Home About us Products Services Contact us Bookmark
:: wikimiki.org ::
Wilhelm Eduard Weber

Wilhelm Eduard Weber

Wilhelm Eduard Weber (October 24, 1804 - June 23, 1891) was a noted physicist. He was born in Wittenberg, where his father, Michael Weber, was professor of theology. William was the second of three brothers, all of whom were distinguished by an aptitude for the study of science. After the dissolution of the University of Wittenberg his father was transferred to Halle in 1815. William had received his first lessons from his father, but was now sent to the Orphan Asylum and Grammar School at Halle. After that he entered the University, and devoted himself to natural philosophy. He distinguished himself so much in his classes, and by original work, that after taking his degree of Doctor and becoming a Privatdozent he was appointed Professor Extraordinary of natural philosophy at Halle. In 1831, on the recommendation of Gauss, he was called to Göttingen as professor of physics, although but twenty-seven years of age. His lectures were interesting, instructive, and suggestive. Weber thought that, in order to thoroughly understand physics and apply it to daily life, mere lectures, though illustrated by experiments, were insufficient, and he encouraged his students to experiment themselves, free of charge, in the college laboratory. As a student of twenty years he, with his brother, Ernst Heinrich Weber, Professor of Anatomy at Leipzig, had written a book on the Wave Theory and Fluidity, which brought its authors a considerable reputation. Acoustics was a favourite science of his, and he published numerous papers upon it in Poggendorffs Annalen, Schweigger's Jahrbücher für Chemie und Physik, and the musical journal Carcilia. The 'mechanism of walking in mankind' was another study, undertaken in conjunction with his younger brother, Eduard Weber. These important investigations were published between the years 1825 and 1838. Displaced by the Hanoverian Government for his liberal opinions in politics Weber travelled for a time, visiting England, among other countries, and became professor of physics in Leipzig from 1843 to 1849, when he was reinstalled at Göttingen. One of his most important works was the Atlas des Erdmagnetismus ("atlas of geomagnetism"), a series of magnetic maps, and it was chiefly through his efforts that magnetic observatories were instituted. He studied magnetism with Gauss, and in 1864 published his Electrodynamic Proportional Measures containing a system of absolute measurements for electric currents, which forms the basis of those in use. Weber died in Göttingen. The SI unit of magnetic flux, the weber (symbol: Wb) is named for him. Weber, Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Wilhelm Eduard ja:ヴィルヘルム・ヴェーバー

October 24

October 24 is the 297th day of the year (298th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 68 days remaining.

Events


- 69 - Second Battle of Bedriacum, forces under Antonius Primus, the commander of the Danube armies, loyal to Vespasian, defeat the forces of Emperor Vitellius.
- 1260 - The spectacular Cathedral of Chartres is dedicated in the presence of King Louis IX of France; the cathedral is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- 1260 - Saif ad-Din Qutuz, Mamluk sultan of Egypt, is assassinated by Baibars, who seizes power for himself.
- 1360 - The Treaty of Brétigny is ratified at Calais, marking the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War.
- 1648 - The Peace of Westphalia is signed, marking the end of the Thirty Years' War.
- 1795 - Partitions of Poland: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is completely divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia
- 1812 - Napoleonic Wars: The Battle of Maloyaroslavets takes place near Moscow.
- 1861 - The first transcontinental telegraph line across the United States is completed, spelling the end for the 18-month-old Pony Express.
- 1903 - General Order (GO) 167 authorized the formation of the "Canadian Signalling Corps (Militia)" (CSC) - the first independently organized Signal Corps in the British Empire.
- 1917 - Battle of Caporetto starts on the Austro-Italian front of World War I
- 1929 - "Black Thursday" stock market crash on the New York Stock Exchange.
- 1930 - A bloodless coup d'état in Brazil ousts Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa, the last President of the First Republic. Getúlio Dornelles Vargas is then installed as "provisional president."
- 1935 - Italy invades Ethiopia
- 1944 - World War II: The Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku is sunk.
- 1945 - Founding of the United Nations
- 1947 - Walt Disney testifies to the House Unamerican Activities Committee, naming Disney employees he believes to be communists.
- 1954 - Dwight D. Eisenhower pledges United States support to South Vietnam
- 1955 - The body of Manolo Just, a probable bisexual, is found in the Mexico apartment of Mary Rogers, daughter of Will Rogers. Homicide is suspected, but never proven.
- 1956 - Soviet Union invades Hungary
- 1957 - the USAF starts the X-20 Dyna-Soar program.
- 1960 - Nedelin catastrophe: An R-16 ballistic missile explodes on the launch pad at the Soviet Union's Baikonur Cosmodrome space facility, killing 165. Among the dead is Field Marshall Mitrofan Nedelin, whose death is reported to have occurred in a plane crash.
- 1964 - Northern Rhodesia gains independence from the United Kingdom and becomes the Republic of Zambia (Southern Rhodesia remained a colony)
- 1970 - Salvador Allende elected President of Chile
- 1973 - Yom Kippur War ends
- 1980 - Government of Poland legalizes Solidarity trade union
- 1989 - Televangelist Jim Bakker is sentenced to 45 years in prison and a 500,000 USD fine for defrauding investors of 3.7 million USD.
- 1992 - The Toronto Blue Jays become the first non-US team to win the World Series. This is also known as the first real "World" Series.
- 1998 - Launch of Deep Space 1 comet/asteroid mission
- 1998 - Tropical Storm Mitch reaches hurricane strength.
- 2002 - Police arrest spree killers John Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo, ending the Beltway sniper attacks in the area around Washington, DC.
- 2003 - Concorde makes its last commercial flight, bringing the era of airliner supersonic transport to a close, at least for the time being.
- 2004 - A plane carrying ten members of the NASCAR Hendrick Motorsports team crashes en route to the race held at Martinsville Speedway. There were no survivors.
- 2005 - Cream begins a series of three shows at Madison Square Garden. These shows are similar to the reunion shows held in May at the Royal Albert Hall.
- 2005 - Hurricane Wilma makes landfall in South Florida.

Births


- 51 - Domitian, Roman Emperor (d. 96)
- 1402 - David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, heir to the throne of Scotland (b. 1378)
- 1632 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch microbiologist (d. 1723)
- 1675 - Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, English soldier and politician (d. 1749)
- 1710 - Alban Butler, English Catholic priest and writer (d. 1773)
- 1788 - Sarah Hale, American poet (d. 1879)
- 1804 - Wilhelm Eduard Weber, German physicist (d. 1891)
- 1811 - Ferdinand Hiller, German composer (d. 1885)
- 1855 - James S. Sherman, Vice President of the United States (d. 1912)
- 1868 - Alexandra David-Néel, French explorer and writer (d. 1969)
- 1891 - Rafael Molina-Trujillo, President of the Dominican Republic
- 1901 - Gilda Gray, Polish-born actress and dancer (d. 1959)
- 1903 - Melvin Purvis, American Federal Bureau of Investigation director (d. 1960)
- 1904 - Moss Hart, American dramatist (d. 1961)
- 1909 - Bill Carr, American athlete (d. 1966)
- 1915 - Tito Gobbi, Italian baritone (d. 1984)
- 1915 - Bob Kane, cartoonist (d. 1998)
- 1915 - Roger Milliken, textile heir
- 1923 - Denise Levertov, English-born poet (d 1997)
- 1925 - Luciano Berio, Italian composer (d. 2003)
- 1926 - Y. A. Tittle, American football player
- 1927 - Jean-Claude Pascal, French singer (d.1992)
- 1929 - George Crumb, American composer
- 1929 - Yordan Radichkov, Bulgarian writer
- 1930 - The Big Bopper, American singer (d. 1959)
- 1930 - Johan Galtung, Norwegian scientist
- 1930 - Sultan Ahmad Shah, King of Malaysia
- 1931 - Sofia Gubaidulina, Russian composer
- 1932 - Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, French physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1932 - Robert Mundell, Canadian economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1936 - Bill Wyman, English musician (The Rolling Stones)
- 1939 - F. Murray Abraham, American actor
- 1945 - Anthony Christian, English Artist
- 1946 - Jerry Edmonton, Canadian drummer (Steppenwolf)
- 1947 - Kevin Kline, American actor
- 1948 - Kweisi Mfume, American civil rights activist, U.S. Congressman from Maryland
- 1954 - Mike Rounds, Governor of South Dakota
- 1957 - Ron Gardenhire, baseball manager
- 1960 - Ian Baker-Finch, Australian golf player
- 1960 - Jaime Garzón, Colombian journalist and comedian (d. 1999)
- 1961 - Mary Bono, U.S. Congresswoman from California
- 1962 - B.D. Wong, American actor
- 1966 - Roman Abramovich, Russian oil magnate
- 1971 - Dervla Kirwan, Irish actress
- 1972 - Scott Peterson, American murderer
- 1972 - Pat Williams, American football player
- 1973 - Levi Leipheimer, American professional cyclist
- 1974 - Caprice Bourret, American model and actress
- 1975 - Juan Pablo Ángel, Columbian footballer
- 1979 - Ben Gillies, Australian musician (Silverchair)
- 1980 - James Killian, American football player
- 1980 - Monica, American singer
- 1981 - Tila Nguyen, American model
- 1985 - Wayne Rooney, English footballer
- 1991 - Edmund Townend, Author of Scorpius Diamond

Deaths


- 996 - King Hugh Capet of France (b. 938)
- 1260 - Saif ad-Din Qutuz, Mamluk sultan of Egypt
- 1375 - King Valdemar IV of Denmark
- 1537 - Jane Seymour, queen of Henry VIII of England
- 1572 - Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby, English politician
- 1601 - Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer (b. 1546)
- 1655 - Pierre Gassendi, French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist (b. 1592)
- 1669 - William Prynne, English Puritan leader (b. 1600)
- 1672 - John Webb, English architect (b. 1611)
- 1708 - Kowa Seki, Japanese mathematician
- 1725 - Alessandro Scarlatti, Italian composer (b. 1660)
- 1799 - Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, Austrian composer (b. 1739)
- 1821 - Elias Boudinot, American President of the Continental Congress (b. 1740)
- 1852 - Daniel Webster, American lawyer and politician (b. 1782)
- 1898 - Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, French painter (b. 1824)
- 1912 - Mykola Lysenko, Ukrainian composer (b. 1842)
- 1915 - Désiré Charnay, French archaeologist (b. 1828)
- 1938 - Ernst Barlach, German sculptor
- 1944 - Louis Renault, French automobile manufacturer (b. 1877)
- 1945 - Vidkun Quisling, Norwegian traitor (executed) (b. 1887)
- 1948 - Franz Lehár, Austrian composer (b. 1870)
- 1957 - Christian Dior, French fashion designer (b. 1905)
- 1971 - Carl Ruggles, American composer (b. 1876)
- 1972 - Jackie Robinson, baseball player (b. 1919)
- 1972 - Claire Windsor, American actress (b. 1897)
- 1974 - David Oistrakh, Ukrainian violinist (b. 1908)
- 1979 - Park Chung Hee, South-Korean president (b. 1917).
- 1991 - Gene Roddenberry, American television producer (b. 1921)
- 1997 - Don Messick, voice actor (b. 1926)
- 2001 - Wolf Rüdiger Hess, German neo-Nazi (b. 1937)
- 2002 - Winton M. Blount, United States Postmaster General (b. 1921)
- 2002 - Adolph Green, American lyricist and playwright (b. 1914)
- 2002 - Harry Hay, American activist (b. 1912)
- 2004 - Randy Dorton, NASCAR crew member (b. 1954)
- 2004 - Ricky Hendrick, NASCAR team owner (b. 1980)
- 2004 - James Cardinal Hickey, American Catholic archbishop (b. 1920)
- 2005 - José Azcona del Hoyo, President of Honduras (b. 1926)
- 2005 - Rosa Parks, American civil rights activist (b. 1913)

Holidays and observances


- R.C. Saints - optional memorial of Antonio Maria Claret
- Also see October 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- New Zealand -Labour Day (2005, 4th Monday in October).
- Zambia - Independence Day (1964)
- United Nations Day (charter 1945)
- Discordianism - Maladay

References


- In The Fellowship of the Ring, by J.R.R. Tolkien, the date is mentioned to Frodo Baggins by Gandalf upon his waking in Rivendell.

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/24 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://pddod.byethost15.com/ a site made by a kid born on this day... 1988] ---- October 23 - October 25 - November 24 - September 24 - more historical anniversaries ko:10월 24일 ms:24 Oktober ja:10月24日 simple:October 24 th:24 ตุลาคม

1804

1804 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 1 - End of French rule in Haiti
- February 14 - First Serbian Uprising began.
- February 15 - New Jersey becomes the last northern state to abolish slavery
- February 16 - First Barbary War: Stephen Decatur leads a raid to burn the pirate-held frigate Philadelphia.
- February 21 - The first self-propelling steam engine or steam locomotive makes its outing at the Pen-y-Darren ironworks in Wales. Designed by Richard Trevithick, a Cornishman.
- March 7 - John Wedgwood founds The Royal Horticultural Society
- March 10 - Louisiana Purchase: In St. Louis, a formal ceremony is conducted to transfer ownership of Louisiana Territory from France to the United States.
- March 20 - Execution of the Duc d’Enghien for plotting against Napoleon
- March 21 - Code Napoleon adopted as French civil law
- April 26 - Henry Addington resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- May 10 - William Pitt the younger begins his second term as a Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- May 14 - The Lewis and Clark Expedition departs from Camp Dubois and begin their historic journey by traveling up the Missouri River.
- May 18 - Napoleon Bonaparte is proclaimed Emperor of France by the French Senate.
- June 15 - The Twelfth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution ratified by New Hampshire, and arguably becomes effective (subsequently vetoed by the Governor of New Hampshire)
- July 11 - Duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr results in the death of Alexander Hamilton.
- July 27 - The Twelfth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution ratified by Tennessee, removing doubt surrounding adoption.
- August 20 - Lewis and Clark Expedition: The "Corps of Discovery", whose purpose is to explore the Louisiana Purchase, suffers it first and last death when Sergeant Charles Floyd dies, apparently from acute appendicitis.
- September 1 - German astronomer K. L. Harding discovers the asteroid Juno
- Thomas Jefferson defeats Charles C. Pinckney in U.S. presidential election
- November 30 - The Jeffersonian Republican-controlled United States Senate begin an impeachment trial against Federalist-partisan Supreme Court of the United States Justice Samuel Chase (he was charged with political bias but was acquitted by the Senate of all charges on March 1, 1805).
- December 2 - At Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself as the first Emperor of the French in a thousand years (the Napoleonic Code is adopted).
- December 12 - Spain declares war on Britain

Unknown date


- Père Lachaise Cemetery a 118 acre (0.5 km²) cemetery in Paris, France is founded.
- Nicolas-François Appert (1750-1841) develops a method to preserve food by means of canning.

Ongoing events


- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)

Births


- January 1 - James Fannin, Texas revolutionary (d. 1836)
- January 20 - Eugène Sue, French novelist (d. 1857)
- January 21 - Eliza Roxcy Snow, American poet (d. 1887)
- February 7 - John Deere, American industrialist (d. 1886)
- March 14 - Johann Strauss Senior, Austrian composer (d. 1849)
- March 17 - Jim Bridger, American trapper and explorer (d. 1881)
- June 1 - Mikhail Glinka, Russian composer (d. 1857)
- June 1 - George Sand, French writer (d. 1876)
- June 24 - Willard Richards, American religious leader (d. 1854)
- July 4 - Nathaniel Hawthorne, American writer (d. 1864)
- July 28 - Ludwig Feuerbach, German philosopher (d. 1872)
- September 8 - Eduard Mörike, German poet (d. 1875)
- November 18 - Alfonso Ferrero la Marmora, Italian general and statesman (d. 1878)
- November 23 - Franklin Pierce, 14th President of the United States (d. 1869)
- December 10 - Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi, German mathematician (d. 1851)
- December 13 - Joseph Howe, Canadian politican (d. 1873)
- December 21 - Benjamin Disraeli, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1881)
- December 23 - Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French literary critic (d. 1869)

Deaths


- January 4 - Charlotte Ramsey Lennox, English author and poet (b. 1727)
- January 15 - Dru Drury, English entomologist (b. 1725)
- February 6 - Joseph Priestley, English chemist (b. 1733)
- February 12 - Immanuel Kant, German philosopher (b. 1724)
- March 21 - Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien (executed) (b. 1772)
- March 30 - Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie, Marshal of France (b. 1718)
- April 9 - Jacques Necker, French statesman (b. 1732)
- April 15 - Charles Pichegru, French general (strangled in prison) (b. 1761)
- July 12 - Alexander Hamilton, American statesman (killed in a duel)
- September 4 - Richard Somers, American naval officer (killed in battle)
- October 2 - Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, French automobile pioneer (b. 1725)
- November 23 - Richard Graves, English writer (b. 1715) Category:1800s Category:1804 ko:1804년 ms:1804 simple:1804 th:พ.ศ. 2347

June 23

June 23 is the 174th day of the year (175th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 191 days remaining.

Events


- 1295 - Pope Boniface VIII enters Rome.
- 1305 - Flemish-French peace treaty signed at Athis-sur-Orge.
- 1314 - Start of the Battle of Bannockburn south of Stirling, Edward II of England & Robert I of Scotland met in battle. Scotland won and Edward fled the field and Scotland.
- 1532 - Henry VIII & François I sign secret treaty against Emperor Charles V.
- 1611 - The mutinous crew of Henry Hudson's fourth voyage sets Henry, his son and seven loyal crew members adrift in an open boat in the Atlantic Ocean; they are never heard from again.
- 1661 - Marriage contract between Charles II of England & Catharina of Portugal.
- 1683 - William Penn signs friendship treaty with Lenni Lenape Indians in Pennsylvania.
- 1713 - French residents of Acadia given one year to declare allegiance to Britain or leave Nova Scotia Canada. [http://www.acadian-cajun.com/acadia5.htm]
- 1724 - Russia and Turkey sign Treaty of Constantinople.
- 1757 - Battle of Plassey - 3000 British troops under Robert Clive defeat a 50,000 strong Indian army under Siraj-ud-Dawlah at Plassey.
- 1758 - Seven Years War: Battle of Krefeld - British forces defeat French troops at Krefeld in Germany.
- 1760 - Seven Years War: Battle of Landshut - Austria beats Prussia.
- 1794 - Empress Catherine II grants Jews permission to settle in Kiev.
- 1810 - John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company.
- 1812 - Napoleon begins the famous offensive on Russia, which fails horribly.
- 1858 - Six-year-old Edgardo Mortara is seized by Papal authorities.
- 1860 - The US Congress establishes the Government Printing Office.
- 1865 - American Civil War: At Fort Towson in Oklahoma Territory Confederate General Stand Watie surrenders the last significant rebel army.
- 1887 - The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nation's first national park, Banff National Park. [http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cseh-twih/archives2_E.asp?id=25]
- 1888 - Frederick Douglass is the first African-American nominated for US president.
- 1894 - International Olympic Committee is founded at the Sorbonne, Paris, at the initiative of Baron Pierre de Coubertin.
- 1931 - Wiley Post and Harold Gatty take off from Roosevelt Field, Long Island in an attempt to accomplish the first round-the-world flight in a single-engine plane. [http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Explorers_Record_Setters_and_Daredevils/Wiley_Post/EX27.htm]
- 1938 - The Civil Aeronautics Act is signed into law, forming the Civil Aeronautics Authority in the United States.
- 1938 - Marineland opens near St. Augustine, Florida.
- 1940 - World War II: German leader Adolf Hitler surveys newly defeated Paris in now occupied France.
- 1941 - Lithuanian Activist Front initiates Lithuanian 1941 independence from the Soviet Union; it lasted only briefly as the Nazis occupied Lithuania a few weeks later.
- 1944 - Thomas Mann becomes a US citizen.
- 1947 - The United States Senate follows the United States House of Representatives in overriding U.S. President Harry S. Truman's veto of the Taft-Hartley Act.
- 1955 - In the Strahov Stadium in Prague the 1st all-national Spartakiáda begins.
- 1956 - Gamal Abdel Nasser elected president of Egypt.
- 1958 - The Dutch Reformed Church accepts women ministers.
- 1959 - Convicted Manhattan Project spy Klaus Fuchs is released after only nine years in prison and allowed to emigrate to Dresden, East Germany (where he resumed a scientific career).
- 1959 - A fire in a resort hotel in Stalheim, Norway kills 34 people.
- 1960 - Japan signs security treaty with the U.S.
- 1962 - Larry Doby retires from the Cleveland Indians to play in Japan.
- 1967 - Cold War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson meets with Soviet Premier Aleksei Kosygin in Glassboro, New Jersey for the three-day Glassboro Summit Conference.
- 1968 - 74 are killed and 150 injured in a soccer stampede towards a closed exit in a Buenos Aires stadium.
- 1969 - Warren E. Burger is sworn in as chief justice of the United States Supreme Court by retiring chief Earl Warren.
- 1972 - Watergate Scandal: U.S. President Richard M. Nixon and White House chief of staff H. R. Haldeman are taped talking about using the Central Intelligence Agency to obstruct the Federal Bureau of Investigation's investigation into the Watergate break-ins.
- 1979 - Sydney: New South Wales Premier Neville Wran officially opens the Eastern Suburbs Railway. It operates as a shuttle between Central & Bondi Junction until full integration with the Illawarra Line during 1980.
- 1985 - A Boeing 747 carrying Air India Flight 182 blew-up 31,000 feet (9500 m) above the Atlantic Ocean, South of Ireland, killing all 329 aboard.
- 1989 - The movie Batman is released in the United States.
- 1990 - Moldavia declares independence.
- 1991 - Sonic the Hedgehog is released for the Sega Genesis in North America.
- 1992 - Mafia boss John Gotti is sentenced to life in prison after being found guilty of conspiracy to commit murder and racketeering on April 2.
- 1992 - Yitzhak Rabin wins the Israeli parlamentary elections..
- 1996 - Clan Knightmare, a Quake gaming clan was formed
- 2005 - The IWW Centennial in Chicago, Illinois

Births


- 47 BC - Pharaoh Ptolemy XV of Egypt
- 1433 - Francis II, Duke of Brittany (d. 1488)
- 1456 - Margaret of Denmark, queen of James III of Scotland (d. 1486)
- 1534 - Oda Nobunaga, Japanese warlord (d. 1582)
- 1596 - Johan Banér, Swedish soldier (d. 1641)
- 1612 - André Tacquet, Belgian mathematician (d. 1660)
- 1668 - Giambattista Vico, Italian philosopher and historian (d. 1744)
- 1683 - Etienne Fourmont, French orientalist (d. 1745)
- 1716 - Fletcher Norton, 1st Baron Grantley, English politician (d. 1789)
- 1763 - Josephine de Beauharnais, Empress of France (d. 1814)
- 1800 - Karol Marcinkowski, Polish physician and social activist (d. 1846)
- 1889 - Anna Akhmatova, Russian poet (d. 1966)
- 1894 - Alfred Kinsey, American entomologist and sexologist (d. 1956)
- 1894 - King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (d. 1972)
- 1907 - James Meade, English economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)
- 1910 - Jean Anouilh, French dramatist (d. 1987)
- 1910 - Gordon B. Hinckley, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
- 1912 - Alan Turing, English mathematician (d. 1954)
- 1916 - Len Hutton, English cricketer (d. 1990)
- 1927 - Bob Fosse, American choreographer (d. 1987)
- 1929 - June Carter Cash, American singer (d. 2003)
- 1936 - Costas Simitis, Prime Minister of Greece
- 1940 - Adam Faith, English singer and actor (d. 2003)
- 1940 - Lord Irvine of Lairg, Scottish Lord Chancellor
- 1940 - Wilma Rudolph, American runner (d. 1994)
- 1941 - Robert Hunter, American singer and songwriter (The Grateful Dead)
- 1943 - James Levine, American conductor
- 1943 - Vint Cerf, American Internet pioneer
- 1946 - Ted Shackleford, American actor
- 1948 - Clarence Thomas, U.S. Supreme Court Justice
- 1948 - Darhyl S. Ramsey, American author and professor of music education
- 1955 - Glenn Danzig, American musician (The Misfits and Danzig)
- 1957 - Frances McDormand, American actress
- 1962 - Chuck Billy, American singer
- 1963 - Colin Montgomerie, Scottish golfer
- 1964 - Joss Whedon, American producer, director, and screenwriter
- 1966 - Chico DeBarge, American musician (DeBarge)
- 1972 - Selma Blair, American actress
- 1972 - Zinedine Zidane, French footballer
- 1973 - Marie N, Latvian singer
- 1975 - Kevin Dyson, American football player
- 1976 - Brandon Stokley, American football player
- 1976 - Patrick Vieira, French footballer
- 1977 - Jason Mraz, American singer and songwriter
- 1979 - LaDainian Tomlinson, American football player
- 1980 - Ramnaresh Sarwan, Guyanese cricketer

Deaths


- 79 - Vespasian, Roman Emperor (b. AD 9)
- 1018 - Henry I of Austria
- 1516 - King Ferdinand II of Aragon (b. 1452)
- 1555 - Pedro Mascarenhas, Portuguese explorer (b. 1470)
- 1582 - Shimizu Muneharu, Japanese military leader (b. 1537)
- 1615 - Mashita Nagamori, Japanese warlord (b. 1545)
- 1677 - Wilhelm Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg (b. 1647)
- 1686 - William Coventry, English statesman
- 1707 - John Mill, English theologian
- 1733 - Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss scholar (b. 1672)
- 1770 - Mark Akenside, English poet and physician (b. 1721)
- 1775 - Karl Ludwig, Freiherr von Pöllnitz, German adventurer and writer (b. 1692)
- 1806 - Mathurin Jacques Brisson, French naturalist (b. 1723)
- 1832 - James Hall, Scottish geologist (b. 1761)
- 1891 - Wilhelm Eduard Weber, German physicist (b. 1804)
- 1893 - Sir Theophilus Shepstone British South African statesmen (b. 1817)
- 1956 - Reinhold Glière, Russian composer (b. 1875)
- 1959 - Boris Vian, French writer and musician (b. 1920)
- 1969 - Volmari Iso-Hollo, Finnish athlete (b. 1907)
- 1980 - Clyfford Still, American painter (b. 1904)
- 1995 - Jonas Salk, American medical researcher (b. 1914)
- 1996 - Andreas Papandreou, Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1919)
- 1998 - Maureen O'Sullivan, Irish actress (b. 1911)
- 2002 - Pedro 'El Rockero' Alcazar, Panamanian boxer (b. 1975)
- 2003 - Vasil Bykau, Belarusian writer (b. 1924)
- 2003 - Maynard Jackson, Mayor of Atlanta, Georgia (b. 1938)

Holidays and observances


- Ancient Latvia - Jāņi held.
- Midsummer's Eve, Christianized the eve of the feast of Saint John the Baptist, is celebrated in much of Northern Europe and the British Islands
- Victory Day - Estonia
- Saint Jonas Day - Lithuania

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/23 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 22 - June 24 - May 23 - July 23 -- listing of all days ko:6월 23일 ms:23 Jun ja:6月23日 simple:June 23 th:23 มิถุนายน

Physicist

A physicist is a scientist trained in physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena spanning all length scales: from the sub-atomic particles from which all ordinary matter is made (particle physics) to the behavior of the material Universe as a whole (cosmology). There are numerous different branches of physics and each has its corresponding specialists, such as astrophysicists, geophysicists, or biophysicists. Employment as a professional physicist generally requires a doctoral degree. Physicists are employed by universities as professors, lecturers, and researchers, and by laboratories in industry. Many people who are trained as physicists, however, use their skills in other parts of the economy, in particular in engineering, computing, and finance.

Astrophysicists and physical cosmologists

At the largest scale, astrophysicists and astronomers study the structure and motion of the universe. This branch of physics is one of the oldest, with its foundations in the ancient study of astronomy. Modern astronomic observation dates from the early 17th century, when Galileo Galilei made the first telescopic observations of the sky. Around the same time period, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler made their careful study of the motion of the planets and comets, laying the groundwork for the first principles of planetary motion. Traditional tools of the astronomer include the telescope, and a device such as the quadrant or sextant to measure elevation. In the 20th century, the radio telescope extended the range of astronomical observation. This expanded range of observation led to the development of physical cosmology, the study of the structure, beginnings, and fate of the cosmos. Two of the more celebrated physicists of the modern age are Edwin Hubble and Steven Hawking. Despite enormous advances in the technology used to make observations of the universe, the majority of astrophysical observation is still a slow and painstaking job.

Particle and quantum physicists

Physicists who deal with the smallest end of the physical universe study particle physics. This is the branch of physics that deals with the structure and ultimate nature of matter. These physicists study particles and phenomena that cannot be seen with the naked eye. To conduct their research, these physicists use particle accelerators and sensitive detecting equipment. Modern particle physics was born when the Danish physicist Niels Bohr first proposed a model for the atom that would explain certain behavior of photon emission. It was soon found that the atom could be split (fission) or combined (fusion). Each process resulted in behavior that could not be explained by Bohr's model of the atom. In the atomic age, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger developed a theory of quantum mechanics to explain the behavior of matter at the smallest scale. Modern physicists are still trying to cope with difficulties introduced by this theory. In particular, it does not fit well with our view of gravity and the universe at the large scale, although it explains the small scale very well. Today's physicists hope to reconcile the two views of the universe some day soon.

See also


- Institute of Physics (UK)
- American Institute of Physics
- List of physicists
- Nobel Prize in physics
- Engineering

External links


- [http://www.bls.gov/oco/home.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook]
- [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos052.htm Physicists and Astronomers]; US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics ---- ja:物理学者 ko:물리학자 simple:Physicist th:นักฟิสิกส์

Wittenberg

:This page is about the German town. For the American university, see Wittenberg University. Wittenberg University Wittenberg, officially [Die] Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a town in Germany, in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, at 12° 59' E, 51° 51' N, on the Elbe river. It has a population of about 50,000. The importance of Wittenberg is due to its close connection with Martin Luther and the dawn of the Reformation: several of its buildings are associated with the events of that time. Part of the Augustinian monastery in which Luther dwelt, at first as a monk and in later life as owner with his wife and family, is preserved, and has been fitted out as a Luther museum. It contains numerous relics of Luther, and portraits and other paintings by the Cranachs. The Augusteum, built in 1564-1583 on the grounds of the monastery, is now a theological seminary. All Saints' Church, the Schloβkirche (Schlosskirche, 'castle church'), to the doors of which Luther is said to have nailed his famous 95 theses in 1517, dates from 1439-1499. It was seriously damaged by fire in 1760 during a bombardment by the French during the Seven Years' War, was practically rebuilt, and was later (1885-1892) restored. The wooden doors, burnt in 1760, were replaced in 1858 by bronze doors, bearing the Latin text of the theses. Inside the church are the tombs of Luther and Philipp Melanchthon, and of the electors Frederick the Wise (by Peter Vischer the Elder, 1527) and John the Constant (by Hans Vischer), and portraits of the reformers by Lucas Cranach the younger. St. Mary's Church, the parish church in which Luther often preached, was built in the 14th century, but has been much altered since Luther's time. It contains a magnificent painting by Lucas Cranach the elder, representing the Lord's Supper (with the faces of Luther and other reformers), Baptism and Confession, also a font by Hermann Vischer (1457). The ancient electoral palace is another of the buildings that suffered severely in 1760; it now contains archives. There are also Melanchthon's house and the house of Lucas Cranach the elder (1472-1553), who was mayor of Wittenberg. Statues of Luther (by Schadow), Melanchthon and Bugenhagen embellish the town. The spot outside the Elster Gate where Luther publicly burned the papal bull in 1520 is marked by an oak tree.

History

1457 1457 1457 The settlement was first mentioned in 1180 as a small village founded by Flemish colonists. In 1293 the settlement was granted a town charter. Wittenberg soon developed into an important trade center during the following centuries due to its location. The city's importance reached one of its heydays at the end of the 15th century, when Friedrich III, Elector of Saxony (The Wise) took up residence in Wittenberg. Several parts of the city were extended in those days: the second bridge over the Elbe river was built from 1486 to 1490 and the Castle Church was built from 1490 to 1499, the same time the palace was rebuilt. It was the capital of the little duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, the rulers of which afterwards became electors of Saxony, and it continued to be a Saxon residence under the Ernestine electors. In 1502 the University was founded and gave a home to many important thinkers, among them Martin Luther (Professor of Theology from 1508) and Philipp Melanchthon (Professor of Greek from 1518). On October 31, 1517, Luther nailed his 95 theses against the selling of indulgences to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, marking the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in Germany. In the Wittenberg Concord (1536) the reformers agreed to a settlement of the eucharistic controversy. 1536 William Shakespeare's Hamlet and Horatio both study at Wittenberg, and Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus is also a graduate. The Anabaptist movement had one of its early homes in Wittenberg, when the Zwickau prophets moved there, only to be suppressed by Luther. The Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547) is the name given to the treaty by which John Frederick the Magnanimous was compelled to resign the electoral dignity and most of his territory to the Albertine branch of the Saxon family. In 1760 the town was bombarded by the Austrians. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and refortified in 1813 by command of Napoleon. In 1814 it was stormed by the Prussians under Tauentzien, who received the title of "von Wittenberg" as a reward. In 1815 Wittenberg became part of Prussia. Wittenberg continued to be a fortress of the third class until the reorganization of German defences after the foundation of the new empire led to its being dismantled in 1873. At the end of World War II Wittenberg was occupied by Russian forces, and became part of the German Democratic Republic in 1949. By means of the peaceful revolution of 1989 the communist regime was brought down and the city has been governed democratically since 1990.

External link


- [http://unterkunft.wittenberg.de/en/seiten/sehenswmap.html City map].
- [http://www.wittenberg.de/staticsite/staticsite.php?menuid=255&topmenu=255 The town's own website] (in English).
- [http://unterkunft.wittenberg.de/en/seiten/schlossk/sk01.html Castle Church]. Category:Protestantism ja:ヴィッテンベルク

Wittenberg

:This page is about the German town. For the American university, see Wittenberg University. Wittenberg University Wittenberg, officially [Die] Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a town in Germany, in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, at 12° 59' E, 51° 51' N, on the Elbe river. It has a population of about 50,000. The importance of Wittenberg is due to its close connection with Martin Luther and the dawn of the Reformation: several of its buildings are associated with the events of that time. Part of the Augustinian monastery in which Luther dwelt, at first as a monk and in later life as owner with his wife and family, is preserved, and has been fitted out as a Luther museum. It contains numerous relics of Luther, and portraits and other paintings by the Cranachs. The Augusteum, built in 1564-1583 on the grounds of the monastery, is now a theological seminary. All Saints' Church, the Schloβkirche (Schlosskirche, 'castle church'), to the doors of which Luther is said to have nailed his famous 95 theses in 1517, dates from 1439-1499. It was seriously damaged by fire in 1760 during a bombardment by the French during the Seven Years' War, was practically rebuilt, and was later (1885-1892) restored. The wooden doors, burnt in 1760, were replaced in 1858 by bronze doors, bearing the Latin text of the theses. Inside the church are the tombs of Luther and Philipp Melanchthon, and of the electors Frederick the Wise (by Peter Vischer the Elder, 1527) and John the Constant (by Hans Vischer), and portraits of the reformers by Lucas Cranach the younger. St. Mary's Church, the parish church in which Luther often preached, was built in the 14th century, but has been much altered since Luther's time. It contains a magnificent painting by Lucas Cranach the elder, representing the Lord's Supper (with the faces of Luther and other reformers), Baptism and Confession, also a font by Hermann Vischer (1457). The ancient electoral palace is another of the buildings that suffered severely in 1760; it now contains archives. There are also Melanchthon's house and the house of Lucas Cranach the elder (1472-1553), who was mayor of Wittenberg. Statues of Luther (by Schadow), Melanchthon and Bugenhagen embellish the town. The spot outside the Elster Gate where Luther publicly burned the papal bull in 1520 is marked by an oak tree.

History

1457 1457 1457 The settlement was first mentioned in 1180 as a small village founded by Flemish colonists. In 1293 the settlement was granted a town charter. Wittenberg soon developed into an important trade center during the following centuries due to its location. The city's importance reached one of its heydays at the end of the 15th century, when Friedrich III, Elector of Saxony (The Wise) took up residence in Wittenberg. Several parts of the city were extended in those days: the second bridge over the Elbe river was built from 1486 to 1490 and the Castle Church was built from 1490 to 1499, the same time the palace was rebuilt. It was the capital of the little duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, the rulers of which afterwards became electors of Saxony, and it continued to be a Saxon residence under the Ernestine electors. In 1502 the University was founded and gave a home to many important thinkers, among them Martin Luther (Professor of Theology from 1508) and Philipp Melanchthon (Professor of Greek from 1518). On October 31, 1517, Luther nailed his 95 theses against the selling of indulgences to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, marking the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in Germany. In the Wittenberg Concord (1536) the reformers agreed to a settlement of the eucharistic controversy. 1536 William Shakespeare's Hamlet and Horatio both study at Wittenberg, and Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus is also a graduate. The Anabaptist movement had one of its early homes in Wittenberg, when the Zwickau prophets moved there, only to be suppressed by Luther. The Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547) is the name given to the treaty by which John Frederick the Magnanimous was compelled to resign the electoral dignity and most of his territory to the Albertine branch of the Saxon family. In 1760 the town was bombarded by the Austrians. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and refortified in 1813 by command of Napoleon. In 1814 it was stormed by the Prussians under Tauentzien, who received the title of "von Wittenberg" as a reward. In 1815 Wittenberg became part of Prussia. Wittenberg continued to be a fortress of the third class until the reorganization of German defences after the foundation of the new empire led to its being dismantled in 1873. At the end of World War II Wittenberg was occupied by Russian forces, and became part of the German Democratic Republic in 1949. By means of the peaceful revolution of 1989 the communist regime was brought down and the city has been governed democratically since 1990.

External link


- [http://unterkunft.wittenberg.de/en/seiten/sehenswmap.html City map].
- [http://www.wittenberg.de/staticsite/staticsite.php?menuid=255&topmenu=255 The town's own website] (in English).
- [http://unterkunft.wittenberg.de/en/seiten/schlossk/sk01.html Castle Church]. Category:Protestantism ja:ヴィッテンベルク

1815

1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 2 - Lord Byron marries Anna Isabella Milbanke, Seaham, County Durham.
- January 3 - Austria, Britain, and France form a secret defensive alliance treaty against Prussia and Russia.
- January 8 - War of 1812: Battle of New Orleans
- February 3 - The first commercial cheese factory is founded in Switzerland
- February 4 - Netherlands, Foundation of the first dutch student association, the Groninger Studenten Corps, Vindicat atque Polit. The first rector of the senate was B.J. Winters.
- February 6 - New Jersey grants the first American railroad charter to a John Stevens.
- February 26 - Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from Elba
- March 1 - Napoleon returns to France from his banishment on Elba.
- March 16 - Willem I becomes King of the Netherlands
- March 20 - Napoleon enters Paris after escaping from Elba with a regular army of 140,000 and a volunteer force of around 200,000 beginning his "Hundred Days" rule.
- April 5-April 12 - Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies blows its top during an eruption event. 92,000 are killed during this eruption. The event is the cause of 1816 becoming known as the Year Without a Summer.
- April 23- Second Serbian Uprising against Ottoman rule takes place in Takovo, Serbia. By the end of the year Serbia had been acknowledged as a semi-independent state. Ideals of the First Serbian Uprising have thus been temporarily achieved.
- June 9 - End of the Congress of Vienna: new European political situation is set.
- June 18 - Battle of Waterloo ends the Napoleonic wars.
- June 22 - Napoleon abdicates again, restoration of Louis XVIII as King of France
- July 8 - Louis XVIII returns to Paris
- July 17 - In France, Napoleon surrenders at Rochefort to British forces.
- October 15 - Napoleon I of France begins his exile on St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean.
- October 21 - Humphry Davy patents the miner's safety lamp for use in coal mining
- Austria, Prussia and Russia sign a Holy Alliance to uphold the European status quo.
- British missionaries arrive in New Zealand
- In Britain, use of pillory is limited to punishment for perjury
- Second wave of Amish immigration to North America
- First-class cricket begins.

Ongoing events


- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)-Seventh Coalition/Hundred Days
- War of 1812 (1812-1815)
- Congress of Vienna (1814 - 1815)

Births


- January 10 - John A. Macdonald, first Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1891)
- February 15 - Constantin von Tischendorf, German Biblical scholar (d. 1874)
- April 1 - Otto von Bismarck, German statesman (d. 1898)
- April 1 - Edward Clark, Governor of Texas (d. 1880)
- April 6 - Robert Volkmann, German composer (d. 1883)
- April 24 - Anthony Trollope, British author (d. 1882)
- August 5 - Edward John Eyre, explorer
- October 16 - Francis Lubbock, Governor of Texas (d. 1905)
- October 31 - Karl Weierstrass, German mathematician (d. 1897)
- November 2 - George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1864)
- December 10 - Augusta Ada King (neé Byron), Countess of Lovelace, early English computer pioneer (d. 1852)
- November 12 - Elizabeth Cady Stanton, American women's rights activist (d. 1902)
- December 21 - Thomas Couture, French painter (d. 1879)

Deaths


- January 8 - Edward Pakenham, British general (killed in battle) (b. 1778)
- January 16 - Emma, Lady Hamilton, English mistress of Horatio Nelson (b. 1765)
- February 24 - Robert Fulton, American inventor (b. 1765)
- February 26 - Prince Josias of Coburg, Austrian general (b. 1737)
- March 4 - Frances Abington, English actress (b. 1737)
- March 5 - Franz Mesmer, German developer of hypnotism (b. 1734)
- April 21 - Joseph Winston, American patriot and Congressman from North Carolina (b. 1746)
- June 1 - Louis Alexandre Berthier, French marshal (b. 1753)
- June 16 - Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick, German noble and general (killed in battle) (b. 1771)
- June 18 - Thomas Picton, British general (killed in battle) (b. 1758)
- June 18 - Claude-Etienne Michel, French general (killed in battle) (b. 1772
- June 18 - Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (killed in battle) (b. 1766)
- August 2 - Guillaume Marie Anne Brune, French marshal (murdered) (b. 1763)
- September 9 - John Singleton Copley, American painter (b. 1738)
- September 20 - Nicolas Desmarest, French geologist (b. 1725)
- October 15 - Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (executed) (b. 1767)
- December 3 - John Carroll, first American Roman Catholic Archbishop (b. 1735)
- December 7 - Michel Ney, French marshal (executed) (b. 1769) Category:1815 ko:1815년 ms:1815 simple:1815 th:พ.ศ. 2358

Privatdozent

Privatdozent (PD or Priv.-Doz. for short) is both a title and a position in the European university system, especially in German-speaking countries, for someone who wants to become a university professor.

Becoming a PD

PD-ship is conferred to academics who have earned the degrees of "Dr." (Ph.D., Promotion) and then have written another thesis for the Habilitation and given a lecture before the respective department or faculty of a university. If they pass the vote after that lecture, they receive the venia legendi (or, rarely, venia docendi) and thus the status of PD. This means they can — and actually have to — teach at the respective institution; they also may advise on Ph.D. theses. However, they do not have a formal position and did not use to receive any salary (except the lecture-fees, or salaries, according to the specific classes they taught). Today, however, PD's are usually modestly paid. Professors at a Fachhochschule, as well as Honorary Professors (see Professor), do not need a Habilitation and thus were never PD's. The same is true to professors in the fine arts at academies or similar institutions, as well as in certain other disciplines even at universities, such as engineering.

Ceasing to be a PD

Contrary to academic titles proper, one loses the PD title aspect (but not the venia and the Habilitation), either by being called to a professorship, which is the goal of the PD, or by ceasing to teach, in which latter case the title reverts to the rather unusual "Dr.habil." The withdrawal of the PD, the so-called "Remotion" is very rare and usually happens in case of extremely serious offenses; a famous case was Eugen Dühring. However, during Nazi times, most if not all Jewish PDs were remoted according to the Nuremberg Laws. Academics who stay in academe although they do not find a professorship are, slightly dismissively, often called "ewige Privatdozenten" (eternal PD's); if they are popular, they may receive either a salaried permanent staff appointment (where those still exist) as Lecturer or equivalent, and/or the purely honorific title of "außerplanmäßiger Professor" (abbreviated "apl. Prof." see Professor).

History and Future

The institution of PD is comparatively recent; it started around 1810 in Prussia and became established only around 1860. After that, for many years, the Habilitation remained cumulative, i.e. it was based on already-published work, not a new monograph. The heyday of the PD was the time between, say, 1900 and 1968, when hardly a university professor in a normal field was appointed who had not been a PD. During the university reforms beginning in 1968, in order to quickly broaden the professorial base for the many newly opened and expanding universities, often professors were appointed who were not PD's as well. This was also seen as a political act to counter the alleged inherent conservatism and reactionary views of the German professoriat. The life of the PD is very unsatisfactory (Georg Simmel called the time "the purgatory of PD-ship"), because a PD in Germany is generally highly qualified, tends to be around 40 and often has a family, yet no salary or status to speak of. In addition, the institution indubitably contributes strongly to the "overagedness" of the German senior academic staff. Thus, there have always been reform attempts to abolish the position, and in 2002, a limited number of "Junior Professorships" (see Professor) were introduced which are fast-track, time-limited positions to qualify for regular professorships. This is often seen as the "beginning of the end" of PD-ship. One can say in general that supporters of the institution of PD in Germany today belong to the more conservative camp in academic policy, while its detractors tend to be more left or liberal in outlook.

See also


- <