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Western Sahara

Western Sahara

Western Sahara (EH in ISO 3166-1) is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly consisting of desert flatlands. It is a territory of northwestern Africa, bordered by the internationally-understood boundaries of Morocco to the north, Algeria in the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. The largest city is El Aaiún (Laâyoune), containing the majority of the population of the territory. Western Sahara is on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. It is disputed whether this territory is an integral part of the Kingdom of Morocco, or governed by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) that was set up by the Polisario Front movement. At present it is largely controlled and entirely claimed by Morocco, but this claim is not formally recognized internationally. The SADR is recognized by 44 nations (not including 23 nations that have cancelled their earlier recognitions and 12 nations that have frozen their relations), and a full member of the African Union. (See Foreign relations of Western Sahara)

History

Main article: History of Western Sahara The history of Western Sahara begins with the arrival of the camel which facilitated trade and exchanges. Earlier, there were some Phonecian contacts but with no major influence. The arrival of Islam in the 8th century played a major role in the development of relationships between Western Sahara and the neighbouring regions. Trade developped further and the region became a passage of caravans especially between Marrakech and Tombouctou in Mali. Soon later, Almoravids were able to control the area. The first settlers of the Sahara are theorized to be the Beni Hassan, a Yemeni tribe. During the first two decades of the 20th century, Spain created the colony of Spanish Sahara through successive treaties and agreements with local populations and France. Due to internal pressures following the death of Francisco Franco in 1975, and the global trend in decolonization, Spain planned to divest itself of the Sahara, and promised a referendum regarding independence. On November 6, 1975 the Green March into Western Sahara began when 300,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya in southern Morocco and waited for a signal from King Hassan II of Morocco to cross into Western Sahara. As a result, Spain abandoned Western Sahara on November 14, 1975, repatriating even the Spanish corpses from its cemeteries. Morocco then virtually annexed the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara) in 1976. In 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal, Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory. A guerrilla war carried by the Polisario Front contesting Rabat's sovereignty ended in a 1991 cease-fire by United Nations peacekeeping mission MINURSO. MINURSO The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, was planned to give the indigenous population the option between independence or inclusion to Morocco, but has not taken place as of 2005. At the heart of the dispute lays the question of who can be registered as an indigenous voter. In 1997, the Houston Agreement made another attempt to implement the referendum, but failed. Both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum. But while the Polisario has consistently asked for the UN to go ahead with the vote, standing only to lose from the status quo, Morocco has been troubled by the risk of losing a referendum or receiving a large enough vote against annexation to undermine years of nationalist rhetoric from the government. Indeed, shortly after the Houston Agreement, the kingdom officially declared that it was "no longer necessary" to include an option of independence on the ballot, offering instead autonomy. Erik Jensen, who played an administrative role in MINURSO, wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which they were destined to lose (see Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate) A United States-backed document known as the "James Baker peace plan" was discussed by the United Nations Security Council in 2000, and envisioned a future Western Sahara Authority (WSA), to be followed after five years by the referendum. It was rejected by both sides, although initially spawned from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft, Moroccan settlers would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum, and the ballot would be split three-ways by the inclusion of an unspecified "autonomy", further undermining the independence camp. Also, Morocco was allowed to keep its army in the area and to retain the control over all security issues during both the autonomy years and the election. In 2003 a new version of the plan was made official, with some additions spelling out the powers of the WSA, making it less reliant on the Moroccan devolution. It also provided further detail on the referendum process in order to make it harder to stall or subvert. This second draft, commonly known as Baker II, was accepted by the Polisario as a "basis of negotiations" to the surprise of many. This contradicts the Polisario's policy of only negotiating with the standards of voter identification from 1991. After that, the draft quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the UN Security Council's unanimous endorsement of the plan in the summer of 2003. Today the Baker II document appears politically dead, having led nowhere, and with Baker having resigned his post at the UN in 2004. His resignation followed several months of failed attempts to get Morocco to enter into formal negotiations on the plan, but he met with rejection. The new king, Mohammed VI of Morocco, opposes the concept of a referendum on independence, and has said Morocco will never agree to one. His father, Hassan II of Morocco, initially supported the idea in principle in 1982, and in signed contracts in 1991 and 1997. The UN has put forth no replacement strategy after the breakdown of Baker II, and renewed fighting is a possibility. In 2005, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan reported increased military activity on both sides of the front and breaches of several cease-fire provisions against strengthening military fortifications. Morocco, has repeatedly tried to get Algeria into bilateral negotiations, with receiving vocal support from France and occasionally and currently from the United States. These negotiations would define the exact limits of a Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule, but only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of the Polisario Front.

Politics

United States Main articles: Politics of Western Sahara The legal status of the territory and the question of its sovereignty is unresolved; the territory is contested by Morocco and Polisario Front. It is considered a non self-governed territory by the United Nations. The government of Morocco is a monarchy, with a parliament of elected officials. The Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces treated as integral parts of the kingdom. The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a form of single-party parliamentary and presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into a multi-party system at the achievement of independence. It presently controls only the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, and the part of Western Sahara east of the Moroccan Wall, which is more or less unpopulated. See also Foreign relations of Morocco, Foreign relations of Western Sahara Foreign relations of Western Sahara

Subdivisions

Currently, Western Sahara is largely administered by Morocco. The extent of Morocco's administration is north and west of the Moroccan Wall (or berm), approximately two-thirds of the territory. The Moroccan name for Western Sahara is the "Southern Provinces", which indicate Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra. When the territory was a dependency of Spain, the same two subdivisions existed. The remaining area is administered by the SADR, as "liberated territory". During the joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control of the area, the Mauritanian-controlled part, roughly corresponding to Saquia el-Hamra, was known as Tiris al-Garbiyya.

Geography

Tiris al-Garbiyya Main article: Geography of Western Sahara Western Sahara is located in Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Mauritania and Morocco. It also borders Algeria to the northeast. The land is some of the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, but is rich in phosphates in Bou Craa.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Western Sahara Western Sahara has few natural resources, the exception being rich phosphate deposits and fishing waters, and lacks sufficient rainfall for most agricultural activities. There are speculations about off-shore oil and natural gas findings, but the debate persists as to whether these resources can be profitably exploited, and if this would be legally permitted due to the non-decolonized status of Western Sahara (see below). Western Sahara's economy is centred around nomadic herding, fishing, and phosphate mining. Most food for the urban population is imported. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan government. The government has encouraged citizens to relocate to the territory by giving subsidies and price controls on basic goods. The refugee camps in Tindouf, Algeria, are wholly reliant on foreign and Algerian aid. Food, clothing and water are brought in by car and plane. Since the nineties a rudimentary monetary economy has evolved in the camps, after Spain started paying pensions to former recruited Sahrawi soldiers in its colonial army, and with money and merchandise brought in by Sahrawis working or studying abroad. A minor but significant addition comes from those pursuing traditional nomadic camel-herding in the Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara and in Mauritania. Exploitation debate After large oil findings in neighbouring Mauritania, speculation intensified on the possibility of major oil resources being located off the coast of Western Sahara. Despite the fact that findings remain inconclusive, both Morocco and the Polisario has made deals with oil and gas companies. US and French companies (notably Total and Kerr-McGee) began prospecting on behalf of Morocco. After pressures from corporate ethics-groups, Total S.A. pulled out, leaving Kerr-McGee as the sole remaining company in the area.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Western Sahara The indigenous population of Western Sahara is known as Sahrawis, corresponding to the ahl al-sahel (people of the coast). These are Hassaniya-speaking tribes of mixed Arab-Berber heritage, closely related to the Moorish population of Mauritania. The Sahrawis are traditionally nomadic bedouins, and can be found in all surrounding countries. War and conflict has lead to major displacements of the population. As of July 2004, an estimated 267,405 people (excluding the Moroccan army of some 160,000) live in the Rabat-controlled parts of Western Sahara. . The precise size and composition of the population is subject to political controversy. The Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara are barren and have no resident population, but they are travelled by small numbers of Sahrawis herding camels, going back and forth between the Tindouf area and Mauritania. However, the presence of mines scattered throughout the territory by both the Polisario and the Moroccan army makes it a dangerous way of life. The Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, home base of the Polisario, hold approximately 165,000 Sahrawi refugees from the area according to the last count made by the UN. Morocco disputes this number, saying it is much lower, and insists that many if not most of the refugees are non-Sahrawi Africans who profit from aid efforts. . The Spanish census and MINURSO A 1974 Spanish census claimed there were some 74,000 Sahrawis in the area at the time (in addition to approximately 20,000 Spanish settlers), but this number is likely to be on the low side, due to the difficulty in counting a nomad people. In December of 1999 the United Nations' MINURSO mission announced that it had identified 86,425 eligible voters for the independence referendum that was supposed to be held under the 1991 Settlement agreement and the 1997 Houston accords. By eligible voter the UN referred to any Sahrawi over 18 years of age that was part of the Spanish census or could prove his descent from someone who was. These 86,425 Sahrawis were dispersed between Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara and the refugee camps in Algeria, as well as smaller numbers in Mauritania and other places of exile. They do not by any account represent the total population of the Sahrawi ethnic group, but rather of the Western Sahara Sahrawis; the number was highly politically significant due to the expected organization of a referendum on independence. See the CIA World Factbook 2004

Culture

Main article: Culture of Western Sahara The indigenous people of Western Sahara are the Sahrawis, a nomadic or Bedouin people who speak the Ḥassānīya dialect of Arabic, also spoken in northern Mauritania. They are of mixed Arab-Berber descent, but consider themselves Arab. It is theorized that they descend from the Beni Hassan, a Yemeni tribe supposed to have migrated across the desert in the 11th century. The Sahrawis are Muslims of the Sunni sect and the Maliki law school. Their interpretation of Islam has traditionally being quite liberal and adapted to nomad life (i.e. generally functioning without mosques). The originally clan- and tribe-based society underwent a massive social upheaval in 1975, when a part of the population was forced into exile and settled in the refugee camps of Tindouf, Algeria. Families were broken up by the fight. The organization governing the camps, the Polisario Front, has attempted to modernize the camps society, placing emphasis especially on education, the eradication of tribalism and the emancipation of women. The role of women in camps was enhanced by their shouldering of the main responsibility for the refugee camps and government bureaucracy during the war years, as virtually the entire male population was enrolled in the Polisario army. Education was also assisted by refugee life. While teaching materials are still scarce, the "urbanization" of the refugee camps and the abundance of free time for camp dwellers (after the situation normalized circa 1977) greatly increased the effectiveness of literacy classes. Today, nearly 90% of refugee Sahrawis are able to read and write, the number having been less than 10% in 1975, and several thousands have received university educations in foreign countries as part of aid packages (mainly Algeria, Cuba, and Spain). The Moroccan government considerably invested in the social and economic development of the Moroccan controlled Western Sahara with special emphasis on education, modernisation and infrastructure. El-Aaiun in particular has been the target of heavy government investment, and has grown rapidly. Several thousands Sahrawis study in Moroccan universities. Literacy rates are appreciated at some 50% of the population. To date, there have been few thorough studies of the culture due in part to the political situation. Some language and culture studies, mainly by French researchers, have been performed on Sahrawi communities in northern Mauritania.

See also


- Communications in Western Sahara
- List of cities in Morocco and Western Sahara
- MINURSO
- Music of Western Sahara
- Transportation in Western Sahara

Further reading


- Tony Hodges (1983), Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War, Lawrence Hill Books (ISBN 0882081527)
- Anthony G. Pazzanita and Tony Hodges (1994), Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara, Scarecrow Press (ISBN 0810826615)
- Toby Shelley (2004), Endgame in the Western Sahara: What Future for Africa's Last Colony?, Zed Books (ISBN 1842773410)
- Erik Jensen (2005), Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate, International Peace Studies (ISBN 1588263053)

External links


- [http://www.mincom.gov.ma/english/reg_cit/regions/sahara/sahara.html Moroccan Governmental site]

News


- [http://allafrica.com/westernsahara/ allAfrica.com - Western Sahara news headline links]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sahara-update The Yahoo! Sahara Update group]

Overviews


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/3466917.stm BBC - Country profile: Western Sahara]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/wi.html CIA World Factbook - Western Sahara]

Directories


- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/WSahara.html Columbia University Libraries - Western Sahara] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Western_Sahara/ Open Directory Project - Western Sahara] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/westernsahara.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Western Sahara] directory category
- [http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Western_Sahara/ The Index on Africa - Western Sahara] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Western_Sahara/ Yahoo! - Western Sahara] directory category

Tourism


-

Other


- [http://www.arso.org/ Association de soutien à un référendum libre et régulier au Sahara Occidental, a multilingual resource]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Sahara-update/ The Yahoo! group Sahara-update, which gives up-to-date news]
- [http://www.wsahara.net/ Western Sahara Online]
- [http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/suttonlink/334ws.pdf Western Sahara - A Forgotten Country!]
- [http://www.icbl.org/lm/2003/western_sahara.html Western Sahara, Landmine Monitor Report 2003] Category:African Union member states Category:Disputed territories Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Western Sahara zh-min-nan:Sai Sahara ko:서사하라 ms:Sahara Barat ja:西サハラ

ISO 3166-1

ISO 3166-1 as part of the ISO 3166 standard provides codes for the names of countries and dependent areas. It was first published in 1974 by the International Organization for Standardization and defines three different codes for each area:
- ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, a two-letter system with many applications, most notably the Internet top-level domains (ccTLD) for countries.
- ISO 3166-1 alpha-3, a three-letter system.
- ISO 3166-1 numeric, a three-digit numerical system, is identical to that defined by the United Nations Statistical Division. A country or territory generally gets new alpha codes if its name changes, whereas a new numeric code is associated with a change of boundaries. Some codes in each series are reserved, for various reasons; obsolete codes may be kept as reserved, borders may be considered likely to change, and some overseas territories have reserved codes of their own. ISO 3166-1 is not the only standard for country codes. The IOC and FIFA have their own lists (see List of IOC country codes and List of FIFA country codes) of three-letter codes which mostly correspond to the ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes.

ISO 3166-1 code list

The following is intended to be a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding code list in alphabetical order by country names (official short names in English designated by ISO). The table includes formal codes only. For reserved codes, see ISO 3166-1 alpha-2#ISO 3166-1 Alpha-2 Reserved Code Elements list and ISO 3166-1 alpha-3#Reserved Code Elements list. ISO 3166-1 does not have numeric reserved codes.

Newsletters

Changes to ISO 3166-1 are announced in periodic newsletters, of which 10 have been released to date: # Published 1998-02-05: change of name for Samoa, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv1-ws.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv1-ws.html French] # Published 1999-10-01: change of name for Occupied Palestinian Territory, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv2-ps.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv2-ps.html French] # Published 2002-02-01: change of alpha-3 Code Element for Romania, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv3-rou.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv3-rou.html French] # Published 2002-05-20: change of name for various countries, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv4-div.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv4-div.html French] # Published 2002-05-20: change of name and codes for East Timor, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv5-tl.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv5-tl.html French] # Published 2002-11-15: change of name and codes for Timor-Leste, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv6-tl.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv6-tl.html French] # Published 2002-11-15: change of official name of Comoros , available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv7-km.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv7-km.html French] # Published 2003-07-23: deletion of Yugoslavia, inclusion of Serbia and Montenegro, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv8-cs.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv8-cs.html French] # Published 2004-02-13: new entry for Åland Islands, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv9-ax.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv9-ax.html French] # Published 2004-04-26: change of name for Afghanistan and Åland Islands, available in [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv10-div.html English] and [http://www.iso.org/iso/fr/prods-services/iso3166ma/03updates-on-iso-3166/nlv10-div.html French]

Reference

Information on reserved codes taken from "Reserved code elements under ISO 3166-1" published by Secretariat of ISO/TC 46, ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, 2001-02-13, available on request from ISO 3166 MA.

See also


- ISO 3166-2
- ISO 3166-3

External links


- [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.html ISO 3166/MA] – ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency at the International Organization for Standardization – includes up-to-date lists of two-letter codes.
- [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49.htm United Nations Statistics Division – Standard Country or Area Codes for Statistical Use] – includes three-letter and numeric codes.
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/appendix/appendix-d.html CIA World Factbook – Cross-Reference List of Country Data Codes] (public domain)
- [http://www.davros.org/misc/iso3166.html a list of ISO 3166-1 codes] (including three-letter and numeric codes), and includes information about changes that have been made over the years.
- [http://www.wout-bosteels.be/countries.xml an xml document] containing country codes and country names in 7 languages.
- [http://tobiasconradi.com/geography/ CSV-file and website] in unicode, containing codes and country names in 30 languages 1 Category:Lists of countries Category:Country codes ko:ISO 3166-1 th:ISO 3166-1



Morocco

The Kingdom of Morocco (Arabic المملكة المغربية) is a country in northwest Africa. It has a long coastline on the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Algeria to the east, though the Algerian border is closed, Western Sahara to the south, the Mediterranean Sea and Spain to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to its west. Morocco claims ownership of Western Sahara and has administered most of the territory since 1975. Its status is disputed, pending a United Nations referendum.

Name

The full Arabic name of the country translates to The Western Kingdom. Al Maghrib (meaning The West) is commonly used. For historical references, historians used to refer to Morocco as Al Maghrib al Aqşá (The Furthest West). The name Morocco in most other languages originates from the name of the former capital, Marrakech. Marrakech means in Berber "the land of God" with "mur" meaning Land and "Akush" meaning God.

History

Main article: History of Morocco Morocco's indigenous people are called the Berbers. The old name of Morocco was Mauretania. There have been several dynasties and kingdoms in Morocco before and after the rise of Islam. Morocco became a French protectorate by the signing of the Treaty of Fez on March 30, 1912. The northern area of Morocco was under a Spanish protectorate concurrently. The Alaouite dynasty lasted through this period and upon independence in 1956, Sultan Mohammed V adopted the title of 'King' and Morocco became an independent Kingdom. Morocco then recovered Tangier, formerly an international city. Morocco annexed Western Sahara in the 1970s, which had been a colony under the Spaniards since the 19th century. Previous to that it had been an area of Moroccan influence, but this annexation has not been recognized by any nation. Morocco was the first nation to recognize the fledgling United States in 1777 and has the oldest non-broken friendship treaty with the country, the Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship, which has been in effect since 1783. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the American signatories. The United States legation (consulate) in Tangier, is the first property the U.S. owned abroad. It now houses the Tangier American Legation Museum. Morocco was granted Major Non-NATO Ally status in June 2004 and signed free trade agreements with the United States and the European Union. In 2003, Morocco's largest city, Casablanca, was attacked in the Casablanca terrorist attacks. The attacks left 33 civilians dead and more than 100 people injured.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Morocco Morocco is a constitutional monarchy, with a popularly-elected parliament. The King of Morocco can dissolve government and deploy the military, among other responsibilities. Opposition political parties are legal and several have arisen in recent years. See also: List of political parties in Morocco

Provinces

List of political parties in Morocco List of political parties in Morocco Main article: Provinces of Morocco Morocco is divided into 37 provinces and 2 wilayas: Three additional provinces, Ad Dakhla (Oued Eddahab), Boujdour, and Es Smara, as well as parts of Tan-Tan and Laayoune, primarily fall within Moroccan-claimed Western Sahara. As part of a 1997 decentralization/regionalization law passed by the legislature, 16 new regions were created, although the full details and scope of the reorganization are limited. These 16 regions are:

Geography

1997 Main article: Geography of Morocco Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast. There are also four Spanish enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera and Peñón de Alhucemas, as well as several islands including Perejil and Chafarinas. Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese.To the north, Morocco is bordered by and controls part of the Straits of Gibraltar, giving it power over the waterways in and out of the Mediterranean sea. Most of the South East portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. The High Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the south west to the north east. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south is the desert. Morocco's capital city is Rabat, and its largest city is the modern port of Casablanca. Other cities include Agadir, Essaouira, Fes, Marrakech, Meknes, Oujda, Ouarzazat, Safi, Tangier, Tiznit, Salè and Tan-Tan.
- List of cities in Morocco and Western Sahara

Economy

Main article: Economy of Morocco Economy of Morocco Morocco has signed Free Trade Agreements with the European Union (to take effect 2010) and the United States of America. The United States Senate approved by a vote of 85 to 13 on July 22, 2004 the [http://www.ustr.gov/Trade_Agreements/Bilateral/Morocco_FTA/Section_Index.html Free Trade Agreement with Morocco], which, now in effect, allows for 95% of the two-way trade of consumer and industrial products to be without tariffs. Morocco's largest industry is the mining of phosphates. Its second largest source of income is from nationals living abroad who transfer money to relatives living in Morocco. The country's third largest source of revenue is tourism. Morocco ranks among the world’s largest producers and exporters of cannabis, and its cultivation and sale provide the economic base for much of the population of northern Morocco. The cannabis is typically processed into hashish. This activity represents 0.57 per cent of Morocco's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), estimated at US$ 37.3 billion. A UN survey[http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2003/unisnar826.html] estimated cannabis cultivation at about 134,000 hectares in Morocco's five northern provinces. This represents 10 per cent of the total area and 27 per cent of the arable lands of the surveyed territory and 1.5 per cent of Morocco's total arable land. Morocco is a party to the 1988 UN Drug Convention and in 1992 Morocco passed legislation designed to implement the Convention. Morocco has an unemployment rate of 12.1% (2004 Data) and a 1999 estimate by the CIA puts 19% of the Moroccan population under the poverty line[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mo.html]. Though working towards change, Morocco historically has utilized child labor on a large scale. In 1999 the Moroccan Government admitted that over 500,000 children under the age of 15 were in the labor force[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/369753.stm].

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Morocco Morocco is the third most populous Arab country, after Egypt and Sudan. Most Moroccans are Sunni Muslims of Arab, Berber, or mixed Arab-Berber stock. The Arabs invaded Morocco in the 7th and 11th centuries and established their culture there. Morocco's Jewish minority has decreased significantly and numbers about 7,000 (See History of the Jews in Morocco). Most of the 100,000 foreign residents are French or Spanish; many are teachers or technicians. Morocco's official language is classical Arabic. The country's distinctive Arabic dialect is called Moroccan Arabic. Approximately 10 million (1 third of the population), mostly in rural areas, speak Berber --which exists in Morocco in three different dialects (Tarifit, Tashelhiyt, and Tamazight)-- either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken Arabic dialect. French, which remains Morocco's unofficial second language, is taught universally and still serves as Morocco's primary language of commerce and economics. It also is widely used in education and government. About 20,000 Moroccans in the northern part of the country speak Spanish as a second language in parallel with Tarifit. English, while still far behind French and Spanish in terms of number of speakers, is rapidly becoming the foreign language of choice among educated youth. As a result of national education reforms entering into force in late 2002, English will be taught in all public schools from the fourth year on. Most people live west of the Atlas Mountains, a range that insulates the country from the Sahara Desert. Casablanca is the center of commerce and industry and the leading port; Rabat is the seat of government; Tangier is the gateway to Morocco from Spain and also a major port; Fez is the cultural and religious center; and the dominantly "Berber" Marrakech is a major tourist center. Education in Morocco is free and compulsory through primary school (age 15). Nevertheless, many children --particularly girls in rural areas-- still do not attend school. The country's illiteracy rate has been stuck at around 50% for some years but reaches as high as 90% among girls in rural regions. Morocco has about 230,000 students enrolled in 14 public universities. The oldest and in some ways the most prestigious is "Mohammed V University" in Rabat -along with Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane (a private university)-, with faculties of law, sciences, liberal arts, and medicine. Al-Akhawayn, founded in 1993 by King Hassan II and King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, is an English-medium, American-style university comprising about 1,000 students. University of Karueein, in Fez, has been a center for Islamic studies for more than 1,000 years. On October 6, 2005 six Sub-Saharan Africans were killed trying to climb the barrier to the Spanish enclave of Melilla, on Morocco’s Mediterranean coast. This followed a related incident a week earlier in the neighbouring Spanish enclave of Ceuta, when an apparent combination of police gunfire and a mass stampede of 600 people led to the death of five immigrants[http://www.opendemocracy.net/people-migrationeurope/melilla_2905.jsp] UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan asked the two countries to treat the immigrants humanely[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4326670.stm].

Culture

Main article: Culture of Morocco Culture of Morocco
- Cuisine of Morocco
- List of writers from Morocco
- Music of Morocco
- List of newspapers in Morocco
- Military of Morocco
- Moroccan Wall
- Transportation in Morocco

See also


- History of the Jews in Morocco
- Plaza de soberanía
- Morocco (1930 film) Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2002 U.S. Department of State website.

External links

CIA World Factbook]

Government


- [http://www.mincom.gov.ma/english/e_page.html Kingdom of Morocco] official portal
- [http://www.parlement.ma/ Parliament of Morocco] official site (Arabic)

News


- [http://allafrica.com/morocco/ allAfrica - Morocco] news headline links
- [http://www.map.ma/eng Maghreb Arabe Presse] government news agency
- [http://www.north-africa.com/one.htm The North Africa Journal] financial news

Overviews


- [http://www.al-bab.com/maroc/ Arab Gateway – Morocco]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791867.stm BBC News – Country Profile: Morocco]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mo.html CIA World Factbook – Morocco]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2416.htm US State Department – Morocco] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- [http://www.globaladrenaline.com/africa/morocco/ GlobalAdrenaline – Morocco]

Directories


- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Morocco.html Columbia University Libraries – Morocco] directory category of the WWW-VL
- [http://www.moroccolinks.com/ MoroccoLinks.com] directory
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Morocco/ Open Directory Project – Morocco] directory category
- [http://www.willgoto.com/324/1/categories.aspx WillGoTo.com – Morocco] directory category

Tourism


-
- [http://www.triotours.com/faq/ma Morocco FAQ]

Other


- [http://www.moroccoforums.com/ Morocco Forums] Discussion Board
- [http://www.raioo.com/ Moroccan raioo culture in bits & bytes] (English)
- [http://www.morocco365.com/ Morocco365] portal
- [http://www.yabiladi.com/ Moroccans on the world] portal (French)
- [http://www.wafin.com Portal of Moroccans in the U.S.]
- [http://www.hec.ac.ma/Enseignement.html Higher education and professional training in Morocco (in French)]
- [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/morocco/intro/ The EU's relations with Morocco]
- [http://www.legation.org The American Legation in Tangier]
- [http://www.moroccanamericantrade.com Moroccan American Trade Council]
- [http://www.moroccousafta.com/index_ang.htm Description of the Moroccan-American FTA and components]
- [http://www.moroccousafta.com/ftafulltext.htm Final text of the Moroccan-American FTA]
- [http://www.moroccanamericantrade.com/FTAsummEn.pdf Description of benefits of the Moroccan-American FTA]
- [http://www.moroccousafta.com/index_ang.htm Moroccousafta] a site about the Morocco/US Free Trade Agreement
- Map: [http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/morocco.pdf] (pdf); links to more: [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/map_sites/country_sites.html#morocco]
- [http://www.marocvoyages.net/ Guest houses Guide of Morocco] travel guide
- [http://lexicorient.com/morocco/index.htm Lexicorient – Morocco] travel site
- [http://www.magicmorocco.com/ The Magic Morocco] travel guide
- [http://french.about.com/library/travel/bl-ma-index.htm Moroccan Culture Series] – observations by an American woman living in Morocco
- [http://www.ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/SpainPortugalMorocco/Morocco/index.htm Pictures from a backpacker's trip through Morocco in 2000]
- [http://rickgold.home.mindspring.com/index.htm Visting Jewish Morocco] A very complete and informative site about history and culture of Moroccan Jews
- [http://www.geopium.org/Chouvy-JIR-NOV2005-Morocco_said_to_produce_nearly_half_of_the_worlds_hashish_supply.html A recent publication on hashish production and trafficking in the Rif area of Morocco] Category:Arab League zh-min-nan:Morocco ko:모로코 ms:Maghribi ja:モロッコ simple:Morocco th:ประเทศโมร็อกโก

Mauritania

The Islamic Republic of Mauritania, or Mauritania, is a country in northwest Africa. Its coast faces the Atlantic Ocean on the west, with Senegal on the south-west, Mali on the east and south-east, Algeria on the north-east, with the Moroccan-annexed territory of Western Sahara on the north-west. The capital and largest city is Nouakchott, located on the Atlantic coast. It is named after the ancient Berber kingdom of Mauretania.

History

From the 3rd to 7th centuries, the migration of Berber tribes from North Africa displaced the Bafours, the original inhabitants of present-day Mauritania and the ancestors of the Soninke. The Bafours were primarily agriculturalist, among the first Saharan people to abandon their historically nomadic lifestyle. With the gradual desiccation of the Sahara, they headed South. Following them came a migration of not only Central Saharans into West Africa, but Berbers and Arabs as well. By the Eleventh Century AD, the once small Bafour people had grown into a very large and wealthy Soninke empire - Ghana, which stretched from Mauritania into the neighboring states of Senegal and Mali. Likewise, in the North, the Arab-Berber population had achieved an impressive empire of their own, the territory of which stretched across the Mediterranean into Spain and Portugal. Local nomadic Berber tribes, on the other hand, though influential, remained largely without power, having been conquered by the Soninke. In 1076, Islamic warrior monks (Almoravid or Al Murabitun) attacked and conquered the ancient Ghana Empire. Over the next 500 years, Arabs overcame fierce resistance from the local population (Berber and non-Berber alike) and came to dominate Mauritania. The Mauritanian Thirty-Year War (1644-74) was the unsuccessful final effort to repel the Yemeni Maqil Arab invaders led by the Beni Hassan tribe. The descendants of the Yemeni Beni Hassan warriors became the upper stratum of Moorish society. Berbers retained influence by producing the majority of the region's Marabouts — those who preserve and teach Islamic tradition. Many of the Berber tribes proclaimed the origin of Yemen (as they sometimes did an Arab one); there is yet little evidence to suggest this, though some studies do link a connection between the two. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11164198] Hassaniya, a mainly oral, Berber-influenced Arabic dialect that derives its name from the Yemeni Beni Hassan tribe, became the dominant language among the largely nomadic population. Aristocrat and servant castes developed, yielding "white" Moors (the aristocracy), kewri (the indigenous peoples who were never enslaved), and "black" Moors or haratin (the formerly enslaved). haratin French colonization at the beginning of the 20th century brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to interclan warfare. During the colonial period, the population remained nomadic, but many sedentary peoples, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier, began to trickle back into Mauritania. As the country gained independence in 1960, the capital city Nouakchott was founded at the site of a small colonial village, the Ksar, and 90% of the population was still nomadic. With independence, larger numbers of the indigenous peoples (Haalpulaar, Soninke, and Wolof) entered Mauritania, moving into the area north of the Senegal River. Educated in French language and customs, many of these recent arrivals became clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state. Moors reacted to this change by increasing pressure to Arabize many aspects of Mauritanian life, such as law and language. A schism developed between those who consider Mauritania to be an Arab country (mainly Moors) and those who seek a dominant role for the non-Moorish peoples. The discord between these two conflicting visions of Mauritanian society was evident during intercommunal violence that broke out in April 1989 (the "1989 Events"), but has since subsided. The tension between these two visions remains a feature of the political dialogue. A significant number from both groups, however, seek a more diverse, pluralistic society.

Politics

Mauritania's presidential election, its third since adopting the democratic process in 1992, took place on November 7, 2003. Six candidates, including Mauritania's first female and first Haratine (former slave family) candidates, represented a wide variety of political goals and backgrounds. Incumbent President Maaouya Sid'Ahmed Taya won reelection with 67.02% of the popular vote, according to official figures, with second-place finisher Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla. The PRDS, led by President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya, has dominated Mauritanian politics since the country's first multi-party elections in April 1992 following the approval by referendum of the current constitution in July 1991. President Taya, who won elections in 1992 and 1997, first became chief of state through a December 12, 1984 bloodless coup which made him chairman of the committee of military officers that governed Mauritania from July 1978 to April 1992. The country's first president, Moktar Ould Daddah, served from independence until ousted in a bloodless coup on July 10, 1978. A group of current and former Army officers launched a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt on June 8, 2003. The ringleaders remain at large, and their exact motives remain unclear. Politics in Mauritania have always been heavily influenced by personalities, with any leader's ability to exercise political power dependent upon control over resources; perceived ability or integrity; and tribal, ethnic, family, and personal considerations. Conflict between white Moor, black Moor, and non-Moor ethnic groups, centering on language, land tenure, and other issues, continues to be the dominant challenge to national unity. The government bureaucracy is composed of traditional ministries, special agencies, and parastatal companies. The Ministry of Interior spearheads a system of regional governors and prefects modeled on the French system of local administration. Under this system, Mauritania is divided into 13 regions (wilaya), including the capital district, Nouakchott. Control is tightly concentrated in the executive branch of the central government, but a series of national and municipal elections since 1992 have produced some limited decentralization. Political parties, illegal during the military period, were legalized again in 1991. By April 1992, as civilian rule returned, 16 major political parties had been recognized; 12 major political parties were active in 2004. Most opposition parties boycotted the first legislative election in 1992, and for nearly a decade the parliament has been dominated by the PRDS. The opposition participated in municipal elections in January-February 1994 and subsequent Senate elections, most recently in April 2004, gaining representation at the local level as well as three seats in the Senate. Mauritania, along with Morocco, illegally annexed the territory of Western Sahara in 1976, with Mauritania taking the lower one-third. After several military losses to Polisario, Mauritania retreated in 1979, and their claims were taken by Morocco. Due to economic weakness, Mauritania has been a negligible player in the territorial dispute, with its official position being that it wishes for an expedient solution that is mutually agreeable to all parties.

Military coup

On August 3, 2005, it was reported that the Mauritanian military, including members of the presidential guard, had seized control of key points in the capital of Nouakchott, indicating a possible coup against the government of President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya who was out of the country, attending the funeral of Saudi King Fahd. The group of officers, calling itself the Military Council for Justice and Democracy, released the following statement: :The national armed forces and security forces have unanimously decided to put a definitive end to the oppressive activities of the defunct authority, which our people have suffered from during the past years. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4741243.stm (BBC)] The Military Council later issued another statement naming its president, Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall and listing 16 other officers as members. The Colonel was himself once regarded as a firm ally of the now ousted President, even aiding him in the original coup that brought him to power, and serving as his security chief afterwards. This high-level betrayal of the former president suggests broad discontentment within the branches of local government, which is further supported by the seemingly complete lack of bloodshed. The coup was condemned by most world authorities, but local political parties express hope that the Military Council will remain true to its word, and end its leadership after two years — hopefully leading to a democratic government.[http://www.voanews.com/english/2005-08-04-voa11.cfm]. In response to the coup and in keeping with their own rules, the African Union suspended Mauritania from all organizational activities. On August 10, The United States and the African Union dropped demands that the coup be reversed. However the African Union did not reverse the suspension, citing a need for elections before re-admittance.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4137434.stm] The Military Council has subsequently released 115 political prisoners of the former government[http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5254024,00.html] and authorized the return of President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya and some 300 of his political supporters.[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/8744CB0F-D5CF-4CFF-B50C-5D1713643BAA.htm]

Regions

Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Mauritania is divided into 12 regions (capitals in parentheses):
- Adrar (Atar)
- Assaba (Kifa)
- Brakna (Aleg)
- Dakhlet Nouadhibou (Nouadhibou)
- Gorgol (Kaédi)
- Guidimaka (Sélibaby)
- Hodh Ech Chargui (Néma)
- Hodh El Gharbi (Ayoun el Atrous)
- Inchiri (Akjoujt)
- Tagant (Tidjikdja)
- Tiris Zemmour (F'dérik)
- Trarza (Rosso) The national capital, Nouakchott, comprises a capital district.

Geography

Mauritania is generally flat, its 1,030,700 square kilometers forming vast, arid plains broken by occasional ridges and clifflike outcroppings. A series of scarps face southwest, longitudinally bisecting these plains in the center of the country. The scarps also separate a series of sandstone plateaus, the highest of which is the Adrar Plateau, reaching an elevation of 500 meters. Spring-fed oases lie at the foot of some of the scarps. Isolated peaks, often rich in minerals, rise above the plateaus; the smaller peaks are called guelbs and the larger ones kedias. The concentric Guelb er Richat is a prominent feature of the north-central region. Kediet Ijill, near the city of Zouîrât, has an elevation of 1,000 meters and is the highest peak.

Economy

Demographics

Culture


- Music of Mauritania
- Islam in Mauritania
- Status of religious freedom in Mauritania

Trivia


- Mauritania and Madagascar are the only two countries in the world not to use decimal-based currency. The basic unit of currency, the ouguiya, is comprised of five khoums.

Miscellaneous topics


- Communications in Mauritania
- Transportation in Mauritania
- Military of Mauritania
- List of cities in Mauritania incl. 2000 census population for ten largest cities
- List of Mauritanian companies

References


- CIA World Factbook
- US State Department [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5467.htm]

External links

Government
- [http://www.mauritania.mr/fr/index.php République Islamique de Mauritanie] official government site
- [http://www.mauritania.mr/assemblee/ Assemblée Nationale Mauritanienne] official site News
- [http://allafrica.com/mauritania/ AllAfrica.com - Mauritania] news headline links Overviews
- [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/mauritania.htm Arab Gateway - Mauritania]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/791083.stm BBC News Country Profile - Mauritania]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mr.html CIA World Factbook - Mauritania]
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mrtoc.html Library of Congress Country Study - Mauritania] data as of June 1988 Directories
- [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Mauritania.html Columbia University Libraries - African Studies: Mauritania] directory category
- [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559934/ Looksmart - Mauritania] directory category
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Mauritania/ Open Directory Project - Mauritania] directory category
- [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/mauritan.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Mauritania] directory category
- [http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Mauritania/ The Index on Africa - Mauritania] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Mauritania/ Yahoo! - Mauritania] directory category History
- [http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/2252001.htm RaceandHistory.com: Present day slavery in Mauritania] Tourism
-
- Category:Arab League Category:African Union member states zh-min-nan:Mauritania ko:모리타니 ms:Mauritania ja:モーリタニア

El Aaiún

El-Aaiún or Laâyoune (Arabic: العيون, transliterated al-`ayūn), is the unofficial capital of Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony now mostly controlled and occupied by Morocco. El-Aaiún is located at 27°9'13" North, 13°12'12" West (27.153611, -13.203333). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html] The city has a population of around 200,000 and is the largest city in Western Sahara. Most of its inhabitants are Moroccan settlers who moved (or were moved) into the area after Morocco invaded Western Sahara in 1975, but a significant minority are native Sahrawis. "El Aaiún" is the transliteration of the Arabic name used as the Spanish name for the city, and was the only one used until the Moroccan invasion of Western Sahara. "Laâyoune" is a French transliteration used in Moroccan literature. The former is the preferred nomenclature of the Sahrawis. The Arabic name means "the springs" (or "the eyes"). A United Nations mission in the city, MINURSO, administers the ceasefire settlement of 1991 between Morocco and the Polisario Front, which has fought the Moroccan occupation since it began and claims Western Sahara as an independent state. In the spring of 2005 Sahrawi demonstrations demanding independence and the release of political prisoners rocked the city, and a trend towards opening up the closed territory seems to have been broken off, with several expulsions of foreign journalists and human rights delegations. In the area south of Tindouf, Algeria, there is a Sahrawi refugee camp named El-Aaiun, after this city.

External links


- [http://lexicorient.com/morocco/laayoune.htm Entry in Lexicorient] Category:Cities in Western Sahara ja:アイウン

United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories

The United Nations maintains a list of territories that do not govern themselves. The list is prepared by the Special Committee on Decolonization and presented to the General Assembly. This list is called the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. Only permanently inhabited territories are considered for inclusion in this list. United Nations emphasise that the list is one that draws its origins from the period of Colonialism. Thus, Western Sahara is included not solely on the grounds that it is under Moroccan occupation (and seen as an integral part of the Kingdom) but also because it was a former Spanish colony. The same can be said about the status Namibia (excluded in 1990), which was seen as a vestige of German colonial legacy in Africa. According to this criterion of pertaining to the process of decolonisation, criticism from many activists, most notable of which are pro-Tibetan activists, is found groundless. The list is controversial, due to the fact that it includes many dependencies that have democratically elected to maintain their territorial status, and rejected independence (or in some cases the parent state periodically organizes referenda, as in the United States Virgin Islands, but there is insufficient voter interest), while other non-self-determining areas (many of the French overseas territories) are excluded. Many critics charge the Committee that drafts this list of using it as a purely ulterior political instrument. It is worth noting that territories which have been annexed and incorporated into the legal framework of the controlling state (such as the overseas departments of France) are considered by the UN to have been decolonized, since they then no longer constitute "non-self-governing" entities, but rather their populations are assumed to have agreed to merge with their former parent state. However, in 1986, New Caledonia then a territoire d'outre-mer was included in the list, an act that caused protest from France. New Caledonia is the only French territory present in the list although it has been enjoying the status of a collectivité sui generis, a unique one in the Republic.

The list

Africa


- Western Sahara (most of territory occupied by Morocco)

Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea


- Anguilla (overseas territory of United Kingdom)
- Bermuda (overseas territory of United Kingdom)
- British Virgin Islands (overseas territory of United Kingdom)
- Cayman Islands (overseas territory of United Kingdom)
- Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas (overseas territory of United Kingdom, also claimed by Argentina. See also, Falkland Islands War)
- Montserrat (overseas territory of United Kingdom)
- St. Helena (overseas territory of United Kingdom)
- Turks and Caicos Islands (overseas territory of United Kingdom)
- United States Virgin Islands (United States insular area)

Europe


- Gibraltar (overseas territory of United Kingdom, claimed by Spain)

Pacific and Indian Oceans


- American Samoa (United States insular area)
- Guam (United States insular area)
- New Caledonia (overseas territory of France)
- Pitcairn Islands (overseas territory of United Kingdom)
- Tokelau (overseas territory of New Zealand)

Former entries


- East Timor (removed May 20, 2002, upon independence)
- Namibia (removed 1990 on independence from South Africa)

Sources


- [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm Non-Self-Governing Territories] listed by General Assembly of the United Nations in 2002.

See also


- Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation Category:United Nations

Government in exile

A government in exile is a political group that claims to be a country's legitimate government, but for various reasons is unable to exercise its legal power, and instead resides in a foreign country. Governments in exile usually operate under the assumption that they will one day return to their native country and regain power. Governments in exile frequently occur during wartime occupation. For example, during the German expansion of the Second World War, numerous European governments and monarchs were forced to seek refuge in the United Kingdom, rather than face certain destruction at the hands of the Nazis.

Current governments in exile

Currently, there are few governments in exile. They include:
- Western Sahara's Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is headquartered in the Tindouf region in Algeria
- Aceh government in exile , Free Aceh Movement, is exiled in Sweden.
- the administration of the Belarus National Republic exiled since 1920 and currently led by Ivonka Survilla in Canada, see History of Belarus: BNR
- the Government of Tibet in Exile led by the Dalai Lama in India, claiming to be the legitimate ruler of the Chinese-occupied Tibet
- the Government of Free Vietnam is led by General Nguyen Khanh former Chief of State of South Vietnam
- the Republic of Estonia in Exile, headed by Kalev Ots
- A pro-Georgian government claiming to represent the breakaway region of Abkhazia is currently located in Tbilisi
- the Progress Party of Equatorial Guinea has proclaimed Severo Moto Nsá "President" in Madrid exile.
- the National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma is led by Sein Win. It is composed of members of parliament elected in 1990 but not allowed by the military to take office.
- the Republic of China has arguably been in exile from Mainland China since 1949 when Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taipei
- the "Gabonese Government of National Salvation" led by "Prime Minister" Daniel Mengara
- a "Republic of Serb-Krajina" was proclaimed on 26 February 2005 in Belgrade by hardline nationalists aligned with Vojislav Šešelj and the Serb Radical Party.
- the Republik Maluku Selatan, in exile from the South Moluccas, Indonesia, in the Netherlands since 1950.
- the government of Somalia, exiled in Kenya.
- the Government of Djibouti in Exile
- the Crown Council of Ethiopia,led by H.I.M Ermias Sahle-Selassie Haile-Selassie and based in Charleston,South Carolina,claims Emperor is still the legal head of Ethiopia and acts on the crown's behalf. Most are not widely recognized.

Past governments in exile


- Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea

World War II

Many countries established a government in exile after loss of sovereignty in connection with World War II:
- Belgium (invaded 10 May, 1940)
- Czechoslovakia (established in 1940 by Beneš and recognised by the British government)
- Free France (after 1940)
- Greece (invaded 28 October, 1940)
- Luxembourg (invaded 10 May, 1940)
- Netherlands (invaded 10 May, 1940)
- Norway (invaded 9 April, 1940)
- Poland (see Polish government in exile)
- Yugoslavia (invaded 6 April, 1941)
- Commonwealth of the Philippines (invaded 8 December, 1941) Other exiled leaders in England included King Zog of Albania and Emperor Haile Sellasie of Ethiopia. Notable examples of occupied countries which retained partial sovereignty through their overseas territories included Belgium, Vichy France and Free France.

The Danish exception

Denmark's occupation (9 April, 1940) was administered by Auswärtiges Amt, contrary to other occupied lands that were under military administration. Denmark did not establish a government in exile, although there was an Association of Free Danes established in London. The King and his government remained in Denmark, and functioned comparatively independently for the first three years of German occupation. Meanwhile, Iceland was occupied by the Allies, and effectively separated from the Danish crown. Category:Government ja:亡命政府

Polisario Front

The Polisario, Polisario Front, or Frente Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y Río de Oro ("Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro") is a Sahrawi movement working for the independence of Western Sahara.

History

The beginnings Polisario is a successor of the Harakat Tahrir in the late 1960s, lead by Bassiri, which hoped to gain independence for the Spanish Sahara through peaceful protest. In 1970, Spanish troops under Franco's regime destroyed the movement following the Zemla Intifada, and killed most of the leadership including Bassiri. This pushed Sahrawi nationalists into supporting a violent struggle. In 1971 a group of young Sahrawi expatriates in the universities of Morocco began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro. After attempting in vain to gain backing from several Arab goverments, the movement eventually relocated to Spanish-controlled Western Sahara to start an armed rebellion. The Polisario was constituted on May 10, 1973 with the express intention of militarily forcing an end to Spanish colonization. Its first general secretary was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed. On May 20 he led the Khanga raid, Polisario's first armed action, in which a Spanish post was overrun and rifles seized. Polisario then gradually gained control over large swaths of desert countryside, and its power grew from early 1975 when forcibly recruited Sahrawi auxiliaries of the Tropas Nomadas began deserting to the Polisario, bringing weapons and training with them. At this point, Polisario's manpower included perhaps 800 men and women, but they were backed by a vastly larger network of supporters. A UN visiting mission headed by Simeon Aké that was conducted in June 1975 concluded that Sahrawi support for independence (as opposed to Spanish rule or integration with a neighbouring country) amounted to an "overwhelming consensus" and that the Polisario Front was by far the most powerful political force in the country. The invasion While Spain started negotiating a handover of power in the summer of 1975, in the end the Franco regime decided to throw in its lot with Western Sahara's neighbours instead. After Moroccan pressures through the Green March of November 6, Spain entered negotiations that led to the signing of the Madrid Accords between it, Morocco and Mauritania. Thus, immediately upon Spain's withdrawal in 1975 Moroccan and Mauritanian) troops invaded and occupied the Western Sahara, and expelled most of its native population. This brought widespread international condemnation, since the World Court at The Hague had found in favor of Western Sahara's self-determination just weeks before. The Polisario kept up resistance, and rebased in Tindouf in the western regions Algeria. For the next two years the movement grew tremendously, as Sahrawi refugees flocked to the camps and Algeria supplied arms and funding. Within months, its army had expanded to several thousand armed fighters, camels been replaced by modern jeeps and 19th century muskets by assault rifles. The reorganized army was able to inflict severe damage through guerilla-style hit-and-run attacks against occupation forces in Western Sahara and in the occupying countries, but took care not to strike at civilian targets. Polisario strikes back The weak Mauritanian regime of Ould Daddah, whose army numbered only around 5,000 men, was unable to fend off the guerilla incursions. After repeated strikes at the country's principal source of income, the iron mines of Zouerate, it collapsed into internal disorder. Not even overt French Air Force backing proved enough to save it, and the regime fell in 1978 to a coup led by war-weary military officers, who immediately agreed to a cease fire with the Polisario. A peace treaty was signed August 5, 1979, in which the new Nouakchott government recognized Sahrawi rights to Western Sahara and relinquished its own claims. Mauritania withdrew, but the area it had occupied was now additionally taken by Morocco, and the war went on. From the mid-1980s Morocco largely managed to keep Polisario troops off by building a huge berm or sand wall (the Moroccan Wall), staffed by an army roughly the same size as the entire Sahrawi population. This stalemated the war, with no side able to achieve decisive gains, but artillery strikes and sniping attacks by the guerillas continued, and Morocco was economically and politically strained by the war. Still today, Polisario controls the part of the Western Sahara on the east of the Moroccan Wall, comprising about a third of the territory, but this area is economically useless, heavily mined, and almost uninhabited. Cease fire and the referendum process A cease-fire between Polisario and Morocco, monitored by MINURSO (UN) is effective since September 6, 1991, on the promise of a referendum on independence the following year. But the referendum however stalled over disagreements on voter rights, and numerous attempts at restarting the process (most significantly the launching of the 2003 Baker plan) seem to have failed. The Polisario has repeatedly threatened to resume hostilites if a referendum cannot not held, and claims that the current situation of "neither peace, nor war" is unsustainable. Pressures on the leadership from the refugee population to resume fighting are apparent, but to date the 14-year old cease fire has been respected. In 2004, a breakout organization, the Front Polisario Khat al-Shahid announced its existance, in the first break with the principle of "national unity" (i.e. working in one single organization to prevent factionalism). It remains of minimal importance to the conflict, however, and Polisario has refused dialogue with it.

The Sahrawi republic

On February 27 1976, the day after Spain formally ceded its colony, Polisario proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). It has a government in exile, a parliament and a judiciary. Its constitution states that Western Sahara will be founded as a multi-party democracy with a "market economy and free enterprise". Abdelaziz is president. The SADR is a member of the African Union, but not of the United Nations. It has been acknowledged as a state by nearly 80 states (although about 35 have since withdrawn recognition) nearly all of them African or Latin American. Some countries have not recognised the SADR, but do recognise Polisario as representative of the Saharawi people. Still other countries do not recognise Polisario at all, but also do not recognise Morocco's unilateral annexation of the area. No state has formally recognized Morocco's annexation of Western Sahara. The SADR is based with the Polisario in the vast Sahrawi refugee camps south of Tindouf, but has as its formal temporary capital (until retrieving El-Aaiun) the Polisario-controlled village of Bir Lehlou in north-eastern Western Sahara.

Political ideology

The Polisario is first and foremost a nationalist organization, with the independence of Western Sahara as its main goal, and it believes ideological disputes should be left for a democratic Western Sahara to deal with. It views itself as a "front" encompassing all political trends in Sahrawi society, and not as a party. As a consequence, there is no party programme. The Sahrawi republic's constitution however gives a hint of the movements ideological context: in the early 1970s Polisario adopted a vaguely socialist rhetoric, but this was abandoned relatively quickly. In the late 1970s, all references to socialism in the republic's constitution were removed, and by 1991, the Polisario was explicitly free-market. After independence, the Polisario will either function as a party within the context of a multi-party system, or be completely disbanded. This will be decided by a Polisario congress. Polisario has consistently opposed terrorism, condemning suicide bombings and even sending condoleances to Morocco after the terrorist strikes in Casablanca in 2003.

Structure

The Polisario's organizational structure should not be confused with that of the Sahrawi republic, although the two frequently overlap. The organizational order described below applies today, and was roughly finalized in the 1991 internal reforms of the movement. The Polisario is led by a general secretary. The first general secretary was El-Ouali, followed by Mahfoud Ali Beiba as interrim secretary upon his death. In 1976, Mohamed Abdelaziz was elected and has held the post ever since. The general secretary is elected by the General Popular Congress (GPC), regularly convened every four years. The GPC is in turn composed of delegates from the Popular Congresses of the refugee camps in Tindouf, which are held biannually in each camp, and of delegates from the womens' organization (UNMS), youth organization (UJSARIO), workers' organization (UGTSARIO) and military delegates from the SPLA (see below). Between congresses, the supreme decision-making body is the National Secretariat, headed by the general secretary. The NS is elected by the GPC. It is subdivided into committees handling defense, diplomatic affairs, etc. The 2003 NS, elected at the 11th GPC in Tifariti, Western Sahara, has 41 members. 12 of these are secret delegates from the Moroccan-controlled areas of Western Sahara. This is shift in policy, as the Polisario traditionally confined political appointments to Sahrawis within the diaspora, for fear of infiltration. It is probably intended to strengthen the movement's underground network in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara, and link up with the rapidly growing Sahrawi civil rights activism.

Armed forces (SPLA)

The Sahrawi Popular Army of Liberation, SPLA, is the Polisario's army. Its commander-in-chief is the general secretary. The SPLA's armed units are considered to have a manpower of possibly 6-7,000 active soldiers today, but during the war years its strength appears to have been significantly higher: up to 20,000 men. It has a potential manpower of many times that number, however, since both male and female refugees in the Tindouf camps undergo military training. Women formed auxiliary units protecting the camps during war years. It is equipped mainly with outdated Soviet-manufactured weaponry, donated by the sympathetic Algerian government, but its arsenals display a bewildering variety of materiel, much of it captured from Spanish, Mauritanian or Moroccan forces and made in France, the United States, South Africa or Britain. The SPLA has several armored units, composed of old tanks and somewhat more modern armored cars and halftracks. It has used land rovers and other originally civilian vehicles extensively, mounting machine guns and employing them in great numbers, relying on speed and surprise. On 3 November 2005, Polisario signed the Geneva Call, committing itself to a total ban on landmines. Morocco is one of [http://www.icbl.org/treaty/non_sp 40 governments] that have not signed the 1997 mine ban treaty. Both parties has used mines extensively in the conflict, but some mine-clearing operations have been carried out under Minurso supervision since the cease fire agreement. The Polisario traditionally employed ghazzi tactics, i.e. motorized surprise raids over great distances, but after the construction of the Moroccan Wall this changed into more conventional tactics, with a focus on artillery and other long-range attacks. In both phases of the war, SPLA units relied on superior knowledge of the terrain, speed and surprise, and on the ability to retain experienced fighters. The SPLA is considered well organized, and its desert warfare tactics were groundbreaking. The United States Army is reported to have studied Polisario tactics in preparation for the 1991 Gulf War.

Foreign relations

Support for the Polisario came mostly from African countries, Morocco's traditional rivals within the Arab world, and from third world non-aligned countries. The main political and military backers were Algeria and, a distant second, Cuba. For some years Libya's support was strong, but this has declined. Valuable contributions also came from the strong Spanish solidarity organizations and from some other third world liberation movements. Ties with the Fretilin liberation movement were exceptionally strong and remain so after East Timor's independence. The United States firmly backed Morocco against Polisario during the Cold War, but Polisario never received counter-support from the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China; both rival powers preferred ties with Morocco and refused to recognize the SADR. In the 1990s, world interest in the conflict seemed to expire as the Sahara question gradually sank from public consciousness with the implementation of the cease-fire. Libya withdrew support in the early 1980's, after forming a brief political union with Morocco, and its support of the Polisario today is verbal and infrequent. Support from Algeria remains strong, but the government seems to have barred Polisario from returning to armed struggle, attempting to curry favor from the US and France and to mend the inflamed ties with Morocco. In 2004, South Africa announced its formal recognition of the SADR, delayed for 10 years despite unequivocal promises by Nelson Mandela as apartheid fell. Kenya followed in 2005, and relations were upgraded in some other countries. This seems to point to increased African diplomatic activity in support of Polisario and Western Saharan self-determination.

See also


- Morocco's foreign relations
- History of Western Sahara
- Politics of Western Sahara
- Independence Intifada

External links


- [http://www.arso.org The Association for a Free & Fair Referendum in Western Sahara]
- [http://www.wsahara.net Western Sahara support page]
- [http://www.palinstravels.co.uk/book-2044 Michael Palin's visit to Smara Refugee Camp]

Further reading


- Toby Shelley, Endgame in the Western Sahara (Zed Books 2004)
- Tony Hodges, Western Sahara. The Roots of a Desert War (Lawrence & Hill 1983)
- Jarat Chopra, United Nations Determination of the Western Saharan Self (Norwegian Institute of Foreign Affairs 1994)
- Leo Kamil, Fueling the Fire. U.S. policy & the Western Sahara Conflict (Red Sea Press 1987)
- Anthony G. Pazzanita & Tony Hodges, Historical dictionary of Western Sahara (2nd ed. Scarecrow Press 1994) Category:Secessionist organizations Category:Western Sahara ja:ポリサリオ戦線

Foreign relations of Western Sahara

Western Sahara is claimed and administered by Morocco since Spain abandoned the territory in 1975-76, but sovereignty is unresolved and the United Nations is attempting to hold a referendum on the issue through the mission MINURSO. A UN-administered cease-fire has been in effect since September 1991.

Positions of the parties


- The position of the government of Morocco is that Western Sahara is an integral part of the kingdom, as its southern provinces.
- The position of the Polisario Front and its supporters is that Western Sahara is an occupied territory and the rightful government is the exiled Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR).
- The United Nations views Western Sahara as a case of incomplete decolonization, until the Sahrawi people has been able to use its right of self-determination in the form of a referendum. This makes Western Sahara the last major remaining colony in the world.
- The African Union (formerly the Organization of African Unity) has given the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic full recognition, and accepted it as a member (which has led Morocco to leave the union, becoming the only African country outside of it).
- About 80 countries (most of them from Africa or other parts of the third world) have at one point or another recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, but several of these has since cancelled or otherwise retracted their recognitions. For a list of these governments, see below.
- Non-recognition of the Sahrawi republic does not imply non-recognition of the Polisario Front: several governments acknowledge Polisario as the legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people, but not its exile government as a state.
- No state recognizes the Moroccan annexation of the territory.

List of Country Recognitions

The following is a list of governments of the world that have formally recognized Western Sahara as a sovereign nation, with the exiled Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as its legitimate government. After recognizing an independent Western Sahara, some states have since retracted their recognitions. Others have chosen a milder option, to "freeze" recognition pending the outcome of the referendum on self-determination. If the results are in favor of independence, these governments will then resume the frozen contacts, while a government who has "canceled" recognition (or never recognized Western Sahara), will not necessarily do so. This list is based on several sources, and it may be incomplete. Currently, it contains 80 countries, and of these
- 44 recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
- 13 are home to Sahrawi embassies.
- 12 have "frozen" relations (incl. Peru but not Guatemala).
- 23 have cancelled relations (incl. Guatemala but not