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William Martin Leake

William Martin Leake

William Martin Leake (January 14, 1777 - January 6, 1860), British antiquarian and topographer, was born in London. After completing his education at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and spending four years in the West Indies as lieutenant of marine artillery, he was sent by the government to Constantinople to instruct the Turks in that branch of the service. A journey through Asia Minor in 1800 to join the British fleet at Cyprus inspired him with an interest in antiquarian topography. In 1801, after travelling across the desert with the Turkish army to Egypt, he was, on the expulsion of the French, employed in surveying the valley of the Nile as far as the cataracts; but having sailed with the ship engaged to convey the Elgin marbles from Athens to England, he lost all his maps and observations when the vessel foundered off Cerigo (Ionian Islands in Greece). Shortly after his arrival in England he was sent out to survey the coast of Albania and the Morea, with the view of assisting the Turks against attacks of the French from Italy, and of this he took advantage to form a valuable collection of coins and inscriptions and to explore ancient sites. In 1807, war having broken out between Turkey and England, he was made prisoner at Salonica; but, obtaining his release the same year, he was sent on a diplomatic mission to Ali Pasha of Ioannina, whose confidence he completely won, and with whom he remained for more than a year as British representative. In 1810 be was granted a yearly sum of £600 for his services in Turkey. In 1815 he retired from the army, in which he held the rank of colonel, devoting the remainder of his life to topographical and antiquarian studies, the results of which were given to the world in the following volumes:
- Topography of Athens (1821)
- Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor (1824)
- Travels in the Morea (1830), and a supplement, Peloponnesiaca (1846)
- Travels in Northern Greece (1835)
- Numismata Hellenica (1854), followed by a supplement in 1859. A characteristic of the researches of Leake was their comprehensive minuteness, which was greatly aided by his mastery of technical details. His Topography of Athens, the first attempt at a scientific treatment of the subject, remained authoritative for a long time in regard to many important points. He died at Brighton on the 6th of January 1860. The marbles collected by him in Greece were presented to the British Museum; his bronzes, vases, gems and coins were purchased by the University of Cambridge after his death, and are now in the Fitzwilliam Museum. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, received the honorary DCL at Oxford (1816), and was a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences and correspondent of the Institute of France.

Bibliography

- JH Marsden, Memoir (1864)
- the Architect for October 7, 1876
- Ernst Curtius in the Preussische Jahrbücher (Sept., 1876)
- JE Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), p. 442.
- CL Witmore On multiple fields. Between the material world and media: Two cases from the Peloponnesus, Greece, Archaeological Dialogues, (2004) 11(2), 133-164. [http://traumwerk.stanford.edu:3455/multiplefields/357 link]

External links

- [http://esf.niwi.knaw.nl/esf1996/leake/html/hypleake.htm Travels in Northern Greece] by William Martin Leake, online book. Includes Biography and Bibliography. ---- Leake, William Martin Leake, William Martin

January 14

January 14 is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 351 days remaining (352 in leap years). It is celebrated as New Year's Day by those still following the Julian calendar.

Events

- 1301 - Andrew III of Hungary dies, ending the Arpad dynasty in Hungary.
- 1501 - Martin Luther, 17, enters the University of Erfurt.
- 1514 - Pope Leo X issues a papal bull against slavery.
- 1539 - Spain annexes Cuba.
- 1639 - The "Fundamental Orders", the first written constitution that created a government, was adopted in Connecticut.
- 1690 - The clarinet is invented in Nuremberg, Germany.
- 1724 - King Philip V of Spain abdicates the throne.
- 1784 - American Revolutionary War: The United States ratifies a peace treaty with England.
- 1814 - Treaty of Kiel: Frederick VI of Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden in return for Pomerania.
- 1858 - Napoleon III of France escapes an assassination attempt.
- 1900 - Giacomo Puccini's opera Tosca premieres in Rome.
- 1907 - An earthquake in Kingston, Jamaica kills more than 1,000.
- 1939 - Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.
- 1943 - Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes the first President of the United States to travel via airplane while in office (Miami, Florida to Morocco to meet with Winston Churchill to discuss World War II).
- 1951 - The National Football League has its first Pro Bowl Game (Los Angeles, California).
- 1952 - The Today show premieres on NBC.
- 1954 - Marilyn Monroe weds Joe DiMaggio.
- The Hudson Motor Car Company merges with Nash-Kelvinator forming the American Motors Corporation.
- 1963 - George Wallace becomes governor of Alabama.
- 1969 - An explosion aboard the USS Enterprise near Hawaii kills 25 people.
- 1970 - Sato Eisaku is elected to his third term as Prime Minister of Japan.
- 1972 - Queen Margrethe II of Denmark accends the throne, the first Queen of Denmark since 1412 and the first Danish monarch not named Frederick or Christian since 1513.
- Sanford & Son premieres on NBC.
- 1973 - Super Bowl VII: The Miami Dolphins defeat the Washington Redskins. The Dolphins become the first NFL team to go undefeated in a season.
- 1975 - Teenage heiress Lesley Whittle is kidnapped by the Black Panther.
- 1978 - Johnny Rotten quits the Sex Pistols after the final show of their American tour, at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco.
- 1984 - Ray Mancini defeats Bobby Chacon by a knockout in three to retain his WBA boxing world Lightweight title in Reno.
- 1985 - Martina Navratilova wins her 100th tennis tournament.
- 1993 - David Letterman announces he is moving his television talk show from NBC to CBS.
- 1994 - President of the United States Bill Clinton and Russian President Boris Yeltsin sign the Kremlin accords which stop the preprogrammed aiming of nuclear missiles to targets and also provide for the dismantling of the nuclear arsenal in Ukraine.
- 1996 - Jorge Sampaio is elected president of Portugal.
- 1998 - Researchers in Dallas, Texas present findings about an enzyme that slows aging and cell death (apoptosis).
- An Afghan cargo plane crashes into a mountain in southwest Pakistan killing more than 50 people.
- 2000 - A United Nations tribunal sentences five Bosnian Croats to up to 25 years for the 1993 killing of over 100 Muslims in a Bosnian village.
- Sport Club Corinthians Paulista wins Vasco da Gama, on the final match for the FIFA Club World Championship.
- The Dow Jones Industrial Average reached a record high of 11,722.98.
- David Letterman undergoes quintuple heart bypass surgery.
- 2004 - Goatse.cx is suspended by the Christmas Island Technology Corporation following a massive grassroots movement to close the site forever.
- Amartya Sen steps down as Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
- The national flag of Georgia, the so-called "five cross flag", was restored to official use after a hiatus of some 500 years.
- 2005 - Landing of the Huygens probe on Saturn's moon Titan.

Births

1451 to 1899

- 1451 - Franchinus Gaffurius, Italian composer (d. 1522)
- 1477 - Hermann of Wied, German Catholic archbishop (d. 1552)
- 1551 - Alberico Gentili, Italian jurist (d. 1608)
- 1615 - John Biddle, English theologian (d. 1662)
- 1684 - Jean-Baptiste van Loo, French painter (d. 1745)
- 1702 - Nakamikado Emperor of Japan (d. 1737)
- 1705 - Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier, French governor of the Mascarene Islands (d. 1786)
- 1741 - Benedict Arnold, American general and traitor (d. 1801)
- 1792 - Christian Julius De Meza, Danish general (d. 1865)
- 1798 - Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, Dutch politician (d. 1872)
- 1800 - Ludwig Alois Ferdinand Köchel, Austrian researcher on music (d. 1877)
- 1818 - Zacharias Topelius, Finnish-Swedish writer (d. 1898)
- 1836 - Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter (d. 1904)
- 1841 - Berthe Morisot, French painter (d. 1895)
- 1850 - Pierre Loti, French writer (d. 1923)
- 1861 - Mehmed VI, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1926)
- 1875 - Albert Schweitzer, Alsatian physician, missionary, and musician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1965)
- 1886 - Hugh Lofting, English author (d. 1947)
- 1889 - Ema Puksec, Croatian singer (b. 1834)
- 1892 - Hal Roach, American film producer (d. 1992)
- 1896 - John Dos Passos, American author (d. 1970)
- 1896 - Martin Niemöller, German theologian and pacifist (d. 1984)

1900 to 1999

- 1904 - Emily Hahn, American writer (d. 1997)
- 1905 - Cecil Beaton, English photographer (d. 1980)
- 1906 - William Bendix, American actor (d. 1964)
- 1908 - Russ Columbo, American singer, bandleader, and composer (d. 1934)
- 1914 - Harold Russell, Canadian-born actor (d. 2002)
- 1915 - Mark Goodson, American game show producer (d. 1992)
- 1919 - Giulio Andreotti, Italian politician
- 1919 - Andy Rooney, American journalist
- 1924 - Guy Williams, American actor (d. 2002)
- 1925 - Yukio Mishima, Japanese writer (d. 1970)
- 1926 - Tom Tryon, American actor and novelist (d. 1991)
- 1932 - Don Garlits, American race car driver
- 1933 - Stan Brakhage, American filmmaker (d. 2003)
- 1934 - Richard Briers, English actor
- 1937 - Ken Higgs, English cricketer
- 1938 - Jack Jones, American singer and actor
- 1938 - Allen Toussaint, American singer
- 1940 - Julian Bond, American civil rights activist
- 1941 - Faye Dunaway, American actress
- 1941 - Milan Kučan, Slovenian statesman
- 1943 - Shannon Lucid, American astronaut
- 1944 - Marjoe Gortner, American evangelist and actor
- 1944 - Nina Totenberg, American journalist
- 1946 - Harold Shipman, British serial killer (d. 2004)
- 1947 - Bill Werbeniuk, Canadian snooker player (d. 2003)
- 1948 - T-Bone Burnett, American producer and musician
- 1948 - Carl Weathers, American actor
- 1949 - Lawrence Kasdan, American director and screenwriter
- 1952 - Sydney Biddle Barrows, American author
- 1956 - Ben Heppner, Canadian tenor
- 1957 - Suzanne Danielle, English actress
- 1959 - Geoff Tate, American musician (Queensr%C3%BFche)
- 1962 - Michael McCaul, American politician
- 1963 - Steven Soderbergh, American director
- 1964 - Shepard Smith, American news anchor
- 1965 - Marc Delissen, Dutch field hockey player
- 1967 - Kerri Green, American actress
- 1967 - Emily Watson, English actress
- 1967 - Zakk Wylde, American musician (Black Label Society)
- 1968 - LL Cool J, American rapper and actor
- 1969 - Jason Bateman, American actor
- 1969 - David Grohl, American drummer and composer
- 1971 - Lasse Kjus, Norwegian skier
- 1972 - Predrag Gosta, Yugoslav-born conductor, musicologist, and harpsichordist
- 1972 - Kyle Brady, National Football League tight end
- 1973 - Giancarlo Fisichella, Italian race car driver
- 1980 - Cory Gibbs, American soccer player
- 1980 - Byron Leftwich, American football player
- 1981 - Rosa López, Spanish singer
- 1988 - Mikalah Gordon, American singer

Deaths

1331 to 1899

- 1331 - Odoric, Italian explorer
- 1640 - Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry, English lawyer and judge (b. 1578)
- 1676 - Francesco Cavalli, Italian composer (b. 1602)
- 1701 - Tokugawa Mitsukuni, Japanese warlord (b. 1628)
- 1742 - Edmond Halley, English scientist (b. 1656)
- 1753 - George Berkeley, Irish theologian (b. 1685)
- 1786 - Meshech Weare, Governor of New Hampshire (b. 1713)
- 1788 - François Joseph Paul, marquis de Grasetilly, comte de Grasse, French admiral (b. 1722)
- 1825 - George Dance the Younger, English architect (b. 1741)
- 1876 - Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, French painter (b. 1780)
- 1898 - Lewis Carroll, English writer and mathematician (b. 1832)

1900 to 1999

- 1905 - Ernst Abbe, German physicist (b. 1840)
- 1942 - Porfirio Barba-Jacob, Colombian writer (b. 1883)
- 1949 - Joaquín Turina, Spanish composer (b. 1882)
- 1957 - Humphrey Bogart, American actor (b. 1899)
- 1965 - Jeanette MacDonald, American actress and singer (b. 1903)
- 1966 - Bill Carr, American athlete (b. 1909)
- 1966 - Barry Fitzgerald, Irish actor (b. 1888)
- 1966 - Sergei Korolev, Russian rocket scientist (b. 1906)
- 1970 - William Feller, Croatian mathematician (b. 1906)
- 1972 - King Frederick IX of Denmark (b. 1899)
- 1977 - Anthony Eden, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1897)
- 1977 - Peter Finch, English-born actor (b. 1916)
- 1977 - Anaïs Nin, French author (b. 1903)
- 1978 - Harold Abrahams, British athlete (b. 1899)
- 1978 - Kurt Gödel, Austrian mathematician (b. 1906)
- 1978 - Blossom Rock, American actress
- 1980 - Robert Ardrey, American author (b. 1908)
- 1984 - Ray Kroc, American fast food entrepreneur (b. 1902)
- 1986 - Donna Reed, American actress (b. 1921)
- 1988 - Georgi Malenkov, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party (b. 1902)
- 1999 - Bryn Jones, British musician (b. 1961)

2000 onwards

- 2001 - Burkhard Heim, German physicist (b. 1925)
- 2004 - Uta Hagen, American actress (b. 1919)
- 2004 - Ron O'Neal, American actor (b. 1937)
- 2004 - Valfar, Norwegian musician (Windir)
- 2005 - Charlotte MacLeod, American writer (b. 1922)
- 2005 - Conroy Maddox, English painter (b. 1912)
- 2005 - Rudolph Moshammer, German fashion designer (b. 1940)
- 2005 - Jesús-Rafael Soto, Venezuelan kinetic artist (b. 1923)

Holidays and observances

- New Year's Day in Eastern Orthodoxy, see Julian Calendar.
- Makar Sankranti in India. The event is marked by flying kites. Also Pongal in South India.
- Day of St. Basil the Great in Eastern Orthodoxy, January 1 on the Julian Calendar.
- Festum Asinorum, medieval burlesque festival celebrating the Flight into Egypt. No longer observed.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/14 BBC: On This Day] ---- January 13 - January 15 - December 14 - February 14 — listing of all days ko:1월 14일 ms:14 Januari ja:1月14日 simple:January 14 th:14 มกราคม

1777

1777 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- The Cornish language died out
- 2nd edition of Encyclopædia Britannica published
- January 3 - American Revolutionary War: American general George Washington defeats British general Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Princeton.
- January 12 - Mission Santa Clara de Asís is founded in what is now Santa Clara, California
- January 16 - Vermont declares its independence from New York becoming an independent country, a status it retained until it joined the United States as the 14th state in 1791
- June 13 - American Revolutionary War: Marquis de Lafayette lands near Charleston, South Carolina to help the Continental Congress train its army.
- June 14 - Stars and Stripes adopted by the Continental Congress as the Flag of the United States.
- August 16 - American Revolutionary War: Battle of Bennington - British forces are defeated by American troops.
- September 3 - Cooch's Bridge - Skirmish of American Revolutionary war in New Castle County, Delaware where the Flag of the United States was flown in battle for the first time.
- September 11 - Battle of Brandywine - Major American Revolutionary war victory for British in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
- September 19 - American Revolutionary War: First Battle of Saratoga/Battle of Freeman's Farm/Battle of Bemis Heights.
- October 4 - American Revolutionary War: Battle of Germantown- Troops under George Washington are repelled by British troops under Sir William Howe.
- October 17 - American Revolutionary War: Battle of Saratoga- American troops defeat the British.
- November 15 - American Revolutionary War: After 16 months of debate, the Continental Congress approves the Articles of Confederation in the temporary American capital at York, Pennsylvania.
- November 17 - Articles of Confederation submitted to the states for ratification.
- November 29 - San Jose, California founded. It is the first pueblo in Spanish Alta California.
- December 24 - Kiritimati discovered by James Cook
- The code duello is adopted at the Clonmell Summer Assizes as the form for pistol duels in Ireland. It is quickly denounced but nevertheless widely adopted throughout the English-speaking world.

Births

- January 2 - Christian Daniel Rauch, German sculptor (d. 1857)
- February 12 - Friedrich de la Motte Fouque, French poet (d. 1843)
- March 17 - Roger Taney, Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1864)
- April 12 - Henry Clay, American statesman (d. 1852)
- April 30 - Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (d. 1855)
- August 14 - Hans Christian Ørsted, Danish physicist and chemist (d. 1851)
- October 16 - Lorenzo Dow, American Methodist preacher (d. 1834)
- October 18 - Heinrich von Kleist, German writer (d. 1811)
- December 4 - Madame Récamier, French writer (d. 1849)
- December 23 - Emperor Alexander I of Russia (d. 1825)
- Benjamin d'Urban, British general and colonial administrator (d. 1849)

Deaths

- January 10 - Spranger Barry, Irish actor (b. 1719)
- January 12 - Hugh Mercer, American Revolutionary War officer (mortally wounded in battle)
- February 9 - Seth Pomeroy, American gunsmith and soldier (b. 1706)
- February 24 - King Joseph I of Portugal (b. 1714)
- March 1 - Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Austrian composer (b. 1715)
- May 11 - George Pigot, Baron Pigot, British governor of Madras (b. 1719)
- May 19 - Button Gwinnett, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1735)
- September 22 - John Bartram, American botanist (b. 1699)
- September 25 - Johann H. Lambert, mathematician, physicist and astronomer (b. 1728)
- October 21 - Samuel Foote, English dramatist and actor (b. 1720)
- November 10 - Cornstalk, Shawnee chief Category:1777 ko:1777년 ms:1777

1860

1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday.

Events

January

- January 2 - The discovery of the planet Vulcan was announced at a meeting of the Académie des Sciences in Paris.

March

- March 6 - Abraham Lincoln speaks against slavery in New Haven, Connecticut

April

- April 3 - The Pony Express begins its first run from Saint Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento, California.
- April 4 – New uprising in Palermo

May

- May 1 - A chondrite type meteorite fell to earth in Muskingum County, Ohio near the town of New Concord.
- May 5 - Giuseppe Garibaldi and his troops depart from Questa on the Expedition of the Thousand
- May 8 - In New Granada (modern-day Colombia) southern state of Cauca secedes from the central government in protest of the suggestion of increase of presidential powers. Magdalena and Bolivar join it
- May 9 - The Constitutional Union Party holds its convention and nominates John Bell for President of the United States.
- May 15 - Battle of Catalafimi; troops under Giuseppe Garibaldi defeat the army of Naples in Sicily, during the Second Italian independence war.
- May 18 - Abraham Lincoln is selected as the US presidential candidate for the Republican party.
- May 27 - Garibaldi's forces take Palermo, the capital of Sicily.

June

- June 24 - First nursing school, based on the ideas of Florence Nightingale, is opened in St. Thomas Infirmary in England.

July

- July 2 - Vladivostok, Russia is founded.
- July 9 - Mírzá 'Alí-Muhammad was executed by a firing squad in Tabriz, Persia for claiming to be a prophet.
- July 11 - Mutsuhito becomes Crown Prince of Japan.
- July 19 - Ioan Dimitrovich Kasatkin becomes an Eastern Orthodox monk under the name Nikolai.
- July 20 - The forces of Giuseppe Garibaldi defeat royal Neapolitan forces at the Battle of Milazzo, near Messina. Nearly all of Sicily was now under Garibaldi's control.
- July 24 - Monk Nikolai Kasatkin appointed as deacon.
- July 25 - Deacon Nikolai Kasatkin appointed as priest.

August

- August 22 - Assisted by the British navy, the troops of Giuseppe Garibaldi cross from Sicily to the Italian mainland

September

- September 7 - Lady Elgin is accidentally rammed and sunk in Lake Michigan, hundreds drown.
- September 7 - Giuseppe Garibaldi's forces capture Naples.
- September 10 - Piedmontese forces invade the Papal States hoping to link up with Garibaldi in Naples
- September 18 - Battle of Castelfidardo. The Piedmontese decisively defeat the Papal forces, allowing them to continue their march into Neapolitan territory

October

- John Hanning Speke and James Augustus Grant leave Zanzibar to search for source of the Nile.
- October 1 - The Battle of the Volturno
- October 5 - Austria, Britain, France, Prussia and the Ottoman Empire form a commission to investigate causes of clashes between Maronites and Druzes in Lebanon earlier in the year
- October 19 - New Maori revolt begins in New Zealand
- October 26 - Battle of the Volturno. Garibaldi again defeats the Neapolitan forces, advancing on Gaeta, the last remaining Neapolitan strong-point.
- October 26 - Giuseppe Garibaldi gives Naples to the king Victor Emmanuel II.

November

- November 3 - The combined forces of Giuseppe Garibaldi and King Victor Emmanuel II besiege King Francis II of the Two Sicilies in Gaeta, his last remaining stronghold.
- November 6 - U.S. presidential election, 1860: Abraham Lincoln beats John C. Breckinridge and is elected as the 16th President of the United States, the first Republican to hold that office.

December

- December 20 - South Carolina becomes the first state to secede from the Union.
- December 29 - The world's first ocean-going (all) iron-hulled and armoured battleship, the (British) HMS Warrior is launched.

Unknown Dates

- Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia seizes the whole of the Papal States besides Rome (see Vatican City) and unites Italy.
- Robert Wilhelm Bunsen discovers caesium and rubidium (see Discovery of the chemical elements)
- Buenos Aires leader Bartolomé Mitre subverts Argentine Confederation and begins to establish a new centralist government with the help of Uruguayan Colorado party leader Venancio Flores
- Augustana College is founded in Rock Island, Illinois, United States by Swedish immigrants.

Births

January-April

- January 11 - Marie Bashkirtseff, Russian artist (d. 1884)
- January 25 - Charles Curtis, Vice President of the United States (d. 1936)
- January 29 - William Jacob Baer, American painter (d. 1941)
- January 29- Anton Chekhov, Russian writer (d. 1904)
- February 11 - Rachilde, French author (d. 1953)
- February 29 - Herman Hollerith, American businessman and inventor (d. 1929)
- March 2 - Susanna M. Salter, first woman mayor in the United States (d. 1961)
- March 5 - Sam Thompson, baseball player (d. 1922)
- March 13 - Hugo Wolf, Austrian composer (d. 1903)
- March 19 - William Jennings Bryan, American politician (d. 1925)
- March 22 - Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (d. 1940)
- March 27 - Frank Frost Abbott, American classical scholar (d. 1924)

May-August

- May 2 - Theodor Herzl, founder of modern political Zionism (d. 1904)
- May 9 - J. M. Barrie, Scottish author (d. 1937)
- May 20 - Eduard Buchner, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917)
- May 21 - Willem Einthoven, Dutch inventor, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1927)
- May 25 - James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist (d. 1944)
- May 29 - Isaac Albéniz, Spanish composer (d. 1909)
- June 20 - Jack Worrall, Australian cricketer, footballer, and coach (d. 1937)
- July 3 - Charlotte Perkins Gilman, American feminist (d. 1935)
- July 7 - Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer (d. 1911)
- July 19 - Lizzie Borden, American murder suspect (d. 1927)
- August 3 - W.K. Dickson, Scottish inventor (d. 1935)
- August 7 - Alan Leo, British astrologer (d. 1917)
- August 16 - Jules Laforgue, French poet (d. 1887)

September-December

- September 5 - Andrew Volstead, American politician (d. 1947)
- September 6 - Jane Addams, American social worker, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1935)
- September 13 - John J. Pershing, American general (d. 1948)
- November 1 - Boies Penrose, United States Senator from Pennsylvania (d. 1921)
- November 6 - Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Polish pianist and composer (d. 1941)
- November 23 - Billy the Kid, American gunfighter (d. 1881)
- November 23 - Hjalmar Branting, Prime Minister of Sweden, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1925)
- December 7 - Joseph Cook, sixth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1947)
- December 15 - Niels Ryberg Finsen, Danish physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1904)
- John Coughlin, American politician (d. 1938)
- Frederick George Jackson, British Arctic explorer (d. 1938)
- Albert Giraud, Belgian poet (d. 1929)
- Lancelot Speed, British illustrator (d. 1931)

Deaths

- January 27 - János Bolyai, Hungarian mathematician (b. 1802)
- January 27 - Thomas Brisbane, Scottish astronomer (b. 1883)
- January 29 - Stephanie de Beauharnais, Grand Duchess of Baden (b. 1789)
- February 20 - Henry Drummond, Canadian poet (b. 1851)
- March 17 - Anna Jameson, German author
- March 25 - James Braid, Scottish surgeon (b. 1795)
- May 12 - Sir Charles Barry, English architect (b. 1795)
- May 16 - Anne Isabella Milbanke, wife of George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (b. 1792)
- July 1 - Charles Goodyear, American inventor (b. 1800)
- October 31 - Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, British admiral (b. 1775)
- December 14 - George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of Aberdeen (b. 1784) Category:1860s Category:1860 ko:1860년 ms:1860 simple:1860 th:พ.ศ. 2403

Antiquarian

An antiquarian or antiquary is one concerned with antiquities or things of the past. More narrowly, the term is often used for those who studied history with special attention to "antiques" i.e. ancient objects of art or science as physical traces of the past. Antiquarianism is usually considered to have emerged in the sixteenth century; by the nineteenth century it had become transformed and bifurcated into the academic disciplines of archaeology and philology. The London Society of Antiquaries was formed in the 18th century to promote the study of antiquities. As early as 1572 a society had been founded by Bishop Matthew Parker, Sir Robert Cotton, William Camden and others for the preservation of national antiquities. This body existed till 1604, when it fell under suspicion of being political in its aims, and was abolished by James I. Papers read at their meetings are preserved in the Cottonian library and were printed by Thomas Hearne in 1720 under the title A Collection of Curious Discourses, a second edition appearing in 1771. In 1707 a number of English antiquaries began to hold regular meetings for the discussion of their hobby and in 1717 the Society of Antiquaries was formally reconstituted, finally receiving a charter from George II in 1751. In 1780 George III. granted the society apartments in Somerset House, Strand. The society was governed by a council of twenty and a president who is ex officio a trustee of the British Museum. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780, and had the management of a large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. In Ireland a society was founded in 1849 called the Kilkenny Archaeological Society, holding its meetings at Kilkenny. In 1869 its name was changed to the Royal Historical and Archaeological Association of Ireland, and in 1890 to the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, its office being transferred to Dublin. In France La Société Nationale des Antiquaires de France was formed in 1814 by the reconstruction of the Acadêmie Celtique, which had existed since 1805. The American Antiquarian Society was founded in 1812, with its headquarters at Worcester, MA. It had a library of upwards of 100,000 volumes and its transactions were been published bi-annually starting 1849. In Germany the Gesamtverein der Deutschen Geschichtsund Altertumsvereine was founded in 1852. La Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord at Copenhagen was among the best known of European antiquarian societies.

Some antiquarians

- Patrick Abercromby
- Elias Ashmole
- John Aubrey
- Sir James Balfour
- Thomas Baker
- George Buck
- William Camden
- Abraham de la Pryme
- Rev. Dr. Henry Duncan
- Robert Stephen Hawker
- John Leland – to king Henry VIII. He was appointed Royal Antiquarian in 1533
- Edward Lhuyd
- H.P. Lovecraft
- Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh
- Peregrine O'Duignan
- Ruaidhri O Flaithbheartaigh
- Dorning Rasbotham
- Fred Rosenstock
- William Forbes Skene
- George Vertue
- Olaus Wormius
- Thomas Wright
- John Stow
- Robert Crowley
- John Foxe
- Richard Grafton
- John Bale

References

-
- [http://www.americanantiquarian.org/ American Antiquarian Soceity]

Topographer

Topography, a term in geography, has come to refer to the "lay of the land", or the physiogeographic characteristics of land in terms of elevation, slope, and orientation. "Terrain" is a similar concept, used more to describe the land itself than the study of it. "Relief" is often used to refer to the third dimension of a map whether in actuality (as in a "raised relief" map, or drawn, as with contours, hachures or shading) or the territory it describes. shading Topography is similar to topology, popularly thought of as the mathematical study of surfaces. This may help explain its adoption in the world of geographers. Its actual original meaning, from Greek "topos" (place) and "graphein" (to draw), relates to the description of places rather than broad regions, in topographic surveys. Most 18th and early 19th century national surveys did not record relief across the entire area of coverage, calculating only spot elevations at survey points. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographical survey maps included contour representation of relief, and so maps that show relief, especially with exact representation of elevation, came to be called topographic maps (or "topo" maps) in the United States, and the usage has spread internationally. The understanding of topography is critical for a number of reasons. In terms of environmental quality, agriculture, and hydrology, understanding the topography of an area enables the understanding of watershed boundaries, drainage characteristics, water movement, and impacts on water quality. Understanding topography also impinges on soil conservation, especially in agriculture. Contour plowing is an established practice of enabling sustainable agriculture on sloping land, and is the practice of plowing along topographic lines. Topography is critical militarily because it determines the ability of armed forces to take and hold areas, and to move troops and material into and through areas. Topography is important in determining weather patterns. Two areas in fairly close proximity geographically may differ radically in characteristics such as precipitation because of elevation differences or because of a "rain shadow" effect. Tectonic processes and erosional processes are the determiners of topography. Tectonic processes such as orogenies cause land to be elevated, and erosional (and weathering) processes cause land to be worn away to lower elevations.

London

London is the capital city of the United Kingdom and of England. As Europe's richest city, London produces 17% of the UK's GDP, and is one of the world's major business and financial centres. The capital of the former global empire, London is a leader in culture, communications, politics, finance, entertainment and the arts and has considerable influence worldwide. arts]] arts] London is the most populous city in the European Union, with an estimated population on 1 January 2005 of 7,500,000 and a metropolitan area population of between 12 and 14 million. London's population includes an extremely diverse range of peoples, cultures, and religions, making it one of the most cosmopolitan, vibrant and energetic cities on earth. A resident of London is referred to as a Londoner. Over 300 languages are spoken in London, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. Initially it was a Roman city and known as Londinium and then as Lunnainn, Llundain and Londain in the Scottish, Welsh and Irish languages respectively. London is known by these names in other languages. London is the home of many global organisations, institutions and companies, and as such retains its leading role in global affairs. A city where cutting-edge meets tradition, London is a major tourist destination and transport hub. It has a great number of important buildings and iconic landmarks, including world-famous museums, theatres, concert halls, galleries, airports, sports stadia and palaces. London is one of the world's major global cities (along with New York City, Tokyo and Paris).

Defining London

Today, "London" usually refers to the conurbation known as Greater London, which is divided into thirty-two London Boroughs and the City of London and forms the London region of England. Historically, "London" referred to the square mile of the City of London at the conurbation's heart, from which the city grew. Between 1889 and 1965 it referred to the former County of London which covered the area now known as Inner London. There are other definitions of "London" which cover varying areas, such as the London postal district; the area covered by the telephone area code 020; the area accessible by public transport using a Transport for London Travelcard; the area delimited by the M25 orbital motorway; the Metropolitan Police district; and the London commuter belt. The coordinates of the centre of London (traditionally considered to be Charing Cross, near the junction of Trafalgar Square, the Strand, Whitehall and the Mall) are approximately . The Romans marked the centre of Londinium with the London Stone in the City.

Geography and climate

London Stone, with Green Park and St. James's Park to its right]] Greater London covers an area of 609 square miles (1,579 km²). London is a port on the Thames, a navigable river. The river has had a major influence on the development of the city. London was founded on the north bank of the Thames and there was only a single bridge, London Bridge, for many centuries. As a result, the main focus of the city was on the north side of the Thames. When more bridges were built in the 18th century, the city expanded in all directions as the mostly flat or gently rolling countryside around the Thames floodplain presented no obstacle to growth. There are some hills in London, examples being Parliament Hill and Primrose Hill, but these provided fine prospects of the city centre without significantly affecting the directions of the spread of the city and London is therefore roughly circular. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river than it is today. It has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water level and the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound. The Thames Barrier was constructed across the Thames at Woolwich in the 1970s to deal with this threat, but in early-2005 it was suggested that a ten-mile-long barrier further downstream might be required to deal with the flood risk in the future [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4162905.stm]. London has a temperate climate, with warm but seldom hot summers, cool but rarely severe winters, and regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year. Summer temperatures rarely rise much above 33°C (91°F), though higher temperatures have become more common recently. The highest temperature ever recorded in London was 38.1°C (100.6°F), measured at Kew Gardens during the European Heat Wave of 2003. Heavy snowfalls are almost unknown. In recent winters, snow has rarely settled to more than an inch (25 mm). London's average annual precipitation of less than 24 inches (600 mm) is lower than that of Rome or Sydney. London's large built-up area creates a microclimate, with heat stored by the city's buildings: sometimes temperatures are 5°C (9°F) warmer in the city than in the surrounding areas.

History

microclimate bombings of London]] The name London is commonly thought to have come from the Latin name Londinium, as London was founded by the Romans during their reign over the land, around 43AD – although there is some slight evidence of pre-Roman settlement. The [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/england/rom_roman_invasion.shtml BBC History website], however, claims that the name Londinium is actually "Celtic, not Latin, and may originally have referred to a previous farmstead on the site"; the root is 'Lond' meaning 'wild' (i.e. overgrown or forested) place. This fortified Roman settlement was the capital of the province of Britannia. According to findings displayed in London Museum, the initial language of London was Latin with much Greek spoken due to the presence of Greek speaking Roman soldiers and businessmen. Another suggestion for where the name of the city comes from could be that of the mythical leader, King Lud. It was said that Lud laid out the first set of roads in the city. His statue can be seen hidden at the church of St Dunstan's In The West, Fleet Street. Around AD 61 the Iceni tribe of Celts lead by Queen Boudica stormed London and took the city from the Romans. The Celts burnt the relatively new Roman town to the ground, and archaeological digs have revealed a layer of red ash beneath the City of London, which is believed to be the burnt remains of the old Roman town. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Londinium was abandoned and a Saxon town named Lundenwic was established approximately one mile to the west in what is now Aldwych, in the 7th century. The old Roman city was then reoccupied during the late-9th or early-10th century. Westminster was once a distinct town, and has been the seat of the English royal court and government since the mediæval era. Eventually, Westminster and London grew together and formed the basis of London, becoming England's largest – though not capital – city (Winchester was the capital city of England until the 12th century). London has grown steadily over centuries, surrounding and making suburbs of neighbouring villages and towns, farmland, countryside, meadows and woodlands, spreading in every direction. From the 16th to the early-20th century, London flourished as the capital of the British Empire. In 1666, the Great Fire of London swept through and destroyed a large part of the City of London. Rebuilding took over 10 years, but London's growth accelerated in the 18th century, and, by the early-19th century, it was the largest city in the world. London's local government system struggled to cope with this rapid growth, especially in providing the city with adequate infrastructure. In 1855 the Metropolitan Board of Works was created to provide London with infrastructure to cope with its growth. In 1889 the MBW was abolished, and the County of London was created which was administered by the London County Council, the first elected London-wide administrative body. Probably the most significant changes to London in the last 100 years were as a result of the Blitz and other bombing by the German Luftwaffe that took place during World War II. The bombing killed over 30,000 Londoners and flattened large tracts of housing and other buildings across London. The rebuilding during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was characterised by a wide range of architectural styles and has resulted in a lack of unity in architecture that has become part of London's character. Until their 1997 ceasefire, London was regularly a target for IRA bombers seeking to pressurise the British government into negotiations with Sinn Féin on Northern Ireland. On 7 July 2005, there was a series of coordinated bomb attacks by Islamic extremist suicide bombers on three underground stations and a bus. The explosions came less than 24 hours after London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics and as the G-8 summit was underway in Gleneagles, Scotland. A series of explosions also took place on 21 July 2005; however, in the latter incident, there were no fatalities.

Modern London

2005 Today Greater London comprises the City of London and the 32 London boroughs (including the City of Westminster). 12 of these boroughs are defined as Inner London, the remaining 20 defined as Outer London. The dominant centre of activity in London is the City of Westminster (including the West End) which is the main cultural, entertainment and shopping district, the location of most of London's major corporate headquarters outside of the financial services sector, and the centre of the UK's national government. The City of London (also known as the "Square Mile") is at the centre of international finance, and is Europe’s main business centre. The headquarters of more than 100 of Europe’s 500 largest companies are all in London. The London foreign exchange market is the largest in the world, with an average daily turnover of $504 billion, more than the New York and Tokyo exchanges combined. While very busy during the working week, most parts of the City tend to be quiet at weekends, since it is primarily a non-residential area. London is one of the most visited cities on earth. Tourist attractions are located mainly in Central London, comprising the historic City of London; the West End with its many cinemas, bars, clubs, theatres, shops and restaurants; the City of Westminster with Westminster Abbey, the Royal palaces of Buckingham Palace, Clarence House etc., the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea with its museums (the Science Museum, Natural History Museum, and Victoria and Albert Museum) and Hyde Park. Other important tourist attractions include St Paul's Cathedral, the National Gallery; the South Bank and Bankside areas of Southwark with the Globe Theatre and the Tate Modern; London Bridge, Tower Bridge, the Tower of London, and the Tate Britain on the Embankment; and the British Museum in Bloomsbury. There are many other places of interest across the city.

Culture

:Main article: Culture of London. London is an international centre of culture in all its forms - music, theatre, arts, museums, festivals and much more.

London Districts

See also: Inner London, Outer London.

Central London

City of London

Outer London]] The City of London is the principal financial district of the United Kingdom, and is one of the most important in the world. It is governed by the Corporation of London, an ancient body headed by the Lord Mayor of London. The City also has its own police force, the City of London police. Once dominated by the dome of St Paul's Cathedral, it is now home to many skyscrapers, including Tower 42 (formerly, and popularly still, known as the NatWest Tower) and 30 St Mary Axe (popularly known as the "Gherkin", built in 2003). The City has only a small (c. 7,000) resident population, but a daytime working population of more than 300,000. Its primacy as the chief financial district has been directly challenged in recent years by Canary Wharf in East London.

The West End

Canary Wharf.]] The West End is the most popular shopping and entertainment district in London. Trafalgar Square is the most prominent landmark. Oxford Street is one of the best-known shopping streets in the world. Running from Charing Cross Road in the east to Marble Arch in the west, via Oxford Circus where it crosses Regent Street, it is home to many large department stores and shops (Selfridges, John Lewis, Marks and Spencer). Tottenham Court Road runs north from the eastern end of Oxford Street towards the north of the city centre, and is best known for its plethora of hi-fi, computer and electronics stores. West of the City, Covent Garden is home to the Avenue of Stars, London's version of Hollywood's Walk of Fame. South of Oxford Street's eastern end is Soho, a network of small streets crowded with restaurants, pubs, clubs, smaller shops and boutiques, and theatres and cinemas, as well as media companies and film, advertising and post-production companies. Soho is also well known for its very lively club and bar scene, the notorious sex industry and as the major "gay quarter" of the city. Piccadilly is an elegant thoroughfare running from Piccadilly Circus in the east to Hyde Park Corner in the west. It is adjacent to Mayfair, and Green Park. Regent Street and Bond Street are important thoroughfares.

East London

East London saw much of London's early industrial development and much of it now is being extensively redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway. It was also key to London's successful bid to host the 2012 Olympics, and is now scheduled to undergo extensive regeneration in the run-up to the games. This is the second time in modern history that East London has seen large-scale rebuilding: it took the full force of the Blitz in World War Two, with post-war reconstruction leaving a legacy of bleak housing estates and tower blocks in several areas.

The East End

tower block The East End of London is closest to the original Port of London, and tended for that reason to be the area of the city where immigrants arriving into the port would settle first. Successive waves of immigrants include the French, the Huguenots, Belgians, Jews, Gujaratis, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and many other groups. The East End extends from the eastern side of the City of London and includes areas such as Whitechapel, Mile End, Bethnal Green, Hackney, Bow, Millwall and Poplar. The area has many places of interest including many of London's markets, (for example Columbia Road Flower Market, Spitalfields Market, Brick Lane Market, Petticoat Lane Market), and several museums, including the Geffrye Museum and the Museum of Childhood in Bethnal Green.

Docklands

Bethnal Green]] The London Docklands, on the Isle of Dogs along the Thames in the East End, has developed enormously since the early-1980s. For a period in the early-1980s, many warehouse buildings in Wapping had been occupied and used as artists studios and low-cost loft living spaces. This inevitably drew the attention of property developers who gradually (and then not so gradually) moved in to take over. The London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set up in 1981 to accelerate the process, and the first phases of major development started to reshape the area, culminating in Canary Wharf, whose best-known feature is the 1 Canada Square office tower (which is often incorrectly called "Canary Wharf"), which has been the UK's tallest skyscraper since 1991. A massive-scale development within the last three or four years has added a great many more skyscrapers, and many large businesses (investment banks, law firms, etc.) have moved in. A new headquarters for HSBC and Barclays as well as the European headquarters of Citigroup, have now been completed, and are in use. Attracted by this growth, restaurants, bars and nightclubs have opened, there are three interconnected shopping malls beneath the Canary Wharf structure, and a cinema complex has opened in the area. The Docklands Light Railway (DLR) serves the area, connecting to the London Underground at Bank, Shadwell, Canning Town and Stratford stations. There has also been a great deal of gentrification and residential development in the area: North of the Thames around Limehouse Basin and toward Wapping, as well as south of the Thames in Rotherhithe where former wharfs and the old docks have been converted into high-priced loft apartments for a community of bankers, software developers and others working in the financial service industries in and around Docklands. Further east in the London Borough of Newham are London City Airport and the ExCeL Exhibition Centre.

West London

West London includes many of the traditionally fashionable and expensive residential areas such as Notting Hill, made better known in 1999 by a film of the same name starring Hugh Grant and Julia Roberts. Within the district is the famous antique market at Portobello Road. Kensington and Chelsea are the most expensive places to live in the country. The area is also famous for the Kings Road, a distinguished and attractive shopping street and thoroughfare. Further to the west, at White City, near Shepherd's Bush, is the principal operating centre for the BBC, while in the extreme west, in the London Borough of Hillingdon, lies Heathrow Airport. Considered more south-west than West London on account of its being the only London borough to straddle the River Thames, Richmond upon Thames includes the attractive riverside districts of Richmond and Twickenham. This corner of London is home to Richmond Park, London's largest, and Twickenham, the home of English rugby union.

North London

North London includes suburbs such as Hampstead and Highgate, which retain a village atmosphere. North London is more hilly than the south, and many of the hills give excellent views across the city. Large parks include Hampstead Heath, which includes Parliament Hill, noted for its fine views over the city, and the Hampstead bathing ponds; and Alexandra Park, site of Alexandra Palace. Many areas have significant minority populations including Stamford Hill, home to a significant community of Orthodox Jews, the Green Lanes area of Harringay and the Finsbury Park area have large Turkish and Greek communities. Islington is considered one of the more affluent areas in London, due to large scale gentrification, although it is in fact one of the most deprived boroughs in the country; it is also home to Arsenal football club. North London's other world-famous football team, Tottenham Hotspur, play in nearby Tottenham.

South London

South London contains such diverse districts as Wimbledon (famous as the home of the major tennis Wimbledon Championships), Bermondsey, and Dulwich. Redevelopment of the Elephant and Castle, a road intersection and district close to the centre, is due to start in 2006. Greenwich is on the banks of the Thames where the river broadens into a wide meandering reach of muddy water. It is an historic neighbourhood and boasts a fine park and the Royal Greenwich Observatory. It is also has a popular market. Brixton, Camberwell and Peckham are home to many families (and their descendants) who immigrated to London from the West Indies during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, sometimes known as Afro-Caribbeans.

Demographics

Afro-Caribbeans London had about 860,000 people in 1801 (in comparison, Paris had about 670,000 in 1802), and the population of Edo (modern-day Tokyo, Japan), at the time the largest city in the world, has been estimated at 1 million to 1.25 million people. London was the most populous city in the world from 1825 until 1925, when it was overtaken by New York. Residents o