia (named the new capital on May 6, 1861). Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond with plans to relocate further south to Atlanta, Georgia, or to Columbia, South Carolina, but little came of this before Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House and Danville, Virginia, served from April 3 to April 10, 1865, as the last capital of the Confederacy.

International diplomacy and legal status

The legal status of the Confederate Government was a subject of extensive debate throughout its existence and for many years after the war. During its existence, the Confederate government conducted negotiations with several European powers (including France and the United Kingdom). The Confederacy received formal diplomatic recognition only from Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the ruler of a minor German principality. The UK came close to recognizing the Confederacy during the Trent Affair and began preparations to offer mediation along with France (due to Emperor Napoleon III's project, the Mexican Empire), but both nations backed away after the Battle of Antietam and Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. Throughout the war most European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. In its place, they applied international law principles that recognized the Northern and Southern sides of the war as belligerents. Canada allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders and some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated regional agreements to cover trade on the Texas border. For the four years of its existence, the Confederacy asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. The Northern government, by contrast, asserted that the southern states were provinces in rebellion and refused any formal recognition of their status. Telling of this dispute, the Confederate Government responded to the hostilities by formally declaring war on the United States while the Union Government conducted its war efforts under a proclamation of blockade and rebellion by President Lincoln. Mid-war negotiations between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war governed military relationships. Four years after the war the United States Supreme Court ruled in Texas v. White that secession was unconstitutional and legally null. The court's opinion was rendered by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, the former Treasury Secretary under Lincoln. Chase's opinion was immediately attacked and remains controversial to this day. Critics such as Jefferson Davis and Alexander Stephens penned subsequent legal arguments in favor of secession's legality, most notably Davis' Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government.

Confederate flags

Image:Starsnbars.png|1st National
"Stars and Bars" Image:Stainlessbanner.png|2nd National
"Stainless Banner" Image:navaljack.png|Naval Jack Image:battleflag.png|Battle Flag
"Southern Cross"
The official flag of the Confederacy, and the one actually called the "Stars and Bars", has seven stars, for the seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. This flag was sometimes hard to distinguish from the Union flag under battle conditions, so the Confederate battle flag, the "Southern Cross", became the one more commonly used in military operations. The Southern Cross has 13 stars, adding the four states that joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter, and the two states of Kentucky and Missouri (See Missouri Secession) with competing unionist and secessionist governments that were admitted to the Confederacy. As a result of its depiction in 20th century popular media, the "Southern Cross" is a flag commonly associated with the Confederacy today. The actual "Southern Cross" is a square-shaped flag, but the more commonly seen rectangular flag is actually the flag of the First Tennessee Army, also known as the Naval Jack because it was first used by the Confederate Navy.

Political leaders of the Confederacy

Executive


Legislative


- Confederate Congress
  - Provisional Confederate Congress
  - First Confederate Congress
  - Second Confederate Congress

Judicial

A judicial branch of the government was outlined in the C.S. Constitution but the would-be Supreme Court of the Confederate States was never created or seated because of the ongoing war.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223] Some lower district courts were, however, established within some of the individual states of the Confederacy; namely, AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, TN, TX & VA (and possibly others). At the end of the war, U.S. district courts resumed jurisdiction.[http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/021.html] The state and local courts generally continued to operate as they had been, simply recognizing the CSA rather than the USA as the national government.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223]

Geography

Supreme Court of the Confederate States The Confederate States had a total of 2,919 miles (4,698 kilometers) of coastline. A large portion of its territory lay on the sea coast, and with level and sandy ground. The interior portions were hilly and mountainous and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the Mississippi River bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the Trans-Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at 8,750 feet (2,667 meters). Most of the area of the Confederate States had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate varied to semiarid steppe and arid desert west of longitude 96 degrees west. The Confederate States was less urbanized than the northern states, with only New Orleans showing up in the list of top 10 U.S. cities in the 1860 census. Only 15 cities (excluding those in Kentucky and Missouri) ranked among the top 100 US cities in 1860. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the national capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864.

Economy

The Confederate States had an agrarian-based economy that relied heavily on slavery plantations. The main products of the CSA were cotton, rice, tobacco and sugar cane, with some cattle and much grain. The states that formed the CSA (excluding Missouri and Kentucky) produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860; their main products were flour and meal, lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and turpentine. The CSA adopted a free trade policy, but this was undermined by the Union blockade. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which in turn led to high inflation.

Armed Forces

The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised the following three branches:
- Confederate States Army
- Confederate States Navy
- Confederate States Marine Corps The Confederate military leadership was almost entirely composed of veterans from the United States Army and U.S. Navy who had resigned their federal commissions and had been appointed to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces. The Confederate officer corps was composed mostly of southern gentry, and the Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the south (such as the Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a breeding ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established in 1863 onboard CSS Patrick Henry in the James River, but no midshipmen had graduated by the time the Confederacy collapsed. The rank and file of the Confederate armed forces consisted of white males with an average age between 16 and 28. Towards the end of the Civil War, boys as young as 12 were fighting in combat roles and the Confederate Armed Forces had even sponsored an all-black regiment with measures underway to offer freedom to slaves who voluntarily served in the Confederate military.

Military leaders of the Confederacy

James River
- Robert E. Lee (Virginia) - General and Military Commander-in-Chief
- Albert Sidney Johnston (Kentucky) - General
- Joseph E. Johnston (Virginia) - General
- Braxton Bragg (North Carolina) - General
- P.G.T. Beauregard (Louisiana) - General
- Samuel Cooper (New Jersey) - General (Adjutant General and highest ranking general in the Army)
- James Longstreet (South Carolina) - Lt. General
- Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson (Virginia) - Lt. General
- A.P. Hill (Virginia) - Lt. General
- John Bell Hood (Texas) - Lt. General
- Wade Hampton (South Carolina) Lt. General
- Nathan Bedford Forrest (Tennessee) - Lt. General
- J.E.B. Stuart (Virginia) - Maj. General
- Edward Porter Alexander (Georgia) - Brig. General
- Franklin Buchanan (Maryland) - Admiral
- Raphael Semmes (Maryland) - Rear Admiral
- French Forrest (Maryland) - Acting Assistant Secretary of the Confederate Navy
- Josiah Tattnall (Georgia) - Commodore
- Stand Watie (Indian Territory, now Oklahoma) - Brigadier General (last to surrender)
- Leonidas Polk (Tennessee & Louisiana) - Bishop & General
- Jubal Anderson Early (Virginia)- Lt. General

Significant dates

NOTE: According to the New York Public Library Desk Reference, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina and South Carolina were all readmitted June 25, 1868, and Georgia was readmitted a second time on July 15, 1870.

See also


- Nullification Crisis of 1832
- Flags of the Confederate States of America
- Seal of the Confederate States of America
- Military history of the Confederate States
- Stamps and postal history of the Confederate States
- Origins of the American Civil War
- Border states
- Robert E. Lee
- Federalism

Further reading


-

External links


- Civil War Research & Discussion Group - [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FieldsOfConflict/ Fields Of Conflict] - Containing 1000+ Links And 350+ Articles.
- [http://www.americascaesar.com/ America's Caesar: The Decline and Fall of Republican Government in the United States of America], 2005, an online book detailing the events which led up to and followed the War Between the States
- [http://www.confederatereprint.com/ The Confederate Reprint Company], offers the largest internet selection of paperback reprints of rare and out-of-print Confederate literature
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK9708x1864/ An Act to Prohibit the Importation of Luxuries, or of Articles not Necessary or of Common Use], 1864, a Confederate Congress document
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/canu/ Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms], 1861
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/AP2xC84/ The Countryman, 1862-1866], published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ccsus/ The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared]
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/F206xS727xv9/ The Making of the Confederate Constitution], by A. L. Hull, 1905.
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK4725x1861xA25/ Official Journal of the House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana], November, 1861
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/E468x7xM647/ Photographic History of the Civil War, 10 vols., 1912.]
- [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cw/17609.htm Preventing Diplomatic Recognition of the Confederacy]