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William Mahone

William Mahone

William Thomas Mahone (December 1, 1826 – October 8, 1895), of Southampton County, Virginia was a civil engineer, teacher, soldier, and a member of the Virginia General Assembly and U.S. Congress. A member of the first graduating class of Virginia Military Institute (VMI), he was trained as a civil engineer. He helped build Virginia's roads and railroads in the antebellum and postbellum (reconstruction) periods. As a Major General of the Confederate Army, Mahone is best known for turning the tide of the Battle of the Crater against the Union advance during the Siege of Petersburg in the US Civil War. Mahone became a political leader in Virginia, led the Readjuster Party and helped obtain funding in 1881 for a teacher's school which later grew to become Virginia State University. Small of stature, he was nicknamed "Little Billy".

Childhood, education

William Mahone was born in Monroe in Southampton County, Virginia on December 1, 1826 to Fielding Jordan Mahone and Martha (née Drew) Mahone. The little town of Monroe was on the banks of the Nottoway River about 8 miles south of Jerusalem (now Courtland), the county seat. Fielding Mahone ran a store at Monroe and owned considerable farmland. In 1840, the family moved to Jerusalem, where Fielding Mahone ran a tavern. There, the freckled-faced youth of Irish-American heritage gained a reputation for gambling and a prolific use of tobacco and profanity. Young Billy Mahone gained his primary education from a country schoolmaster but with special instruction in math from his father. For a short time he transported the U. S. Mail by horseback from his hometown to Hicksford, now Emporia. He was awarded a spot as a state cadet at the newly-opened Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, Virginia, and graduated with a degree as a civil engineer in the Class of 1847.

Civil engineer, railroad builder, family

Mahone worked as a teacher at Rappahannock Academy in Caroline County, Virginia beginning in 1848, but was actively seeking an entry into civil engineering. He did some work helping locate the Orange and Alexandria Railroad, an 88 mile line between Gordonsville, Virginia and the City of Alexandria. Having performed well with the new railroad, was hired to build a plank road between Fredericksburg and Gordonsville. In 1853, he was hired by Dr. Francis Mallory of Norfolk, as chief engineer to build the new Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad (N&P). Mahone's innovative 12 mile-long roadbed through the Great Dismal Swamp between South Norfolk and Suffolk employed a log foundation laid at right angles beneath the surface of the swamp. Still in use 150 years later, Mahone's corduroy design withstands immense tonnages of modern coal traffic. He was also responsible for engineering and building the famous 52 mile-long tangent track between Suffolk and Petersburg. With no curves, it is a major artery of modern Norfolk Southern rail traffic. In 1854, Mahone surveyed and laid out with streets and lots of Ocean View City, a new resort town fronting on the Chesapeake Bay in Norfolk County. With the advent of electric streetcars in the late 19th century, an amusement park was developed there and a boardwalk was built along the adjacent beach area. Most of Mahone's street plan is still in use in the 21st century as Ocean View, now a section of the City of Norfolk, is redeveloped. In 1855, Mahone married Otelia Butler (1837-1911), the daughter of the late Dr. Robert Butler from Smithfield. Young Otelia is said to have been a cultured lady. She and William settled in Norfolk, where they lived for most of the years before the Civil War. They had 13 children, but only 3 survived to adulthood, two sons, William T. Jr. and Robert, and a daughter, also named Otelia. The Mahone family escaped the yellow fever epidemic which broke out in the summer of 1855 and killed almost 1 of 3 persons in Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]] by staying with his mother some distance away in Courtland. However, the decimated citizenry of Norfolk had difficulty in meeting financial obligations, and work on their new railroad to Petersburg almost came to a standstill. Ever frugal, Mahone and his mentor Dr. Mallory nevertheless pushed the project to completion. Popular legend has it that Otelia and William Mahone traveled along the newly completed railroad naming stations from Ivanhoe and other books she was reading written by Sir Walter Scott. From his historical Scottish novels, she chose the place names of Windsor, Waverly, and Wakefield. She tapped the Scottish Clan "McIvor" for the name of Ivor, a small Southampton County town. When they reached a location where they could not agree, it is said that the name Disputanta was created. The Norfolk and Petersburg railroad was completed in 1858, and Mahone was named president a short time later. According to some records, in 1860, Mahone owned 7 slaves, all black: 3 male (ages 13, 4, 2), 4 female (ages 45, 24, 11, 1). Nevertheless, during the Civil War and after, he showed an empathy for African American soldiers and former slaves which was atypical for the times, and worked diligently for their fair treatment and education.

"Little Billy": Hero of the Battle of the Crater

African American As the political differences between northern and southern factions escalated in the second half of the 19th century, Mahone was in favor of secession of the southern states. During the American Civil War, he was active in the actual conflict even before he became an officer in the Confederate Army. Early in the War, in 1861, his Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad was especially valuable to the Confederacy and transported ordnance to the Norfolk area where it was used during the Confederate occupation. By the end of the War, most of what was left of the railroad was in federal hands. After Virginia seceded from the Union in April, 1861, Mahone helped bluff the federal troops into abandoning the Gosport Shipyard in Portsmouth by running a single passenger train into Norfolk with great noise and whistle-blowing, then much more quietly, sending it back west, and then returning the same train again (again with much noise, etc.) creating the illusion of large numbers of arriving troops to the federals listening in Portsmouth across the Elizabeth River (and just barely out of sight). The ruse worked, and not a single Confederate soldier was lost as the Union authorities abandoned the area, and retreated to Fort Monroe across Hampton Roads. After this, Mahone accepted a commission as Lt. Col. and later Colonel of the 6th Virginia Infantry Regiment in the Confederate Army. He commanded the Confederate's Norfolk district until its evacuation. He was promoted to Brigadier General in November, 1861. In May, 1862, after the evacuation of Norfolk by southern forces, during the Peninsula Campaign, he aided in the construction of the defenses of Richmond on the James River around Drewry's Bluff. A short time later, he led his brigade at the Battle of Seven Pines and the Battle of Malvern Hill. He also fought at the Second Battle of Manassas, Battle of Fredericksburg, Battle of Chancellorsville, Battle of Gettysburg, Battle of the Wilderness, and Battle of Spotsylvania Court House. William Mahone was widely regarded as the hero of the Battle of the Crater on July 30, 1864 during the Siege of Petersburg in 1864-1865. Pennsylvania miners with the Union forces tunneled under the Confederate line and blew it up, killing and wounding many Confederates and breaching a key point in the defense line around Petersburg. However, they lost their initial advantage and Mahone rallied the remaining Confederate forces nearby, and repelled the attack. After beginning as an innovative initiative, the Crater scheme turned into a terrible loss for the Union leaders. He was promoted to a Major General as a result, and was with Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia for the surrender at Appomattox Court House in April, 1865. Small of stature, 5 foot 5 or 6 inches, and weighing only 100 lb (45 kg), he was nicknamed "Little Billy". As one of his soldiers put it, "He was every inch a soldier, though there were not many inches of him." Otelia Mahone was working in Richmond as a nurse, when Virginia Governor John Letcher sent word that Mahone had been injured in the Second Battle of Manassas, but had only received a "flesh wound." She is said to have replied "Now I know it is serious for William has no flesh whatsoever." Otelia and their children moved to Petersburg to be near him during the final campaign of the War in 1864-65.

Atlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio Railroad

After the war, Lee advised his generals to go back to work rebuilding. William Mahone did just that, and became the driving force in the linkage of N&P, South Side Railroad and the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad. He was president of all 3 by the end of 1867. He worked diligently lobbying the Virginia General Assembly to gain the legislation necessary to form the Atlantic, Mississippi & Ohio Railroad (AM&O), a new line comprised of the 3 railroads he headed, extending 408 miles from Norfolk to Bristol, Virginia in 1870. The Mahones were colorful characters: the letters A, M & O were said to stand for "All Mine and Otelia's". The Mahones lived in Lynchburg, Virginia during this time, but moved back to Petersburg in or before 1880. The Financial Panic of 1873 put the A,M & O into conflict with its bondholders in England and Scotland. After several years of operating under receiverships, Mahone's role as a railroad builder ended in 1881 when northern U.S. interests purchased the A,M, & O and renamed it Norfolk and Western. However, although he lost control of the railroad, Mahone was able to arrange for a portion of the State's proceeds of the sale to help found a school to prepare teachers to help educate black children and former slaves. The Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute near Petersburg was forerunner of Virginia State College, which expanded to become Virginia State University.

Virginia politics: Readjuster Party, U.S. Senate

William Mahone was active in the economic and political life of Virginia after the Civil War for almost 30 years. He was elected to the Virginia General Assembly as a Delegate from Norfolk in 1863 (during the Civil War). He served as mayor of Petersburg. After his unsuccessful bid for governor in 1877, he became the leader of the Readjuster Party, a coalition of Democrats, Republicans, and African-Americans seeking a reduction in Virginia's prewar debt, and an appropriate allocation made to the former portion of the state which constituted the new State of West Virginia. Mahone led the successful effort to elect the Readjuster candidate William E. Cameron as the next governor, and he himself was elected to served as a Senator in the U.S. Congress from 1881 to 1887, when he lost his seat to Democrat John W. Daniel. Once he was seated in Congress, Mahone became affiliated with the Republican Party, and led Virginia delegations to the Republican national conventions of 1884 and 1888. In 1889, he ran for governor on a Republican ticket, but lost to Democrat Philip W. McKinney. It was to be 80 more years before Virginia sent another non-Democrat to the Governor's Mansion. (Republican A. Linwood Holton Jr. in 1969). Although out of office, the seemingly tireless Mahone continued to stay involved in Virginia-related politics until he suffered a catastrophic stroke on Washington DC in the fall of 1895. He died a week later. Although Mahone was not to live to see the outcome, for several decades, Virginia and West Virginia disputed the new state's share of the Virginian government's debt. The issue was finally settled in 1915, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that West Virginia owed Virginia $12,393,929.50. The final installment of this sum was paid off in 1939.

Heritage

After suffering a stroke, he died on October 8, 1895 in Washington, DC. He is buried Blandford Cemetery in Petersburg, Virginia. His widow, Otelia, lived until 1911, and was buried with him.
- Otelia and William Mahone's former home in Petersburg now serves as part of the Petersburg Public Library. Virginia State University, which he helped found, is a major community presence nearby.
- A large portion of U.S. Highway 460 in eastern Virginia (between Petersburg and Suffolk) parallels the 52-mile tangent railroad tracks Mahone engineered, passing through some of the towns he and Otelia are believed to have named. Several sections of the road are labeled "General Mahone Boulevard" and "General Mahone Highway" in his honor.
- A monument to Mahone's Brigade is located at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
- The site of the Battle of the Crater is a major feature of the National Park Service's Petersburg National Battlefield Park. In 1927, the United Daughters of the Confederacy erected in imposing monument to his memory. It stands on the preserved Crater Battlefield, a short distance from the Crater itself. The monument states: :"To the memory of William Mahone, Major General, CSS, a distinguished Confederate Commander, whose valor and strategy at the Battle of the Crater, July 30, 1864, won for himself and his gallant brigade undying fame."

Trivia


- Mahone's middle name was Thomas. However, in his lifetime, he preferred the simpler "William Mahone" used by his ancestors. Beginning with the Mahone immigration from Ireland, he was the fourth individual to be called simply "William Mahone." Even his adversaries seemed to respect this preference, and it is extremely rare to find written accounts using his middle name or initial.
- Mahone was a civilian, and not yet in the Confederate Army, when he orchestrated the ruse and capture of the Norfolk Naval Shipyard in 1861.
- Mahone suffered from acute dyspepsia all of his life. During the American Civil War, a cow and chickens accompanied him in order to provide dairy products.
- An infant child of Mary and William T. Mahone Jr. died on October 8, 1895, the same day General Mahone died.

References

Books


- Blake, Nelson (1935) William Mahone of Virginia: Soldier and Political Insurgent Richmond, VA: Garrett and Maisie
- Striplin, E. F. Pat. (1981) The Norfolk & Western : a history Roanoke, Va. : Norfolk and Western Railway Co. ISBN 0963325469

Websites


- [http://hometown.aol.com/grc6431/myhomepage/heritage.html Mahones of Virginia: The Mahone Family Heritage]
- [http://www.lva.lib.va.us/whoweare/exhibits/political/william_mahone.htm official site, Library of Virginia, William Mahone page]

See also


- Confederate Military History, Vol. III, biography of William Mahone.

External links


- [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3701p.rr004910 Map of Norfolk & Petersburg Rail Road, issued by William Mahone]
- [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/ncpsbib:@field(DOCID+@lit(ABQ7578-0149-92_bib)):: The New Method of Voting] by William Mahone, The North American review. Volume 149, Issue 397, December 1889.
- [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=8339&pt=William%20Mahone Photos of William Mahone's tomb] Mahone, William Mahone, William Mahone, William Mahone, William Mahone, William Mahone, William Mahone, William Mahone, William Mahone, William

December 1

December 1 is the 335th (in leap years the 336th) day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 30 days remaining.

Events


- 1135 - Henry I of England dies at St. Denis le Fermont in Normandy of food poisoning from a surfeit of lampreys.
- 1640 - Portugal regains its independence from Spain and João IV of Portugal becomes king.
- 1822 - Peter I is crowned as Emperor of Brazil.
- 1824 - U.S. presidential election, 1824: Since no candidate received a majority of the total electoral college votes in the election, the United States House of Representatives is given the task of deciding the winner (as stipulated by the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution).
- 1835 - Hans Christian Andersen publishes his first book of fairy tales
- 1884 - American Old West - Near Frisco (now Reserve), New Mexico, deputy sheriff Elfego Baca holds off a gang of 80 Texan cowboys who want to kill him for arresting Charles McCarthy.
- 1885 - Although the exact date is unknown, the US Patent Office acknowledges December 1st of this year as the first day Dr Pepper was served.
- 1913 - The Ford Motor Company introduces the first moving assembly line.
- 1918 - Iceland becomes a self-governing kingdom, in a personal union with Denmark.
- 1918 - Transylvania unites with Romania, following the March 27 incorporation of Bessarabia and Bucovina.
- 1918 - The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) is proclaimed.
- 1919 - Lady Astor becomes first the female member of Parliament to take her seat (she had been elected to that position on November 28).
- 1925 - World War I aftermath: - The final Locarno Treaty is signed in London, establishing post-war territorial settlements.
- 1934 - In the Soviet Union, Politburo member Sergei Kirov is shot dead at the Communist Party headquarters in Leningrad by Leonid Nikolayev.
- 1941 - World War II: Mayor of New York City, Fiorello LaGuardia, and the director of the Office of Civilian Defense, sign an order creating the Civil Air Patrol.
- 1944 - Edward Stettinius Jr. becomes the last United States Secretary of State of the Roosevelt administration.
- 1952 - The New York Daily News reports the first successful sexual reassignment operation.
- 1955 - American Civil Rights Movement: In Montgomery, Alabama, seamstress Rosa Parks refuses to give her bus seat to a white man and is arrested for violating the city's racial segregation laws, an incident which leads to the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
- 1958 - The Central African Republic becomes independent from France.
- 1958 - A fire at Our Lady of the Angels School in Chicago, Illinois kills 92 children and three nuns.
- 1959 - Cold War: The Antarctic Treaty is signed, setting aside Antarctica as a scientific reserve and banning military activity on the continent.
- 1961 - The independent Republic of West Papua is proclaimed in modern-day Western New Guinea.
- 1963 - Nagaland becomes the 16th state of India
- 1964 - Vietnam War: US President Lyndon B. Johnson and his top-ranking advisers meet to discuss plans to bomb North Vietnam.
- 1965 - The Border Security Force is formed in India.
- 1969 - Vietnam War: The first draft lottery in the United States since World War II is held.
- 1971 - Cambodian Civil War: Khmer Rouge rebels intensify assaults on Cambodian government positions, forcing their retreat from Kompong Thmar and nearby Ba Ray.
- 1973 - Papua New Guinea gains self government from Australia.
- 1974 - TWA Flight 514 crashes northwest of Washington Dulles International Airport, killing all 92 people on-board.
- 1975 - Long-running soap opera The Edge of Night switches networks to ABC after 19 years on CBS.
- 1978 - Pakistan's General Zia-ul-Haq announced the enforcement of shariat laws.
- 1981 - A Yugoslavian Inex Adria Aviopromet DC-9 crashes in Corsica killing 178.
- 1984 - For the first time, a human being is given the heart of a baboon; the procedure was unsuccessful
- 1987 - NASA announces the names of four companies who are awarded contracts to help build Space Station Freedom.
- 1987 - Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen resigns as Premier of Queensland after 19 Years.
- 1988 - Benazir Bhutto nominated Prime Minister of Pakistan by then President Ghulam Ishaq Khan, emergency lifted.
- 1989 - Cold War: East Germany's parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the communist party the leading role in the state.
- 1990 - Channel Tunnel sections started from the United Kingdom and France meet 40 metres beneath the seabed.
- 1991 - Cold War: Ukrainian voters overwhelmingly approve a referendum for independence from the Soviet Union.
- 1997 - School Massacre Heath Middle School shootings in Paducah, KY left three dead and five seriously wounded.
- 1998 - Exxon announces a US$73.7 billion deal to buy Mobil, thus creating Exxon-Mobil, the largest company on the planet.
- 2000 - Vicente Fox is sworn-in as President of Mexico, ending the 75 year control of the PRI.
- 2001 - Trans World Airlines flies its last flight, after being bought by American Airlines.
- 2003 - Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nepal graduates its First Product as Chartered Accountants .

Births


- 1081 - King Louis VI of France (d. 1137)
- 1083 - Anna Comnena, Byzantine historian (d. 1153)
- 1521 - Takeda Shingen, Japanese warlord (d. 1573)
- 1525 - Tadeáš Hájek, Czech physician and astronomer (d. 1600)
- 1580 - Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, French astronomer (d. 1637)
- 1690 - Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1764)
- 1716 - Etienne-Maurice Falconet, French sculptor (d. 1791)
- 1743 - Martin Heinrich Klaproth, German chemist (d. 1817)
- 1766 - Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, Russian writer (d. 1826)
- 1792 - Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, Russian mathematician (d. 1856)
- 1800 - Mihály Vörösmarty, Hungarian poet (d. 1855)
- 1844 - Alexandra of Denmark, Queen of Edward VII of the United Kingdom (d. 1925)
- 1873 - Valery Bryusov, Russian poet (d. 1924)
- 1876 - George Creel, American investigative reporter (d. 1953)
- 1882 - Ed Reulbach, American baseball player (d. 1961)
- 1886 - Rex Stout, American author (d. 1975)
- 1895 - Henry Williamson, British author (d. 1977)
- 1901 - Ilona Feher, Hungarian-born Israeli violinist (d. 1988)
- 1910 - Alicia Markova, British ballerina (d. 2004)
- 1911 - Walter Alston, American baseball manager (d. 1984)
- 1911 - Calvin Griffith, American baseball executive (d. 1999)
- 1912 - Minoru Yamasaki, American architect (d. 1986)
- 1913 - Mary Martin, American actress and singer (d. 1990)
- 1922 - Paul Picerni, American actor
- 1923 - Stansfield Turner, American admiral and Central Intelligence Agency director
- 1925 - Martin Rodbell, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1998)
- 1930 - Joachim Hoffmann, German historian (d. 2002)
- 1932 - Matt Monro, British singer (d. 1985)
- 1935 - Woody Allen, American film director, actor, and comedian
- 1935 - Lou Rawls, American singer
- 1938 - Sandy Nelson, American drummer
- 1939 - Lee Trevino, American golfer
- 1940 - Richard Pryor, American actor and comedian (d. 2005)
- 1942 - John Crowley, American author
- 1944 - John Densmore, American drummer (The Doors)
- 1945 - Bette Midler, American actress
- 1946 - Gilbert O'Sullivan, Irish singer
- 1947 - Paul Werner Rudi Dentler German Movie Producer, and Filmtheater Pioneer
- 1948 - George Foster, American baseball player
- 1948 - Sarfraz Nawaz, Pakistani cricketer
- 1949 - Sebastián Piñera, Chilean businessman and presidential candidate
- 1950 - Keith Thibodeaux, American actor and drummer
- 1951 - Jaco Pastorius, American bassist (d. 1987)
- 1959 - Wally Lewis, Australian international rugby league player
- 1960 - Carol Alt, American supermodel
- 1961 - Jeremy Northam, British actor
- 1963 - Arjuna Ranatunga, Sri Lankan test cricketer
- 1967 - Reggie Sanders, American baseball player
- 1970 - Jouko Ahola, Finnish bodybuilder and actor
- 1970 - Kirk Rueter, American baseball player
- 1971 - Stephanie Finochio, American stuntwoman and professional wrestler
- 1971 - Emily Mortimer, British actress
- 1974 - Costinha (Francisco José da Costa), Portuguese international footballer
- 1976 - Matthew Shepard, American murder victim (d. 1998)
- 1977 - Brad Delson, American guitarist (Linkin Park)
- 1980 - Mohammad Kaif, Indian test cricketer
- 1989 - Stephen Groff, American basketball and saxophone player

Deaths


- 1135 - Henry I of England
- 1241 - Isabella of England, wife of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1214)
- 1377 - King Magnus II of Sweden (b. 1316)
- 1433 - Emperor Go-Komatsu of Japan (b. 1377)
- 1455 - Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian artist and metal smith (b. 1378)
- 1521 - Pope Leo X (b. 1475)
- 1530 - Margaret of Austria, Regent of the Netherlands (b. 1480)
- 1580 - Giovanni Morone, Italian cardinal (b. 1509)
- 1581 - Edmund Campion, English Jesuit (martyred) (b. 1540)
- 1581 - Ralph Sherwin, English Catholic saint (b. 1550)
- 1602 - Kobayakawa Hideaki, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1582)
- 1633 - Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain (b. 1566)
- 1660 - Pierre d'Hozier, French historian (b. 1592)
- 1707 - Jeremiah Clarke, British composer (b. 1674)
- 1709 - Abraham a Sancta Clara, Austrian preacher (b. 1644)
- 1723 - Susanna Centlivre, British dramatist and actress
- 1729 - Giacomo F. Maraldi, Italian-born French astronomer (b. 1665)
- 1750 - Johan Gabriel Doppelmayr, German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b. 1671)
- 1755 - Maurice Greene, British composer (b. 1696)
- 1767 - Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan, British Freemason (b. 1710)
- 1825 - Tsar Alexander I of Russia (b. 1777)
- 1830 - Pope Pius VIII (b. 1761)
- 1928 - José Eustasio Rivera, Colombian writer (b. 1888)
- 1934 - Sergei Kirov, Russian revolutionary (b. 1886)
- 1943 - Damrong Rajanubhab, Thai prince and historian (b. 1862)
- 1947 - Aleister Crowley, British occultist (b. 1875)
- 1950 - E. J. Moeran, British composer (b. 1894)
- 1964 - J. B. S. Haldane, British geneticist (b. 1892)
- 1973 - David Ben-Gurion, Polish-born first Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1886)
- 1975 - Nellie Fox, American baseball player (b. 1927)
- 1975 - Anna E. Roosevelt, American radio personality (b. 1906)
- 1985 - Alvin Ailey, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1931)
- 1987 - James Baldwin, American writer (b. 1924)
- 1991 - George Joseph Stigler, American economist and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)
- 1997 - Stéphane Grappelli, French jazz violinist (b. 1908)
- 2003 - Clark Kerr, first Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (b. 1911)
- 2004 - Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands (b. 1911)
- 2005 - Jack Colvin, American actor (b. 1932)

Holidays and observances


- R.C. Saints - Saint Eligius; Saint Edmund Campion (in England and Wales)
- December 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Angola - Pioneers' Day
- Central African Republic - Proclamation of the Republic (1958)
- Ancient Latvia - Barbes Diena observed
- Portugal - Restoration of Independence Day: on December 1, 1640, Portugal regains its independence from Spain and João IV of Portugal becomes king.
- Hungary - Bereavement Day (the national bereavement day)
- Romania - Union Day (the national holiday)
- World AIDS Day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/1 Today in History] ---- November 30 - December 2 - November 1 - January 1 — listing of all days ko:12월 1일 ms:1 Disember ja:12月1日 simple:December 1 th:1 ธันวาคม

October 8

October 8 is the 281st day of the year (282nd in leap years). There are 84 days remaining in the year.

Events


- 451 - At Chalcedon, a city of Bithynia in Asia Minor, the first session of the Council of Chalcedon begins (ends on November 1).
- 1480 - Great standing on the Ugra river
- 1582 - Due to the implementation of the Gregorian calendar this day does not exist in this year in Italy, Poland, Portugal and Spain.
- 1600 - San Marino adopts its written constitution.
- 1862 - American Civil War: Battle of Perryville - Union forces under General Don Carlos Buell halt the Confederate invasion of Kentucky by defeating troops led by General Braxton Bragg at Perryville, Kentucky.
- 1871 - Three major fires break out on the shores of Lake Michigan in Chicago, Illinois, Peshtigo, Wisconsin, and Holland, Michigan
  - The Great Chicago Fire is the most famous of these, burning 1,200,000 acres (4,900 km²) in one day, eventually destroying about 17,450 buildings, and killing about 250 people while leaving another 90,000 homeless.
  - The Peshtigo Fire burns 1,200,000 acres (4,900 km²) across six counties in one day and kills 1,200 to 2,500 people, making it the deadliest in United States history.
  - The Holland Fire destroys at least two towns.
- 1895 - Queen Min of Joseon, the last empress of Korea, was assassinated.
- 1912 - First Balkan War begins: Montenegro declares war against Turkey.
- 1918 - World War I - In the Argonne Forest in France, United States Corporal Alvin C. York almost single-handedly kills 25 German soldiers and captures 132.
- 1932 - The Indian Air Force is established.
- 1939 - World War II: Germany annexes Western Poland.
- 1941 - World War II: In their invasion of the Soviet Union, Germany reaches the Sea of Azov with the capture of Mariupol.
- 1944 - The radio show, The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet debuts
- 1952 - A three-train disaster in London kills 112 people.
- 1956 - New York Yankees baseball pitcher Don Larsen pitches first (and only) perfect game in World Series history in Game 5 of the 1956 World Series.
- 1957 - Baseball: Walter O'Malley announces that the Dodgers are going to move from Brooklyn, New York to Los Angeles, California
- 1962 - Spiegel scandal: Der Spiegel publishes the article "Bedingt abwehrbereit" ("Conditionally prepared for defense") about a NATO manoeuver called "Fallex 62", which uncovered the sorry state of the Bundeswehr (Germany's army) facing the communist threat from the east at the time. The magazine was soon accused of treason.
- 1967 - Guerrilla leader Che Guevara and his men are captured in Bolivia.
- 1968 - Vietnam War: Operation Sealords - United States and South Vietnamese forces launch a new operation in the Mekong Delta.
- 1970 - Vietnam War: In Paris, a Communist delegation rejects US President Richard Nixon's October 7 peace proposal as "a maneuver to deceive world opinion."
- 1978 - Australia's Ken Warby sets the current world water speed record of 317.60mph at Blowering Dam, Australia.
- 1982 - Poland bans Solidarity.
- 1990 - Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: In Jerusalem, Israeli police kill 17 Palestinians and wound over 100 near the Dome of the Rock mosque on the Temple Mount
- 1991 - The Croatian Parliament cuts all remaining ties with Yugoslavia
- 1998 - Oslo Airport Gardermoen, Norway opens.
- 1999 - New Coligny Calendar, NCC, The beginning of a new era of the Colignay Calendar, the oldest material Celtic calendar.
- 2001 - A twin engine Cessna and Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) jetliner collide in heavy fog during takeoff from Milan, Italy killing 118.
- 2001 - U.S. President George W. Bush announces the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security, which will be headed by Tom Ridge.
- 2003 - Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark's engagement to Australian lawyer Mary Donaldson is announced
- 2004 - Martha Stewart goes to jail.
- 2004 - Schapelle Corby is arrested for drugs smuggling in Bali.
- 2005 - 2005 Kashmir earthquake hits parts of northern South Asia at 03:50 UTC.

Births


- 1515 - Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox (d. 1578)
- 1676 - Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro, Spanish scholar (d. 1764)
- 1713 - Yechezkel Landau, Polish rabbi and Talmudist (d. 1793)
- 1715 - Michel Benoist, French Jesuit missionary and scientist (d. 1774)
- 1720 - Jonathan Mayhew, American minister and patriot (d. 1766)
- 1747 - Jean-François Rewbell, French politician (d. 1807)
- 1765 - Harman Blennerhassett, Irish lawyer (d. 1831)
- 1789 - John Ruggles, American politician (d. 1874)
- 1818 - John Henninger Reagan, American and Confederate politician (d. 1905)
- 1834 - Walter Kittredge, American musician and composer (d. 1905)
- 1870 - Louis Vierne, French organist (d. 1937)
- 1877 - Hans Heysen, German-born landscape artist (d. 1968)
- 1883 - Otto Heinrich Warburg, German physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)
- 1887 - Huntley Gordon, Canadian actor (d. 1956)
- 1888 - Ernst Kretschmer, German psychiatrist (d. 1964)
- 1889 - C. E. Woolman, American airline founder (d. 1966)
- 1890 - Edward Rickenbacker, American pilot (d. 1973)
- 1895 - Juan Perón, President of Argentina (d. 1974)
- 1895 - Zog I, King of Albania (d. 1961)
- 1901 - Doris Allen, American psychologist (d. 2002)
- 1901 - Eivind Groven, Norwegian composer and ethnomusicologist (d. 1977)
- 1910 - Kirk Alyn, American actor (d. 1999)
- 1910 - Gus Hall, American union organizer and Communist Party leader (d. 2000)
- 1910 - Ray Lewis, Canadian runner (d. 2003)
- 1917 - Billy Conn, American boxer (d. 1993)
- 1917 - Walter Lord, American author (d. 2002)
- 1917 - Danny Murtaugh, baseball player and manager (d. 1976)
- 1917 - Rodney Robert Porter, English biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1985)
- 1918 - Jens Christian Skou, Danish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1920 - Frank Herbert, American writer (d. 1986)
- 1927 - Jim Elliot, American missionary (d. 1956)
- 1927 - César Milstein, Argentine scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2002)
- 1928 - Neil Harvey, Australian cricketer
- 1928 - Bill Maynard, British actor
- 1932 - Ray Reardon, Welsh snooker player
- 1936 - Rona Barrett, American gossip columnist
- 1936 - David Carradine, American actor
- 1938 - Fred Stolle, Australian tennis player
- 1939 - Paul Hogan, Australian actor
- 1941 - Jesse Jackson, American clergyman and civil rights activist
- 1943 - Chevy Chase, American comedian and actor
- 1943 - R. L. Stine, American author
- 1944 - Susan Raye, American country singer
- 1946 - Jean-Jacques Beineix, French film director
- 1946 - Dennis Kucinich, U.S. Congressman and Presidential candidate
- 1947 - Tony Wilson, British bassist and singer
- 1948 - Sarah Purcell, American television host
- 1948 - Johnny Ramone, American guitarist (The Ramones) (d. 2004)
- 1949 - Sigourney Weaver, American actress
- 1950 - Robert Kool Bell, American musician (Kool & the Gang)
- 1952 - Jan Marijnissen, Dutch politician
- 1956 - Stephanie Zimbalist, American actress
- 1959 - Nick Bakay, American actor, voice actor, and comedian
- 1964 - CeCe Winans, American singer
- 1965 - Ardal O'Hanlon, Irish comedian
- 1965 - C-Jay Ramone, American bassist (The Ramones)
- 1969 - Julia Ann, American porn actress
- 1969 - Dylan Neal, Canadian actor
- 1970 - Matt Damon, American actor
- 1972 - Jason Bahr, American composer
- 1976 - Renate Groenewold, Dutch speed skater
- 1979 - Kristanna Loken, American actress and model

Deaths


- 1286 - John I of Dreux, Duke of Brittany (b. 1217)
- 1317 - Fushimi, Emperor of Japan (b. 1265)
- 1621 - Antoine de Montchrétien, French dramatist and economist
- 1647 - Christian Sørensen Longomontanus, Danish astronomer (b. 1562)
- 1652 - John Greaves, English mathematician and antiquarian (b. 1602)
- 1656 - John George I, Elector of Saxony (b. 1585)
- 1659 - Jean de Quen, French Jesuit missionary and historian
- 1735 - Yongzheng Emperor of China (b. 1678)
- 1754 - Henry Fielding, English author (b. 1707)
- 1772 - Jean Joseph de Mondonville, French composer (b. 1711)
- 1793 - John Hancock, American revolutionary and businessman (b. 1737)
- 1795 - Andrew Kippis, English non-conformist clergyman and biographer (b. 1725)
- 1809 - James Elphinston, Scottish philologist (b. 1721)
- 1834 - François-Adrien Boieldieu, French composer (b. 1775)
- 1869 - Franklin Pierce, 14th President of the United States (b. 1804)
- 1894 - Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., American physician and writer (b. 1809)
- 1928 - Larry Semon, comedian (b. 1889)
- 1931 - Sir John Monash, Australian soldier general (b. 1865)
- 1936 - William Henry Stark, Business leader (b. 1851)
- 1944 - Wendell Willkie, American politician and Presidential candidate (b. 1892)
- 1945 - Felix Salten, Austrian author (b. 1869)
- 1953 - Nigel Bruce, British actor (b. 1895)
- 1953 - Kathleen Ferrier, British contralto (b. 1912)
- 1967 - Clement Attlee, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1883)
- 1973 - Gabriel Marcel, French philosopher (b. 1889)
- 1978 – Jacques Brel, Belgian singer (b. 1929)
- 1982 - Fernando Lamas, Argentine actor (b. 1916)
- 1982 - Philip Noel-Baker, Baron Noel-Baker, Canadian-born peace activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1889)
- 1983 - Joan Hackett, American actress (b. 1934)
- 1992 - Willy Brandt, Chancellor of Germany, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1913)
- 2004 - Jacques Derrida, French philosopher (b. 1930)

Holidays and observances


- RC Saints - Saint Susan of Blois
- Wales and Cornwall - Saint Keyne
- Bolivia - reportedly, Che Guevarra is honoured on this day at which he was captured in La Higuera, as San Ernesto, answering prayers for rain.
- Also see October 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/8 BBC: On This Day] ---- October 7 - October 9 - September 8 - November 8 - more historical anniversaries ko:10월 8일 ms:8 Oktober ja:10月8日 simple:October 8 th:8 ตุลาคม

1895

1895 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

January


- January 5 - Dreyfus Affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his rank and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.

February


- February 11 - The lowest ever UK temperature of -27.2°C (measured as -17°F) was recorded at Braemar in Aberdeenshire. This record was equalled in 1982.
- February 14 - First showing of Oscar Wilde's last play The Importance of Being Earnest (St. James' Theatre in London).

March


- March 1 - William L. Wilson is appointed United States Postmaster General
- March 3 - In Munich, bicyclists have to pass a test and display license plates

April


- April 6 - Oscar Wilde is arrested after losing a libel case against the Marquess of Queensberry.
- April 14 - a major earthquake severely damages Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- April 17 - The Treaty of Shimonoseki (also known as Treaty of Maguan) was signed between China and Japan. This marks the end of the first Sino-Japanese War, and the defeated Qing Empire is forced to renounce its claims on Korea and to concede the southern portion of the Fengtien province, Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands to Japan.

May


- May 25 - Playwright, poet and novelist Oscar Wilde is convicted of "sodomy and gross indecency" and sentenced to serve two years in a London prison.

June


- June 11 - Britain annexes Togoland
- June 28 - Union of Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador begins (ends in 1898).

July


- July 15 - Archie MacLaren scores County Championship record innings of 424 for Lancashire against Somerset at Taunton.

August


- August 19 - American frontier murderer and outlaw, John Wesley Hardin, is killed by an off-duty policeman in a saloon in El Paso, Texas.
- August 29 - The sport of rugby league is formed at a meeting in the George Hotel, Huddersfield, England.

September


- September 3 - The first professional football game is played, in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between the Latrobe YMCA and the Jeannette Athletic Club. (Latrobe won the contest 12-0.).
- September 18 - Booker T. Washington delivers the Atlanta Compromise Speech.

November


- November 5 - George B. Selden is granted the first U.S. patent for an automobile.
- November 8 - Wilhelm Röntgen discovers a type of radiation later known as X-rays.
- November 27 - At the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris, Alfred Nobel signs his last will and testament, setting aside his estate to establish the Nobel Prize after he dies (he died of a cerebral hemorrhage on December 10, 1896).

December


- December 28 - Auguste and Louis Lumiere display their first moving picture film in Paris

Unknown date


- Dundela FC were formed in Belfast, Northern Ireland
- Konstantin Tsiolkovsky proposes a space elevator
- Most recent major earthquake in the New Madrid Fault Zone
- Grace Chisholm Young, the first woman awarded a doctorate at a German university
- W.E.B. Du Bois becomes the first African American to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard University
- Duck Reach Power Station opens

Births

January-March


- January 1 - J. Edgar Hoover, American Federal Bureau of Investigation director (d. 1972)
- January 15 - Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Finnish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)
- January 21 - Cristobal Balenciaga, Spanish-French couturier (d. 1972)
- January 24 - Eugen Roth, German writer (d. 1976)
- January 30 - Wilhelm Gustloff, German-born Swiss Nazi party leader( d. 1936)
- February 2 - George Halas, American football player, coach, and co-founder of the National Football League (d. 1983)
- February 6 - Babe Ruth, baseball player (d. 1948)
- February 14 - Max Horkheimer, German philosopher and sociologist (d. 1973)
- February 15 - Earl Thomson, Canadian athlete (d. 1971)
- February 21 - Carl Peter Henrik Dam, Danish biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1976)
- March 3 - Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch, Norwegian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)
- March 3 - Matthew Ridgway, Commander of NATO, United States Army Chief of Staff (d. 1993)
- March 12 - William C. Lee, U.S. general (d. 1948)
- March 17 - Shemp Howard, American actor and comedian (d. 1955)
- March 20 - Robert Benoist, French race car driver and war hero (d. 1944)
- March 29 - Ernst Jünger, German author (d. 1998)

April-June


- April 1 - Alberta Hunter, American singer (d. 1984)
- April 3 - Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian composer (d. 1968)
- April 9 - Mance Lipscomb, American singer (d. 1976)
- April 15 - Clark McConachy, New Zealand snooker and billiards player (d. 1980)
- April 20 - Emile Christian, American musician (d. 1973)
- April 28 - Spencer W. Kimball, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1985)
- April 29 - Malcolm Sargent, English conductor (d. 1967)
- May 6 - Rodolfo Valentino, Italian actor (d. 1926)
- May 8 - Fulton J. Sheen, American Catholic archbishop and television personality (d. 1979)
- May 12 - William Giauque, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1982)
- May 15 - William D. Byron, U.S. Congressman (d. 1941)
- May 30 - Nikolai Bulganin, Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1975)
- May 30 - Maurice Tate, English cricketer (d. 1956)
- June 10 - Hattie McDaniel, American actress (d. 1952)

July-September


- July 8 - Igor Tamm, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
- July 10 - Carl Orff, German composer (d. 1982)
- July 12 - Kirstin Flagstad, Norwegian soprano (d. 1982)
- July 12 - Buckminster Fuller, American architect (d. 1983)
- July 24 - Robert Graves, English writer (d. 1985)
- July 25 - Yvonne Printemps, French singer and actress (d. 1977)
- August 16 - Liane Haid, Austrian actress (d. 2000)
- September 7 - Sir Brian Horrocks, British general (d. 1985)
- September 11 - Vinoba Bhave, Indian religious leader (d. 1982)
- September 24 - André Frédéric Cournand, French-born physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1988)
- September 29 - J.B. Rhine, American parapsychologist (d. 1980)

October-December


- October 2 - Bud Abbott, American actor (d. 1974)
- October 4 - Buster Keaton, American actor and film director (d. 1966)
- October 8 - King Zog of Albania (d. 1961)
- October 19 - Lewis Mumford, American historian (d. 1990)
- October 21 - Edna Purviance, actress (d. 1958)
- October 22 - Rolf Nevanlinna, Finnish mathematician (d. 1980)
- October 25 - Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1969)
- October 30 - Gerhard Domagk, German bacteriologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (declined) (d. 1964)
- October 30 - Dickinson W. Richards, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1973)
- October 31 - Basil Liddell Hart, military historian (d. 1970)
- November 5 - Walter Gieseking, German pianist (d. 1956)
- November 15 - Antoni Słonimski, Polish poet and writer (d. 1976)
- November 16 - Paul Hindemith, German composer (d. 1963)
- November 25 - Wilhelm Kempff, German pianist (d. 1991)
- November 29 - Busby Berkeley, American film director and choreographer (d. 1976)
- December 2 - Harriet Cohen, English pianist (d. 1967)
- December 14 - Paul Eluard, French poet (d. 1952)
- December 14 - King George VI of the United Kingdom (d. 1952)
- Tuanku Abdul Rahman ibni Almarhum Tuanku Muhammad, King of Malaysia (d. 1960)

Deaths


- January 9 - Aaron Lufkin Dennison, American watchmaker (b. 1812)
- January 10 - Benjamin Godard, French composer (b. 1849)
- February 2 - Archduke Albert, Austrian general (b. 1817)
- February 20 - Frederick Douglass, American ex-slave and author (b. 1818)
- March 2 - Berthe Morisot, French painter (b. 1841)
- March 10 - Charles Frederick Worth, English-born couturier (b. 1826)
- May 19 - José Martí, Cuban independence leader (b. 1853)
- May 21 - Franz von Suppé, Austrian composer (b. 1819)
- June 29 - Sir Thomas Henry Huxley, English biologist (b. 1825)
- August 5 - Friedrich Engels, German socialist philosopher (b. 1820)
- August 22 - Luzon B. Morris, American politician (b. 1827)
- September 28 - Louis Pasteur, French microbiologist and chemist (b. 1822)
- October 8 - Empress Myeongseong (Queen Min), last Korean empress (b. 1851)
- October 25 - Charles Hallé, German-born pianist and conductor (b. 1819)
- November 27 - Alexandre Dumas, fils, French author and playwright (b. 1824)

Date unknown


- Green Clay Smith, American politician (b. 1826). Category:1895 ko:1895년 ms:1895 simple:1895 th:พ.ศ. 2438

Civil engineer

The term civil engineer refers to an individual who practices civil engineering. Originally the term "civil" engineer worked on public works projects and was contrasted with the military engineer, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, civil engineering has spun off a variety of fields e.g. architectural engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and what is still called civil engineering. An interesting definition could be, "The profession of Civil Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of the power of Nature for the use and convenience of Human Kind."

Scandinavian civil engineers

In Scandinavian countries, some Master of Science degrees are called civil engineer (civilingenjör (Swedish), sivilingeniør (Norwegian)). That is if they have their graduation, or "diploma", from an institute of technology. The word has its origin from one of the English meaning of 'civil engineer' [http://www.m-w.com/] (compare [http://dictionary.oed.com]); : an engineer whose training or occupation is in the design and construction especially of public works (as roads or harbors). Although the English language meaning is very narrow, during the middle of 19th century (before [http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/] 1874), its Swedish interpretation also becamed "a person graduated from institute of technology", and now the profession represents all fields within engineering professions, like civil engineering, computer science, electronics engineering, etc. However, it might also mean only the civil engineering topic. Although a 'college engineer' (högskoleingenjör, diplomingenioer (Swedish), ingeniør (Norwegian)) represents a Bachelor of Science in Scandinavia, to become a 'civil engineer', one has to almost re-start the education from zero and it will take a half up to one year extra compared to B.Sc./M.Sc. studies. This is because the higher educational system is not fully suited to the international standard graduation system, since, at least in Sweden, it is treated as a professional degree. A Scandinavian "civilingenjör" usually calls himself "Master of Science in engineering". A Scandinavian "civilingenjör" will occasionally wear an engineering ring inspired by the canadian iron ring.

See also


- Civil engineering
- List of civil engineers
- Landscape Architecture Category:Civil engineering

Soldier

A soldier is a person who has enlisted with, or has been conscripted into, the armed forces of a sovereign country and has undergone training and received equipment (such as a uniform and weapon) to defend that country or its interests. In most countries, the term soldier is limited to such people who serve in the land branch of the armed services (usually known as the army). Armies are strictly hierarchical societies, and within them, groups of soldiers are usually divided into military units of some kind. A soldier is not necessarily a fighter. Although all soldiers get basic combat training, many soldiers serve in the rear in non-combat positions (such as in office management, clerical, logistics, or research and development positions). In an army, the most common military rank held by soldiers is the lowest - in the British Army and United States Army, a private or equivalent. In some countries of the world, soldier specifically refers to members of the army who are not holders of an officer's commission. In most armies of the world a soldier who is not an officer can in theory work their way through the ranks to obtain a commission. A soldier who no longer serves in the armed forces is called a veteran, a term which can also apply to a long-serving or experienced soldier who is still in the army.

Classification

veteran Infantry (or infantrymen, archaically foot), are soldiers who specialise in ground combat. Not all soldiers are infantrymen, and not all infantrymen are soldiers. Infantry that are not soldiers include members of the British RAF Regiment (who are technically airmen, not soldiers), and members of the United States Marine Corps, British Royal Marines, and other marine forces (many of whom bristle at being called soldiers, although they are often so described). Several navies maintain forces of naval infantry, who are sailors, not soldiers. Cavalry (or cavalrymen; archaically horse), are traditionally soldiers who fight from horseback, but now usually crew armoured fighting vehicles. Variations include dragoons, lancers, hussars and cuirassiers. Artillery (or artillerymen) operate heavy mortars, howitzers, guns, and missile and rocket launchers. Engineers, also called pioneers, are military construction, demoliti