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William I Of England

William I of England

William I (c. 1028 – 9 September 1087), was King of England from 1066 to 1087, and as Guillaume II was Duke of Normandy from 1035 to 1087. Known alternatively as William of Normandy (Fr. Guillaume de Normandie), William the Conqueror (Fr. Guillaume le Conquérant) and William the Bastard (Fr. Guillaume le Bâtard), he was the illegitimate and only son of Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, and Herleva, the daughter of Fulbert, a tanner. Born in Falaise, Normandy, now in France, William succeeded to the throne of England by right of conquest by winning the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and suppressing subsequent English revolts, in what has become known as the Norman Conquest. No authentic portrait of William has been found. He was described as a big burly man, strong in every sense of the word, balding in front, and of regal dignity.

Early life history

William was born the grandnephew of Queen Emma, wife of King Ethelred the Unready and later of King Canute. William succeeded to his father's Duchy of Normandy at the young age of 7 in 1035 and was known as Duke William I of Normandy (Fr. Guillaume II, duc de Normandie). He lost three guardians to plots to usurp his place. Count Alan of Brittany was a later guardian. King Henry I of France knighted him at the age of 15. By the time he turned 19 he was himself successfully dealing with threats of rebellion and invasion. With the assistance of King Henry, William finally secured control of Normandy by defeating the rebel Norman barons at Caen in the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes in 1047. He married his cousin Matilda of Flanders, against the wishes of the pope in 1053 at the Cathedral of Notre Dame at Eu, Eu, Normandy (now in Seine-Maritime). He was 26, she was 22. Their marriage produced four sons and six daughters (see list below). His half-brothers Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain played significant roles in his life. He also had a sister, Adelaide of Normandy.

Conquest of England

Upon the death of William's cousin King Edward the Confessor of England (January 1066), William claimed the throne of England, asserting that the childless and purportedly celibate Edward had named him his heir during a visit by William (probably in 1052) and that Harold Godwinson, England's foremost magnate, had reportedly pledged his support while shipwrecked in Normandy (c. 1064). Harold made this pledge while in captivity and was reportedly tricked into swearing on a saint's bones that he would give the throne to William. Even if this story is true, however, Harold made the promise under duress and so may have felt free to break it. The assembly of England's leading notables known as the Witenagemot approved Harold Godwinson’s coronation which took place on January 5, 1066 making him King Harold II of England. In order to pursue his own claim, William obtained the Pope's support for his cause. He assembled a Norman invasion fleet of around 600 ships and an army of 7000 men. He landed at Pevensey in Sussex on September 28, 1066 and assembled a prefabricated wooden castle near Hastings as a base. This was a direct provocation to Harold Godwinson as this area of Sussex was Harold's own personal estate, and William began immediately to lay waste to the land. It may have prompted Harold to respond immediately and in haste rather than await reinforcements in London. King Harold Godwinson was in the north of England and had just defeated another rival, King Hardrada of Norway supported by his own brother Tostig. He marched an army of similar size to William's 250 miles in 9 days to challenge him at the crucial battle of Senlac, which later became known as the Battle of Hastings. This took place on October 14, 1066. According to some accounts, perhaps based on an interpretation of the Bayeux Tapestry commemorating the Norman victory, Harold was allegedly killed by an arrow through the eye, and the English forces fled giving William victory. This was the defining moment of what is now known as the Norman Conquest. The remaining Anglo-Saxon noblemen surrendered to William at Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire and he was acclaimed King of England there. William was then crowned on December 25 1066 in Westminster Abbey. Although the south of England submitted quickly to Norman rule, resistance continued, especially in the North for six more years until 1072. Harold's illegitimate sons attempted an invasion of the south-west peninsula. Uprisings occurred in the Welsh Marches and at Stafford. Separate attempts at invasion by the Danes and the Scots also occured. William's defeat of these led to what became known as The Harrying of the North (Sometimes called Harrowing) in which Northumbria was laid waste as revenge and to deny his enemies its resources. The last serious resistance came with the Revolt of the Earls in 1075. It is estimated that one fifth of the people of England were killed during these years by war, massacre, and starvation.

William's reign

William initiated many major changes. In 1085, in order to ascertain the extent of his new dominionans and maximize taxation, William commissioned the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey of England's productive capacity similar to a modern census. He also ordered many castles, keeps, and mots, among them the Tower of London, to be built across England to ensure that the rebellions by the English people or his own followers would not succeed. His conquest also led to Norman replacing English as the language of the ruling classes, for nearly 300 years. English William is said to have deported some of the Anglo-Saxon landed classes into slavery through Bristol. Many of the latter ended up in Umayyad Spain and Moorish lands. Ownerships of nearly all land, and titles to religious and public offices in England were given to Normans. Many surviving Anglo-Saxon nobles emmigrated to other European kingdoms.

Death, burial, and succession

He died at the age of 60, at the Convent of St Gervais, near Rouen, France, on September 9, 1087 from abdominal injuries received from his saddle pommel when he fell off a horse at the Siege of Mantes. William was buried in the St. Peter's Church in Caen, Normandy. In a most unregal postmortem, his corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus, and burst after some unsuccessful prodding by the assembled bishops, filling the chapel with a foul smell and dispersing the mourners. [http://historyhouse.com/in_history/william/] William was succeeded in 1087 as King of England by his younger son William Rufus and as Duke of Normandy by his elder son Robert Curthose. This led to the Rebellion of 1088. His youngest son Henry also became King of England later, after William II died without a child to succeed him.

Children of William and Matilda

Some doubt exists over how many daughters there were. This list includes some entries which are obscure. #Robert Curthose (c. 1054–1134), Duke of Normandy, married Sybil of Conversano, daughter of Geoffrey of Conversano #Adeliza (or Alice) (c. 1055–?), reportedly betrothed to Harold II of England (Her existence is in some doubt.) #Cecilia (or Cecily) (c. 1056–1126), Abbess of Holy Trinity, Caen # William Rufus (1056–1100), King of England #Richard (1057-c. 1081), killed by a stag in New Forest #Adela (c. 1062–1138), married Stephen, Count of Blois #Agatha (c. 1064–c. 1080), betrothed to (1) Harold of Wessex, (2) Alfonso VI of Castile #Constance (c. 1066–1090), married Alan IV Fergent, Duke of Brittany; poisoned, possibly by her own servants #Matilda (very obscure, her existence is in some doubt) #Henry Beauclerc (1068–1135), King of England, married (1) Edith of Scotland, daughter of Malcolm III, King of Scotland, (2) Adeliza of Louvain

Honours

William I was ranked #68 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history.

Further reading


- David Bates, William the Conqueror (1989) ISBN 0752419803
- David Howarth, "1066 The Year of the Conquest" ISBN 0140058505
- Anne Savage, "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles" ISBN1-85833-478-0, pub.CLB, 1997

External links


- [http://www.badley.info/history/William-I-the-Conqueror-England.biog.html William the Conqueror Chronology World History Database]
- [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page18.asp History of William I's life and reign.] Official web site of the British Monarchy
- [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/1066 William the Conqueror.] by E. A. Freeman (1823-1892). Ebook published via Gutenberg Project. Category:1027 births Category:1087 deaths Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Category:English monarchs Category:Dukes of Normandy Category:Unusual explosions ja:ウィリアム1世 (イングランド王) simple:William I of England

1028

Events


- November 12 - Dying Emperor Constantine VIII of the Byzantine Empire marries his daughter Zoe of Byzantium to his chosen heir Romanus Argyrus.
- November 15 - Romanus Argyrus becomes Eastern Roman Emperor as Romanus III.

Births


-

Deaths


- May 5 - Alfonso V, king of León and Galicia
- November 15 - Emperor Constantine VIII of the Byzantine Empire (b. 960)
- Fujiwara no Michinaga, Japanese regent (b. 966) Category:1028 ko:1028년

9 September

September 9 is the 252nd day of the year (253rd in leap years). There are 113 days remaining.

Events


- 1000 - Battle of Swold somewhere in the Baltic Sea between Norway and other Scandinavians.
- 1087 - William the Conqueror dies near Rouen, France.
- 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian Habsburg lands between the Habsburg Dukes Albert III and Leopold III.
- 1513 - James IV of Scotland is defeated and dies in the Battle of Flodden Field, ending Scotland's involvement in the War of the League of Cambrai.
- 1543 - Mary Stuart, at nine months old, is officially crowned "Queen of Scots" in the central Scottish town of Stirling.
- 1739 - Stono Rebellion, the largest slave uprising in Britains mainland North American colonies prior to the American Revolution, erupts near Charleston, South Carolina.
- 1776 - The Continental Congress officially names their new country the United States.
- 1839 - John Herschel takes the first glass plate photograph.
- 1850 - California is admitted as the thirty-first U.S. state.
- 1850 - The Compromise of 1850 strips Texas of a third of its claimed territory (now parts of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Wyoming) in return for the U.S. federal government assuming $10 million of Texas's pre-annexation debt.
- 1863 - American Civil War: The Union Army enters Chattanooga, Tennessee.
- 1870 - Redmond, Washington, founded
- 1886 - The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works is finalized.
- 1914 - World War I: The creation of the Canadian Automobile Machine Gun Brigade, the first fully mechanized unit in the British Army.
- 1922 - Greek-Turkish war has ended with Turkish victory over the Greeks. The largest part of the city of Smyrna (on the Minor Asia coast, now Izmir) is burned. Non-Turkic population flees.
- 1923 - Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey, founds the Republican People's Party (CHP).
- 1924 - Hanapepe Massacre occurs on Kauai, Hawaii.
- 1926 - The U.S. National Broadcasting Company formed.
- 1942 - World War II: A Japanese floatplane drops an incendiary bomb on Oregon.
- 1943 - World War II: The Allies land at Salerno and Taranto, Italy.
- 1944 - World War II: Bulgaria is occupied by Soviet Union.
- 1945 - Second Sino-Japanese War: Japan formally surrenders to China.
- 1947 - "First actual case of (a computer) bug being found": a moth lodges in a relay of a Mark II computer at Harvard University.
- 1948 - The Republic Day of Democratic People's Republic of Korea
- 1954 - Marilyn Bell swims for 20 hours and 57 minutes under grueling conditions to become the first person to swim across Lake Ontario.
- 1956 - Elvis Presley appears on The Ed Sullivan Show for the first time.
- 1965 - The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development is established.
- 1965 - Sandy Koufax throws a perfect game against the Chicago Cubs
- 1966 - The National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act signed into law by U.S. President Lyndon Johnson.
- 1970 - Elvis Presley begins a 6 city tour at the Phoenix Veterans Memorial Coliseum. This show is filmed for inclusion in the movie Elvis: That's The Way It Is.
- 1971 - Attica Prison riots
- 1983 - Aaron Pryor beats Alexis Arguello by knockout in round ten of a rematch of their 1982 controversial fight, dubbed The Battle of The Champions.
- 1991 - Tajikstan gains independence from the Soviet Union.
- 1995 - The Sony Playstation is released in North America.
- 1999 - The Sega Dreamcast is released in North America.
- 2001, 01:46:40 UTC - the Unix billennium.
- 2001 - Ahmed Shah Massoud, leader of the Northern Alliance, is assassinated in Afghanistan.
- 2004 - 2004 Jakarta embassy bombing: A bomb explodes outside the Australian embassy in Jakarta, killing 10 people.
- 2004 - Serbian Prime Minister Vojislav Koštunica reverses a decision by Minister of Education and Sport Ljiljana Čolić to require the teaching of both creationism and evolution in schools, and announces that Čolić will be replaced.
- 2004 - Friends spin off Joey premieres.

Births


- 1349 - Duke Albert III of Austria (d. 1395)
- 1427 - Thomas de Ros, 10th Baron de Ros, English politician (b. 1464)
- 1466 - Ashikaga Yoshitane, Japanese shogun (d. 1523)
- 1558 - Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercoeur, French soldier (d. 1602)
- 1585 - Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu, French statesman (d. 1642)
- 1629 - Cornelis Tromp, Dutch admiral (d. 1691)
- 1711 - Thomas Hutchinson, American colonial governor of Massachusetts (d. 1780)
- 1737 - Luigi Galvani, Italian physician and physicist (d. 1798)
- 1754 - William Bligh, British naval officer (d. 1817)
- 1755 - Benjamin Bourne, American politician (d. 1808)
- 1828 (N.S.) - Leo Tolstoy, Russian novelist (d. 1910)
- 1855 - Anthony Francis Lucas Croatian-born oil exploration pioneer (d. 1921)
- 1868 - Mary Hunter Austin, American writer (d. 1934)
- 1873 - Max Reinhardt, German film director and actor (d. 1943)
- 1878 - Adelaide Crapsey, American poet (d. 1914)
- 1887 - Alf Landon, American politician (d. 1987)
- 1890 - Colonel Harland Sanders, American fast food entrepreneur (d. 1980)
- 1894 - Arthur Freed, American songwriter and film producer (d. 1973)
- 1894 - Bert Oldfield, Australian cricketer (d. 1976)
- 1898 - Frankie Frisch, baseball player (d. 1973)
- 1899 - Waite Hoyt, baseball player (d. 1984)
- 1903 - Phyllis Whitney, American writer
- 1904 - Feroze Khan, Pakistani field hockey player (d. 2005)
- 1908 - Cesare Pavese, Italian poet and novelist (d. 1950)
- 1911 - John Gorton, nineteenth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2002)
- 1918 - Jimmy Snyder, American bookmaker and sports commentator (d. 1996)
- 1922 - Hans Georg Dehmelt, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1923 - Daniel Carleton Gajdusek, American virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1924 - Jane Greer, American actress (d. 2001)
- 1924 - Rik Van Steenbergen, Belgian cyclist (d. 2003)
- 1925 - Cliff Robertson, American actor
- 1928 - Julian "Cannonball" Adderley, American musician (d. 1975)
- 1929 - Claude Nougaro, French singer (d. 2004)
- 1935 - Chaim Topol, Israeli actor
- 1939 - Ron McDole, American football player
- 1939 - Carlos Ortiz, Puerto Rican boxer
- 1941 - Peter Bonetti, British footballer
- 1941 - Otis Redding, American singer and songwriter (d. 1967)
- 1941 - Dennis Ritchie, American computer scientist
- 1946 - Bruce Palmer, Canadian musician (Buffalo Springfield) (d. 2004)
- 1946 - Billy Preston, American musician
- 1949 - Joe Theismann, American football player and commentator
- 1951 - Alexander Downer, Australian politician
- 1951 - Tom Wopat, American actor and singer
- 1952 - David A. Stewart, English musician (Eurythmics)
- 1954 - Jeffrey Combs, American actor
- 1957 - Pierre-Laurent Aimard, French pianist
- 1960 - Hugh Grant, British actor
- 1963 - Lauren Allen, American Porn Star
- 1966 - Georg Hackl, German luger
- 1966 - Adam Sandler American actor and comedian
- 1969 - Rachel Hunter, New Zealand model and actress
- 1974 - Mathias Färm, Swedish Guitarist (Millencolin)
- 1982 - Ai Otsuka, Japanese singer and songwriter
- 1986 - Max Olesen, Canadian sex symbol

Deaths


- 701 - Pope Sergius I
- 1000 - Olaf I of Norway
- 1087 - King William I of England
- 1398 - King James I of Cyprus (b. 1334)
- 1487 - Chenghua, Emperor of China (b. 1447)
- 1488 - Francis II, Duke of Brittany (fell from a horse) (b. 1433)
- 1513 - King James IV of Scotland (b. 1473)
- 1569 - Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Flemish painter
- 1612 - Nakagawa Hidenari, Japanese warlord (b. 1570)
- 1680 - Henry Marten, English regicide (b. 1602)
- 1755 - Johann Lorenz von Mosheim, German historian (b. 1694)
- 1806 - William Paterson, Signer of the U.S. Constitution, Governor of New Jersey (b. 1745)
- 1815 - John Singleton Copley, American painter (b. 1738)
- 1841 - Augustin Pyrame de Candolle, Swiss botanist (b. 1778)
- 1891 - Jules Grévy, President of France (b. 1813)
- 1898 - Stéphane Mallarmé, French poet (b. 1842)
- 1901 - Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, French painter (b. 1864)
- 1909 - Edward Henry Harriman, American railroad entrepreneur (b. 1848)
- 1915 - Albert Spalding, baseball player and sporting goods manufacturer (b. 1850)
- 1960 - Jussi Björling, Swedish tenor (b. 1911)
- 1976 - Mao Zedong, Chinese head of state (b. 1893)
- 1978 - Jack Warner, Canadian-born film studio founder (b. 1892)
- 1980 - John Howard Griffin, American writer (b. 1920)
- 1985 - Paul Flory, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910)
- 1990 - Doc Cramer, baseball player (b. 1905)
- 1990 - Samuel Doe, President of Liberia
- 1993 - Helen O'Connell, American singer (b. 1920)
- 1997 - Burgess Meredith, American actor (b. 1907)
- 1999 - Jim "Catfish" Hunter, baseball player (b. 1946)
- 2001 - Ahmed Shah Massoud, Afghani military leader
- 2003 - Larry Hovis, American actor (b. 1936)
- 2003 - Edward Teller, Hungarian-born physicist (b. 1908)
- 2005 - John Wayne Glover, the North Shore Granny Murderer, hanging suicide.

Holidays and observances


- Eastern Orthodoxy - Synaxis of the Theopatores Joachim and Anna
- Japan - ChrysanthemumDay (Kiku no Sekku)
- North Korea - Republic Day (1948)
- Tajikistan - Independence Day (from USSR, 1991)

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/9 BBC: On This Day] ---- September 8 - September 10 - August 9 - October 9 – listing of all days ko:9월 9일 ms:9 September ja:9月9日 simple:September 9 th:9 กันยายน

1087

Events


- May 9 - The remains of Saint Nicholas were brought to Bari.
- September 9 - William II becomes king of England
- End of the formal reign of Emperor Shirakawa, but not of his cloistered rule
- Emperor Horikawa ascends to the throne of Japan

Births


- September 13 - John II Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1143)

Deaths


- September 9 - King William I of England
- September 16 - Pope Victor III
- St. Arnulf, bishop Category:1087 ko:1087년

Kingdom of England

:This article is about the historical state called the Kingdom of England (927-1707). For the main article about the modern country, see England. The Kingdom of England was a state located in western Europe, in the southern part of the island of Great Britain. The capital of the Kingdom was Winchester, in Hampshire, until the Norman Conquest of 1066. William I of England (1066–1087) selected London as his capital. London served as the capital of the Kingdom until its end in 1707 (see Acts of Union 1707) and continues to remain the de facto capital of England. The city has also served as the capital of both the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922). Today it remains the capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the "United Kingdom"). The present monarch of the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth II, is the modern successor to the Kings and Queens of England. The title of Queen (and King) of England has however been out of use since 1707 and is incorrect when it applies to her in popular use. Elizabeth can trace her descent to the Kings of Wessex from the 1st millennium.

History

:Main article: History of England The Kingdom of England has no specific founding date. The Kingdom can trace its origins to the Heptarchy, the rule of what would later become England by seven minor Kingdoms: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Wessex. The Kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 8th century, a process that would continue during the 9th century. Alfred the Great (reigned 871–899) was the first King of Wessex to style himself "King of England". His son Edward the Elder (reigned 899–924) exceeded the military achievements of his father by establishing his rule over the Danelaw. The death of his sister Ethelfleda in 918, resulted in him usurping the rule of Mercia from his niece Aelfwynn in 919. In 927 the last kingdom of early mediaeval England, Northumbria, fell to the King of Wessex Athelstan, a son of Edward the Elder. Athelstan was the first to reign over a united England. He was not the first de jure King of England, but certainly the first de facto one. England has remained in political unity ever since. However the Kingdom was subject to invasions by the Vikings of Denmark during the late 10th century. In response Ethelred II of England ordered the slaughter of all Danish people present in England during 1002. This only managed to attract the attention and hostility of Sweyn I of Denmark and Norway. Sweyn staged four full scale invasions of England for the remainder of his life. Sweyn was proclaimed King of England in opposition to Ethelred II in 1013. He died on February 2, 1014. His son Canute the Great continued the war. Ethelred II died on April 23, 1016. His son Edmund II of England was soon defeated by Canute. Canute agreed to co-rule with Edmund II but the latter died on November 30 1016, leaving England united under Danish rule. Danish rule continued until the death of Harthacanute on June 8, 1042. He was a son of Canute and Emma of Normandy, widow of Ethelred II. Harthacanute had no heirs of his own and was succeeded by his half-brother Edward the Confessor. The Kingdom of England was independent again. Edward the Confessor of England.]] Peace only lasted until the death of childless Edward on January 4/January 5, 1066 . His brother-in-law was crowned Harold II of England. His cousin William the Bastard , Duke of Normandy immediately claimed the throne for himself. William launched an invasion of England and landed in Sussex on September 28, 1066. Harold II and his army were in York following their victory in the Battle of Stamford Bridge (September 25, 1066). They had to march across England to reach their new opponents. The armies of Harold II and William finally faced each other in the Battle of Hastings (October 14, 1066). Harold fell and William remained the victor. William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition. He was not however planning to absorb the Kingdom to the Duchy of Normandy. As a Duke, William still owed allegiance to Philip I of France. The independent Kingdom of England would allow him to rule without interference. He was crowned King of England on December 25, 1066. The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy would remain in personal union until 1204. King John of England, a fourth-generation descendant of William I, lost the continental area of the Duchy to Philip II of France during that year. The remnants of the Duchy remained in the rule of John and his descendants. They are known as the Channel Islands. John still held both the titles and land of the Duke of Aquitaine. His grandson Edward I of England defeated Llywelyn the Last and effectively conquered Wales in 1282. He created the title Prince of Wales for his eldest son Edward II in 1301. Edward II was father to Edward III of England, whose claim to the throne of France resulted in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). The end of the war found England defeated and retaining only a single city of France: Calais. The Kingdom had little time to recover before entering the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). The "Wars" was actually a civil war over possession of the throne between the House of Lancaster and the House of York. They were actually descendants of Edward III and closely related. The end of the wars found the throne held by a female line descendant of the House of Lancaster married to the eldest daughter of the House of York. Henry VII of England and his Queen consort Elizabeth of York were the founders of the Tudor dynasty which ruled the Kingdom from 1485 to 1603. 1603.]] Meanwhile, Wales retained the distinct legal and administrative system that had been established by Edward I in the late 13th century. The second Tudor monarch, Henry VIII of England, merged Wales into England under what later became known as the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543. Wales ceased to be a personal fiefdom of the king of England but was annexed to England and was representated in the English Parliament. During the reign of Mary I of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII, Calais was captured by Francis, Duke of Guise on January 7, 1558. The House of Tudor ended with the death of its last monarch, Elizabeth I of England, on March 24, 1603. Her heir was James VI of Scotland who ascended the throne of England as James I. The two British Kingdoms remained independent states under a personal union until 1707. In 1707, the Act of Union merged both Kingdoms and created the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801). Queen Anne was the last Queen of England, and the first monarch of the new kingdom. Both the English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain located in Westminster, London. At this point, England ceased to exist as a separate political entity and has since had no national government. Legally, however, the jurisdiction continued to operate as England and Wales (just as Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts) and this continued also after the Act of Union of 1800 which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Commonwealth and Protectorate

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland England was a monarchy for the entirety of its political existence since its creation about 927 up to the 1707 Act of Union, except for the eleven years of English Interregnum (1649 to 1660) that followed the English Civil War. The rule of executed King Charles I of England was replaced by that of a republic known as Commonwealth of England (1649–1653). The most prominent general of the republic, Oliver Cromwell, managed to extend its rule to Ireland and Scotland. The victorious general eventually turned against the republic, and established a new form of government known as The Protectorate, with himself as Lord Protector until his death on September 3, 1659. He was succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell. However, anarchy eventually developed, as Richard proved unable to maintain his rule. He resigned his title and retired into obscurity. The Commonwealth was re-established but proved unstable. The exiled claimant Charles II of England was recalled to the throne in 1660 in the English Restoration.

See also


- List of monarchs of England
- History of England
- Royal English Navy
- Crown Jewels of England
- England and Wales
- Anglo-Norman language
Category:History of England England, Kingdom of England, Kingdom of

1087

Events


- May 9 - The remains of Saint Nicholas were brought to Bari.
- September 9 - William II becomes king of England
- End of the formal reign of Emperor Shirakawa, but not of his cloistered rule
- Emperor Horikawa ascends to the throne of Japan

Births


- September 13 - John II Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1143)

Deaths


- September 9 - King William I of England
- September 16 - Pope Victor III
- St. Arnulf, bishop Category:1087 ko:1087년

Normandy

Normandy is a geographical region in northern France. Upper Normandy (Haute-Normandie) consists of the French départements of Seine-Maritime and Eure, and Lower Normandy (Basse-Normandie) of the départements of Orne, Calvados, and Manche. The Duchy of Normandy is a formerly independent duchy situated in northern France occupying the lower Seine area, the Pays de Caux and the region to the west through the Pays d'Auge as far as the Cotentin Peninsula. Normandy was historically a province of France. The Channel Islands, although British, are culturally and historically a part of Normandy that never reverted to the crown of France.

Population

Normandy has 3.2 million inhabitants, with an average population density of 107 per square kilometer, just under the French national average, but rising to 145 for upper Normandy. The principal cities are Rouen (population 385,000, including suburbs), the capital of upper Normandy and formerly of the whole province; Le Havre (247,000); Caen (200,000), the capital of lower Normandy; and Cherbourg (89,000). Cherbourg Other towns include:
- Alençon
- Arromanches
- Avranches
- Bayeux
- Coutances
- Dieppe
- Doudeville
- Évreux
- Falaise
- Honfleur
- Houlgate
- Lisieux
- Mortain
- Saint-Lô
- Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte
- Sainte-Mère-Église
- Villers-Bocage

Geography

Villers-Bocage The region is bordered along the northern coasts by the English Channel. There are granite cliffs in the west and limestone cliffs in the east. There are also long stretches of beach in the centre of the region. The bocage, patchwork of small fields with high hedges, typical of the western areas caused problems for the invading forces in the Battle of Normandy. There are meanders of the Seine as it approaches its estuary which form a notable feature of the landscape.

Regions


- The Suisse normande (Norman Switzerland), in the south, presents hillier terrain.
- The Pays d'Auge is considered typical of the rich agricultural landscape of central Normandy.
- The Roumois
- The Lieuvin
- The Cotentin Peninsula
  - La Hague
- The Pays de Caux
- The Bessin
- The Pays d'Ouche
- The Norman Vexin
- The Pays de Bray

Rivers

Rivers in Normandy include:
- the Seine
- the Orne
- the Vire
- the Eure
- the Risle
- the Robec
- the Touques
- the Couesnon, which traditionally marks the boundary between the Duchy of Brittany and the Duchy of Normandy. The Pont de Normandie crossing the estuary of the Seine is regarded as a feat of modern engineering.

History

Pont de Normandie] Normandy was the home of the Normans in the early Middle Ages, the last people to successfully invade England. The Normans were a mixture of the indigenous Gauls and of the Viking invaders under the leadership of Rollo (Gange Rolf), who besieged Paris and was given the area of Normandy (Treaty of St.-Claire-sur-Epte, 911) in return for defending it against future pirate attacks. Rollo's descendant William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England in 1066 and became king William I of England. Normandy remained associated with England until 1087, in 1106-1144 and in 1154-1204. Also see the Battle of Bouvines in 1214. Normandy was occupied by English forces during the Hundred Years' War in 1346-1360 and again in 1415-1450. Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville played important parts in the Crusades and established a kingdom in Sicily and the south of Italy. Both Wace and Orderic Vitalis are important Norman writers for the history of the province. During World War II, the town of Dieppe was the site of the ill-fated Dieppe Raid by Canadian and British units in 1942. Later, Normandy was also the site of the Normandy Invasion or Operation Overlord that began on June 6 1944, which day is also known as D-Day. This was the successful invasion of German-occupied France by U.S., British, and Canadian troops. Caen, Cherbourg, Carentan, and other Norman towns endured many casualties in the fight for the province, which continued until the liberation of Le Havre on September 12.

Channel Islands

Since the Channel Islands have remained loyal to the English Crown since the division of Normandy in 1204, yet are not part of the UK but rather the Duchy of Normandy, the British monarch (currently Queen Elizabeth II) is toasted as Duke of Normandy. However, she is not regarded as Duke of Normandy outside her realms since claims by English monarchs to the title were given up by the Treaty of Paris of 1259. Additionally, the rights of succession to that title are subject to Salic Law, which does not allow for female inheritance of the ducal title.

Culture

Languages

The Norman language, a regional language, is spoken by a minority of the population, especially in the Cotentin peninsula in the far West and in the Pays de Caux in the East. Many place names show the influence of this Norse-influenced oïl language; for example -bec (stream), -fleur (river), -hou (island), -tot (homestead). oïl language

Arts

Architecture

:Main article is Architecture of Normandy. Architecturally, Norman cathedrals, abbeys (such as the Abbey of Bec) and castles characterise the former Duchy in a way that mirrors the similar pattern of Norman architecture in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066. Domestic architecture in upper Normandy is typified by half-timbered buildings that also recall vernacular English architecture, although the farm enclosures of the more harshly landscaped Pays de Caux are a more idiosyncratic response to socio-economic and climatic imperatives. Much urban architectural heritage was destroyed during the Battle of Normandy in 1944 - post-war urban reconstruction, such as in Le Havre and Saint-Lô, could be said to demonstrate both the virtues and vices of modernist and brutalist trends of the 1950s and 1960s. Vernacular architecture in lower Normandy takes its form from granite, the predominant local building material. The Channel Islands also share this influence - Chausey was for many years a source of quarried granite, including that used for the construction of Mont Saint Michel.

Literature

Writers in the French language connected with Normandy include:
- Alphonse Allais
- Olivier Basselin
- Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly
- Jean Bertaut
- François le Metel de Boisrobert
- Pierre Corneille
- Casimir Delavigne
- Octave Feuillet
- Gustave Flaubert
- André Gide
- Rémy de Gourmont
- François de Malherbe
- Guy de Maupassant
- André Maurois
- Jack Quesnot Monnier
- Jacques Prévert
- Marcel Proust
- Raymond Queneau
- Jean Rotrou See also Anglo-Norman literature, Gesta Normannorum Ducum

Painting

From the 1860s, plein-air painters, who worked outside the studio, were attracted to Normandy by the ease of railway access from Paris. Claude Monet's waterlily garden at Giverny is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the region. Eugène Boudin's paintings of fashionable seaside scenes are also typical. Eugène Boudin]] Artists Norman by birth include:
- Nicolas Poussin
- Jean-François Millet
- Marcel Duchamp
- Fernand Léger
- André Breton
- Raoul Dufy
- Théodore Géricault
- Jean Dubuffet
- Georges de Scudéry
- Madeleine de Scudéry
- Pierre Toutain Dorbec

Music

Erik Satie, Daniel Auber, Arthur Honegger and Marcel Dupré, composers, were born in Normandy.

Design

Christian Dior, fashion designer, was born in Granville.

Religion

The cathedrals of Normandy have exerted influence down the centuries in matters of both faith and politics. Mont Saint Michel is a historic pilgrimage site. The influence of Celtic Christianity can still be found in the Cotentin. Many saints have been revered in Normandy down the centuries, including:
- Thérèse de Lisieux whose cult in Lisieux is a focus for religious devotion
- Joan of Arc who was martyred in Rouen, and who is especially remembered in that city
- Helier and Samson of Dol who are evangelizers of the Channel Islands
- Saint Marcouf and Saint Lô who are important saints in Lower Normandy
- St. Aubert who is remembered as the founder of Mont Saint Michel
- Thomas Becket, an Anglo-Norman whose parents were from Rouen, who was the object of a considerable cult in mainland Normandy following his martyrdom Normandy does not have one generally-agreed patron saint, although this title has been ascribed to Saint Michael, and to Saint Ouen.

Food and drink

Normandy is famous for its rich, rolling countryside, which provides plentiful pasture for dairy cattle and orchards for apples. The dairy produce of the region is renowned: its cheeses are world famous and include Camembert, Livarot and Pont l'Evêque. Normandy butter is highly prized, as is Normandy cream, both of which are lavishly used in local gastronomic specialities. Normandy is a major cider-producing region (very little wine is produced). Perry is also produced, but in less significant quantities. The apple brandy, of which the most famous variety is calvados, is also popular. The mealtime trou normand, or Norman break, is a pause between meal courses in which diners partake of a glassful of calvados, is still observed in many homes and restaurants. Pommeau is an aperitif produced by blending unfermented cider and apple brandy. Another aperitif is the kir normand, a measure of cassis topped up with cider. Benedictine is produced in Fécamp. Apples are also used in cooking: for example, moules à la normande are mussels cooked with apples and cream, bourdelots are apples baked in pastry, and localities all over the province have their own variation of apple tart. A classic pastry dish from the region is Flan Normand a flaky pastry-based variant of the apple tart. Other regional specialities include tripes à la mode de Caen, andouilles, teurgoule (spiced rice pudding) and seafood. Normandy is the most significant oyster-cultivating region in France.

Symbols

oyster The traditional provincial flag of Normandy, gules, two leopards passant or, is used in both modern regions. The historic three-leopard version (known in the Norman language as les treis cats, "the three cats") is used by some associations and individuals, especially those who support reunification of the regions and cultural links with the Channel Islands and England. The unofficial anthem of the region is the song "Ma Normandie".

See also


- Duchy of Normandy
- Duke of Normandy
- List of postal codes in Normandy
- British military history
- COGEMA La Hague site

External links


- [http://www.mondes-normands.caen.fr/angleterre/index.htm The Normans, a European People. The Norman heritage, 10th-12th century]
- [http://www.offrench.net/photos/gallery-6.php Gallery of photos of Normandy]
- [http://www.chambresdhotesfrance.com/normandy.html Chambres D'Hotes in Normandy]
- [http://www.normandieweb.org Normandie Web - A community Web site about Normandy (in French)]
- ja:ノルマンディー

1087

Events


- May 9 - The remains of Saint Nicholas were brought to Bari.
- September 9 - William II becomes king of England
- End of the formal reign of Emperor Shirakawa, but not of his cloistered rule
- Emperor Horikawa ascends to the throne of Japan

Births


- September 13 - John II Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1143)

Deaths


- September 9 - King William I of England
- September 16 - Pope Victor III
- St. Arnulf, bishop Category:1087 ko:1087년

French language

French (French: français) is the third of the Romance languages in terms of number of speakers, after Spanish and Portuguese, being spoken by about 67 million people as a mother tongue, and altogether by some 128 million people, which includes second-language speakers who use French for daily communication. French is thus the 18th most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, and 9th in terms of daily speakers. It is an official language in 29 countries. It is also an official or administrative language in various communities and organisations (such as the European Union, IOC, United Nations and Universal Postal Union). Before World War II, French was considered the international language, particularly in such fields as diplomacy, trade, shipping, and transportation.

History

The Roman invasion of Gaul

The French language is a Romance language, meaning that it is descended from Latin. Before the Roman invasion of what is modern-day France by Julius Cæsar (58–52 BC), France was inhabited largely by a Celtic people that the Romans referred to as Gauls, although there were also other linguistic/ethnic groups in France at this time, such as the Iberians in southern France and Spain, the Ligurians on the Mediterranean coast, Greek colonies such as Massalia (i.e. present-day Marseille), Phoenician outposts, and the Vascons on the Spanish/French border. Although in the past many Frenchmen liked to refer to their descent from Gallic ancestors (nos ancêtres les Gaulois), perhaps fewer than 200 words with a Celtic etymological origin remain in French today (largely place and plant names and words dealing with rural life and the earth). In the reverse direction, some words for Gallic objects which were new to the Romans and for which there were no words in Latin were imported into Latin – for example, clothing items such as les braies. Latin quickly became the lingua franca of the entire Gallic region for mercantile, official and educational purposes, yet it should be remembered that this was Vulgar Latin, the colloquial dialect spoken by the Roman army and its agents and not the literary dialect of Cicero.

The Franks

From the third century on, Western Europe was invaded by Germanic tribes from the east, and some of these groups settled in Gaul. For the history of the French language, the most important of these groups are the Franks in northern France, the Alemanni in the German/French border, the Burgundians in the Rhone valley and the Visigoths in the Aquitaine region and Spain. These Germanic-speaking groups had a profound effect on the Latin spoken in their respective regions, altering both the pronunciation and the syntax. They also introduced a number of new words: perhaps as much as 15% of modern French comes from Germanic words, including many terms and expressions associated with their social structure and military tactics.

Langue d'Oïl

Linguists typically divide the languages spoken in medieval France into three geographical subgroups: Langue d'oïl and Langue d'oc are the two major groups; the third group, Franco-Provençal, is considered a transitional language between the two other groups. The Oïl–Oc divide is broadly comparable to the divide illustrated by the use of "yes" in English and "aye" in Scots. Langue d'oïl, the languages which use oïl (in modern usage, oui) for "yes", is the language group in the north of France. These languages, like Picard, Walloon, Francien and Norman, were influenced by the Germanic languages spoken by the Frankish invaders. From the time period Clovis I on, the Franks extended their rule over northern Gaul. Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl language found around Paris (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the lingua franca theory). Langue d'oc, the languages which use oc for "yes", is the language group in the south of France and northern Spain. These languages, such as Gascon and Provençal, have relatively little Frankish influence. (Modern French has two words for "yes", oui and si; the latter is used to contradict negative statements. Si derives from Latin sic "thus", and is cognate to the word for "yes" in Spanish, Italian, and Catalan. Oïl/oui derive, according to Larousse, from Latin hoc ille "thus he (did)".)

Other linguistic groups

The early middle ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects of France: From the 5th to the 8th centuries, Celtic-speaking peoples from southwestern Britain (Wales, Cornwall, Devon) travelled across the English Channel, both for reasons of trade and as a result of the Anglo-Saxon invasions of England. They established themselves in Bretagne (Brittany). Their language was a dialect of the Brythonic languages, which has been named Breton in more recent centuries. It is part of the larger Celtic language family, though the modern dialects reflect a noticeable influence from French in their vocabulary. From the 6th to the 7th centuries, the Vascons crossed over the Pyrénées, a mountain range in the south of France. Their presence influenced the Occitan language spoken in southwestern France, resulting in the dialect called Gascon. Scandinavian vikings invaded France from the 9th century onwards and established themselves in what would come to be called Normandie (Normandy). They took up the langue d'oïl spoken there and contributed many words to French related to maritime activities, amongst other things. With their conquest of England in 1066, the Normans brought their language. The dialect that developed there as a language of administration and literature is referred to as Anglo-Norman. Anglo-Norman served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the time of the conquest until 1362, when the use of English became dominant again. Because of the Norman Conquest, the English language has borrowed a considerable amount of its vocabulary from French. The Arab peoples also supplied many words to French around this time period, including words for luxury goods, spices, trade stuffs, sciences and mathematics.

History of French

For the period up to around 1300, some linguists refer to the oïl languages collectively as Old French (ancien français). The earliest extant text in French is the Oaths of Strasbourg from 842; Old French became a literary language with the chansons de geste that told tales of the paladins of Charlemagne and the heroes of the Crusades. By the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts in 1539 King Francis I made French the official language of administration and court proceedings in France, ousting the Latin that had been used before then. With the imposition of a standardised chancery dialect and the loss of the declension system, the dialect is referred to as Middle French (moyen français). Following a period of unification, regulation and purification, the French of the 17th to the 18th centuries is sometimes referred to as Classical French (français classique), although many linguists simply refer to French language from the 17th century to today as Modern French (français moderne). The foundation of the Académie française (French Academy) in 1634 by Cardinal Richelieu created an official body whose goal has been the purification and preservation of the French language. This group of 40 members is known as the Immortals, not, as some erroneously believe, because they are chosen to serve for the extent of their lives (which they are), but because of the inscription engraved on the official seal given to them by their founder Richelieu—"À l'immortalité" ("to the Immortality (of the French language)"). The foundation still exists and contributes to the policing of the language and the adaptation of foreign words and expressions. Some recent modifications include the change from software to logiciel, packet-boat to paquebot, and riding-coat to redingote. The word ordinateur for computer was however not created by the Académie, but by a linguist appointed by IBM (see :fr:ordinateur). From the 17th to the 19th centuries, France was the leading power of continental Europe; thanks to this, together with the influence of the Enlightenment, French was the lingua franca of educated Europe, especially with regards to the arts, literature, and diplomacy; monarchs like Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia could both speak and write in French. Through the Académie, public education, centuries of official control and the role of media, a unified official French language has been forged, but there remains a great deal of diversity today in terms of regional accents and words. For some critics, the "best" pronunciation of the French language is considered to be the one used in Touraine (around Tours and the Loire River valley), but such value judgments are fraught with problems, and with the ever increasing loss of lifelong attachments to a specific region and the growing importance of the national media, the future of specific "regional" accents is difficult to predict.

Modern issues

There is some debate in today's France about the preservation of the French language and the influence of English (see franglais), especially with regard to international business, the sciences and popular culture. There have been laws (see Toubon law) enacted which require that all print ads and billboards with foreign expressions include a French translation and which require quotas of French-language songs (at least 40%) on the radio. There is also pressure, in differing degrees, from some regions as well as minority political or cultural groups for a measure of recognition and support for their regional languages.

Geographic distribution

regional language
French is an official language in the following countries or parts thereof: La Francophonie is an international organization of French-speaking countries and governments.

Legal status in France

Per the Constitution of France, French is the official language of the Republic since 1792 [http://www.languefrancaise.net/dossiers/dossiers.php?id_dossier=50]. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education outside of specific cases (though these dispositions are often ignored) and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. See Toubon Law. Contrary to a misunderstanding common in the American and British media, France does not prohibit the use of foreign words in websites or any other private publication, which would anyway contradict constitutional guarantees on freedom of speech. The misunderstanding may have arisen from a similar prohibition in the Canadian province of Quebec which made strict application of the Charter of the French Language between 1977 and 1993, although these regulations addressed language used in advertising and the provision of commercial services offered within the province, not the language of private communication. There exist in addition to French a variety of languages spoken in France by minorities; see Languages of France.

Legal status in Canada

About 12% of the world's francophones are Canadian, and French is one of Canada's two official languages, with English; various provisions of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms deal with the right of Canadians to access services in English and French all across Canada. By law, the federal government must operate and provide services in both English and French; proceedings of the Parliament of Canada must be translated into both English and French; and all Canadian products must be labelled in both English and French. Overall about 22% of Canadians speak French as a first language and 18% are bilingual. French has been the only official language of Quebec since 1974, although it is commonly (and incorrectly) believed that the designation of French as the sole official language occurred in 1977 with the adoption of the Charter of the French Language (which is popularly referred to as Bill 101). By far the provision of Bill 101 with the most significant impact has been that which mandates French-language education, unless a child's parents or siblings have received the major part of their own education in English within Canada. That provision has reversed a historical trend whereby a large number of immigrant children were being sent to English schools by their parents. In so doing, Bill 101 has greatly contributed to the "visage français" (French face) of Quebec. Other provisions of Bill 101, on the other hand, have been ruled unconstitutional over the years, including those mandating French-only commercial signs, court proceedings, and debates in the legislature. Some of those provisions have remained in effect, for a while, using the constitutional "notwithstanding" clause that permits a non-compliant law to temporarily remain. No "notwithstanding provision" is currently in effect. In 1993 the Charter was changed to allow signage in other languages so long as French is markedly "predominant". The Charter also provides for a measure of access by Anglophones to health and social services in their own language. The only province which has French as an official language is New Brunswick. In Ontario and Manitoba, French does not have full official status, although the provincial governments do provide full French-language services in all communities where significant numbers of francophones live. All of the other provinces do make some effort to accommodate the needs of their francophone citizens, although the level and quality of French-language service varies significantly from province to province.

Legal status in Switzerland

French is an official language in Switzerland. It is spoken in the part of Switzerland called Romandy.

Dialects of French


- Acadian French
- African French
- Belgian French
- Cajun French
- Canadian French
- Cambodian French
- Louisiana Creole French
- français d'Aoste
- français-germanique
- Indian French
- Levantine French
- Maghreb French
- Newfoundland French
- North American French
- Oceanic French
- Quebec French
- South East Asian French
- Swiss French
- West Indian French
- [http://www.linguasphere.org/langues_romanes.pdf linguasphere on Romance languages]

Languages derived from French


- Antillean Creole
- Haitian Creole
- Lanc-Patuá
- Mauritian Creole
- Michif
- Louisiana Creole French
- Réunionese Creole
- Seychellois Creole
- Tay Boi

Sounds

:Main article: French phonology and orthography French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology. The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:
- liaison or linking: Final single consonants, in particular s, x, z, t, d, n and m, are normally silent. (The final letters 'c', 'r', 'f', and 'l' however are normally pronounced.) When the following word begins with a vowel, though, a silent consonant may once again be pronounced, to provide a "link" between the two words and avoid a glottal stop between them. Some liaisons are mandatory, for example the s in les amants or vous avez; some are optional, depending on dialect and register, for example the first s in deux cents euros or euros irlandais; and some are forbidden, for example the s in beaucoup d'hommes aiment. The t of et is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in set phrases like pied-à-terre. Doubling a final consonant and adding a silent e at the end of a word (e.g. Parisien → Parisienne) makes it clearly pronounced, always.
- elision or vowel dropping: Monosyllabic words such as je or que drop their final vowel before another word beginning with a vowel. The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g. je ai is instead pronounced and spelt → j'ai)
- nasal "n" and "m". When "n" or "m" follows a vowel combination, the "n" and "m" become silent and cause the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e. pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils). Exceptions are when the "n" or "m" is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel. The prefixes en- and em- are always nasalized. The rules get more complex than this but may vary between dialects.
- digraphs French does not introduce extra letters or diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and diphthongs, rather it uses specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended. (See French phonology and orthography or [http://www.languageguide.org/francais/grammar/pronunciation/ French Pronunciation Guide] for more details.)
- accents are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes for etymology alone.
  - Accents that affect pronunciation:
    - "é", is pronounced instead of the defaults or,
    - "è" (e.g., secrète) means that the vowel is pronounced (as usual),
    - dieresis (e.g. naïve, Noël) as in English, specifies that this vowel is pronounced separately from the preceding one (or following one in some cases), not combined,
    - the "ç" means that the letter c is pronounced in front of A, O, or U. ("c" is otherwise hard before a hard vowel.)
    - The circumflex (e.g. pâté, forêt) shows that an e is pronounced and that an o is pronounced . In some dialects it also signifies a pronunciation of for the letter a, but this differentiation is disappearing. It usually indicates a former long vowel created by the dropping of an "s" from the Latin root (as in English "paste", "forest"),
  - Accents with no pronunciation effect:
    - The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters i or u, and in most dialects, a as well.
    - All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words or for etymological reasons, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs là and où ("there", "where") from the article la and the conjunction ou ("the fem. sing.", "or") respectively.

Grammar

:Main article: French grammar French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including:
- the loss of Latin's declensions
- only two grammatical genders
- the development of grammatical articles from Latin