Home About us Products Services Contact us Bookmark
:: wikimiki.org ::
Western Ghats

Western Ghats

]] ]
The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains (as they are known in the state of Maharashtra) run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau, and separate the plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range starts south of the Tapti River near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, and runs approximately 1600 km through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 900 meters. Higher peaks occur in the northern section of the range in Maharashtra, notably Kalsubai 1646 m (5427 ft), Mahabaleshwar 1438 m (4710 ft) and Harishchandragarh 1424 m (4691 ft); in southwest Karnataka, notably Kudremukh at 1862 m (6,109 ft); and in the southern part of the range, with Anai Mudi in Kerala at 2695 meters (8,842 ft) height the highest peak in the Western Ghats, Chembra Peak in kerala at 2100m, Banasura Peak in Kerala at 2073m and Vellarimala in kerala at 2200 meters. The only major gap in the range, the Palghat Gap, joins Tamil Nadu to Kerala. Smaller ranges, including the Nilgiri Hills ( Doddabetta is the highest peak (2623 meters) in the Nilgiris ) of northwestern Tamil Nadu and Biligirirangans southeast of Mysore in Karnataka, meet the Shevaroys (Servarayan range) and Tirumala range farther east, linking the Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats. These ranges of hills serve as important wildlife corridors, allowing species like elephants to move between the ranges. The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan Coast or simply Konkan, and the southern portion is called Malabar or the Malabar Coast. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, while the eastern foothills of central Karnataka state is known as Malnad region. The largest city within the mountains is the city of Pune, in the Desh region on the eastern edge of the range. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, which cool as they are pushed upwards by the mountain slopes and release their moisture as rain. The dense forests also contribute to the precipitation of the area by acting as a substrate for condensation of moist rising (orographic) winds from the sea, and releasing much of the moisture back into the air via transpiration, allowing it to later condense and fall again as rain. The westward-facing slopes receive much more rain than the eastward-facing slopes, and the Western Ghats are considerably wetter than the dry Deccan to the east. The Western Ghats form the most important watershed for peninsular India, the plentiful rain giving rise to numerous streams, with many waterfalls, which form the headwaters of both the short rivers that run to the Arabian Sea and the great perennial rivers of the Deccan, including the Godavari River, Krishna River, Kaveri River and their tributaries, which empty into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers provide the water for agriculture and drinking to all the major cities downstream including the cities of Bangalore, Pune and Mumbai. Many of these rivers and streams are threatened by pollution from mining, agricultural and urban runoff, coffee pulp effluents and other human activity. There has recently been a strong movement to curb mining operations in the Western Ghats, as this is one of the global Biodiversity hotspots. One standing example of such a campaign is the one in Kudremukh, where Iron ore is mined, and the river Kali is used to transport ore.

Rain Forests

Biodiversity hotspot Historically the Western Ghats were well-covered in dense forests. In the south they contain the only rainforests of southern India. These forests are home to an interesting and diverse fauna and flora, many of them showing affinities to the Malayan region, but are increasingly threatened by human activity. Several national parks and other protected areas lie within the range, but it is estimated that only a small fraction of the Western Ghats remains in pristine condition. The Silent Valley National Park in Kerala is considered by many to be the last tracts of virgin tropical evergreen forest in India.

Flora and Fauna

Silent Valley National Park] Silent Valley National Park
Biogeographers have long recognized the distinctive plant and animal communities of the Western Ghats. Many of these faunal and floral elements are not found anywhere else in India except in parts of northeastern India. The Western Ghats are also home to many endemic species, and the endemism is especially high in the amphibian and reptilian fauna. The snake family Uropeltidae is almost entirely restricted to and diversified in this region of the world. The frog Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis was discovered in 2003 as being a living fossil. This species of frog is most closely related to species found in the Seychelles. The Western Ghats are ecologically distinct from the drier regions to the north and east, but can be further divided into four ecoregions. The northern portion of the range is generally drier than the southern portion, and at lower elevations makes up the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion, with mostly deciduous forests made up predominantly of teak (Tectona grandis) and dipterocarps. Above 1000 meters elevation are the cooler and wetter North Western Ghats montane rain forests, whose evergreen forests are characterized by trees of family Lauraceae. The evergreen Wayanad forests of Kerala and Tamil Nadu mark the transition zone between the northern and southern ecoregions of the Western Ghats. The southern ecoregions are generally wetter and more species-rich. At lower elevations are the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, with Cullenia is the characteristic tree genus, accompanied by teak, dipterocarps, and other trees. These moist forests transition to the drier South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests to the east, in the mountains' rain shadow. Above 1000 meters are the South Western Ghats montane rain forests, also cooler and wetter than the surrounding lowland forests, and dominated by evergreen trees, although some montane grasslands and stunted forests can be found at the highest elevations. The South Western Ghats montane rain forests are the most species-rich ecoregion in peninsular India; eighty percent of the flowering plant species of the entire Western Ghats range are found in this ecoregion. It also harbors the highest levels of endemism: 35 percent of the plants, 42 percent of the fishes, 48 percent of the reptiles, and 75 percent of the amphibians that live in this ecoregion are endemic. Still higher, above elevations of 1600 m MSL are seen the shola-grassland mosaic, which are habitats exclusive to the Western Ghats.

External links


- [http://amitkulkarni.info/pics/ Pictures from the Sahyadris]
- [http://www.westernghats.org.in Sahyadris : India's Western Ghats - A Vanishing Heritage] - Coffee table book by Sandesh Kadur Category:Mountain ranges of AsiaCategory:Mountains of India Category:Biodiversity hotspots ja:西ガーツ山脈

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above the age of eighteen are eligible to vote. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature. India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are eighteen appellate High Courts, having jurisdiction over a large state or a group of states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.

Politics

Chief Justice of India For most of its independent history, India's national government has been controlled by the Indian National Congress Party. Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, Congress, usually led by a member of the Nehru-Gandhi family, dominated national politics for over forty years. In 1977, a united opposition, under the banner of the Janata Party, won the election and formed a non-Congress government for a short period after the unpopular 'emergency rule' imposed by Indira Gandhi in the previous Congress regime. In 1996, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a political party with a right wing nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established for the first time a serious opposition to the largely centre-left Congress. But power was held by two successive coalition governments, who stayed on with the support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) along with smaller parties and became the first non-Congress government to sustain the full five year term after it returned to power in 1999. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by short-lasting governments, with seven separate governments formed within that period. One however, a Congress government formed in 1991, lasted the full five years and initiated significant economic reforms. In the 2004 Indian elections the Congress party returned to power after winning the largest number of seats, by a narrow margin. Congress formed a government in alliance with the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and with several mostly-regional parties called the United Progressive Alliance. The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments formed since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single majority party, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.

States and union territories

India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into districts), six Union Territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government, though some have elected governments. India has had two scientific bases in Antarctica – the Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri, but has made no territorial claims so far.

Geography

Maitri in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]] India's entire north and northeast states are made up of the Himalayan Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile Indo-Gangetic plain. Towards western India, bordering southeast Pakistan, lies the Thar Desert. The southern Indian peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan plateau. The plateau is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. India is home to several major rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, and the Krishna. The rivers are responsible for the fertile plains in northern India which are conducive to farming. The Indian climate varies from a tropical climate in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalaya have a tundra climate. India gets most of its rains through the monsoons.

Economy

monsoon India has an economy ranked as the tenth largest in the world in terms of currency conversion and fourth largest in terms of purchasing power parity. It recorded one of the fastest annual growth rates of 6.9% for the year ending March 2005. India's per-capita income by purchasing power parity is US$ 3,262, ranked 125th by the World Bank. India's foreign exchange reserves amount to over US$ 143 billion. Mumbai serves as the nation's financial capital and is also home to both the headquarters of the Reserve Bank of India and the pre-eminent Bombay Stock Exchange. While a quarter of Indians still live below the poverty line, a large middle class has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the IT industry. The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on agriculture, which now contributes to less than 25 % of GDP. Other important industries are mining, petroleum, diamond polishing, films, textiles, information technology services, and handicrafts. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in software and business process outsourcing services, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005. Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages. business process outsourcing While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3 % of India's GDP. The actual employment generation, both direct and indirect, is estimated to be 42 million, or about 10 % of India's work force. In monetary terms, it contributes about US$4 billion in foreign exchange. India's major trading partners are the United States, Japan, China and the United Arab Emirates. India's main exports items include agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellry, software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals and leather products while its main import commodities are crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion while the imports were worth at US $89.33 billion.

Demographics

India is the second most populous country in the world, with only China having a larger population. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China with the world's largest population, estimated at 1.6 billion. Language, religion, and caste are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse Indian population today. Its biggest metropolitan agglomerations are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Chennai (formerly Madras). Chennai]] India's literacy rate is 64.8 % with 53.7 % of females and 75.3 % of males being literate. The sex ratio is 933 females for every 1000 males. Work Participation Rate (WPR) (the percentage of workers to total population) stands at 39.1 % with male WPR at 51.7 % and female WPR at 25.6 % inote|eu{inote|demostats{inote|religion{ref|languages{inote|tongues{see2|Christianity in India|Jews in India{seealso3|List of Indian languages by total speakers|List of cities in India|Religion in India{main|Culture of India{seealso4|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India{main|Sports in India{main|Holidays in India{Official Holidays of India{Topics related to India{portal{sisterlinks|India{wikitravel{wikicities|india|India{explain-inote{Web reference | title=India facts and figures | work=Embassy of India| URL= http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Forex reserves up by $1bn | work=Economic Times| URL= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India Economy | work=Travel Document Systems |URL= http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Services | work=India in Business| URL= http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work=Times of India | URL= http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= US, UAE, UK, China, Japan among India's top trade partners | work=Indian Express| URL= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/business/20050102-0.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= CIA Factbook : India | work=CIA Factbook | URL= http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census| work=Census of India| URL=http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Debating India & India's literacy rate | work=Debating India | URL= http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India – Country profiles | work=indexmundi.com | URL= http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work=Census of India | URL= http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Languages of India | work=India image | URL= http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm| date=August 14 | year=2005{Book reference | Author=K.M. Matthew | Title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 | Publisher= Malaya Manorama | Year=2003 | ID=ISBN 8190046187{mnb|afgh|1{mnb|LoC|2{South Asia{Asia{Commonwealth of Nations{SAARC{Life in India{Link FA|sv{Link FA|sv

Deccan

The Deccan Plateau is a vast plateau in India, encompassing most of Central and Southern India. The name Deccan is anglicised form of the Prakrit dakkhin, itself derived from the Sanskrit dakṣiṇa, meaning south. It comprises the whole of peninsular India south of the Vindhya range and has an elevation which ranges from 1,500 to 2,500 feet (450 to 750 m). It is bounded in the west by the Western Ghats and in the east by the Eastern Ghats. These two formations form one of the vertex of a triangle which encompasses the plateau with the Vindhya range forming the third side. This region is one of the most stable land masses of the world.

Geography

It lies south of the Indo-Gangetic plain. It is bounded by the Western Ghats in the west, the Eastern Ghats to the east, the Nilgiris in the south and the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in the north. The plateau elevation is about 500 m on average. It is composed of black volcanic basalt soil. The chief crop is cotton, however sugarcane, rice and other crops also common. Several Indian states cover parts of the Deccan: Maharashtra covers most of the northern plateau, and Chhattisgarh the northeast corner. Andhra Pradesh covers the east-central portion of the Deccan, and Karnataka the west-central and most of the southern portion of the plateau, with the southernmost portion in Tamil Nadu. The largest city in the Deccan is Bangalore, southern India. Other major cities include Hyderabad, the capital of Andhra Pradesh, and Nagpur, Pune, and Sholapur in Maharashtra. The Godavari River and its tributaries, including the Indravati, drain most of the northern portion of the plateau, rising in the Western Ghats and draining east towards the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, Krishna River and its tributaries, including the Bhima River, which also run from west to east, drain the central portion of the plateau. The southernmost portion of the plateau is drained by the Kaveri River, which rises in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and bends south to break through the Nilgiri hills into Tamil Nadu, emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The vast volcanic basalt beds of the Deccan were laid down in the massive Deccan Traps eruption, which occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago. Some paleontologists speculate that this eruption may have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. During a period lasting many hundred of years there was a lot of volcanic activity in the region. The molten lava that erupted out of the volcanoes solidified into a hard rocky layer. Layer after layer was formed by the volcanic activity that lasted many hundreds of years, and when the volcanoes became extinct, they left a region of highlands with typically vast stretches of flat areas on top like a table. Hence it is also known as Table Top. Typically the Deccan Plateau is made up of basalt. This is an extrusive igneous rock. Also in certain sections of the region, we can find granite, which is an intrusive igneous rock. The difference between these two rock types are basalt rock forms on eruption of lava, that is, outside a volcano, while granite forms inside a volcano, that is, when the volcano becomes extinct the lava solidifies inside the volcano itself. The Deccan is rich in minerals. Primary mineral ores found in this region are mica and iron ore in the Chhota Nagpur region, and diamonds, gold and other metals in the Golconda region.

People

The Deccan is home to many languages and peoples. Bhil and Gond peoples live in the hills along the northern and northeastern edges of the plateau, and speak various languages that belong to both the Indo-European and Dravidian families of languages. Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language, is the main language of the north-western portion of the Deccan plateau. Urdu, Telugu, and Kannada, are the predominant languages of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka respectively, they occupy the plateau. Tamil is the main language of the country to the south of the plateau, and Malayalam that of the hills and coast to the south-west. Moreover, the city of Hyderabad is an important centre of Urdu language in the Deccan; its surrounding areas also host a notable population of Urdu speakers.

See also


- South India, which includes Deccan.

References


- [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0400/mw__0498.html Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 498] (scanned image at SriPedia Initiative): Sanskrit dakṣiṇa meaning `right', `southern'. ja:デカン高原 Category:Plateaus Category:Geography of India

Tapti River

The Tapti River (also Tapi River) is a river of central India. It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India with a lenth of around 724 km. It is one of three rivers, with the Narmada River and the Mahi River that run from east to west. The river rises in the eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state, and flows westward, draining Madhya Pradesh's Nimar region, Maharashtra's Kandesh and east Vidarbha regions in the northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat before emptying into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea, in the State of Gujarat. The Western Ghats or Sahyadri range starts south of the Tapti River near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Name

The Tapti River originates in the Betul district from place called Multai. The Sanskrit name of Multai town is Multapi meaning origin of Tapi or the Tapti River. The Tapi River in Thailand, was named after India's Tapti River in August 1915.

River basin and tributaries

The Tapti River basin extends over an area of 65,145 km² which is nearly two percent of the total area of India. The basin lies in the states of Maharashtra (51,504 km²), Madhya Pradesh (9,804 km²) and Gujarat (3,837 km²). The basin lies mostly in northern and eastern districts Maharashtra state, including Amravati, Akola, Buldhana, Washim, Jalgaon, Dhule, Nandurbar, Malegaon, and Nashik districts, but also covers Betul, Burhanpur districts of Madhya Pradesh and Surat district in Gujarat as well.

List of rivers in Tapti River basin

The principal tributaries of the Tapti River are the Purna River, Girna River, Panzara River, Waghur River, Bori River and Aner River. Other tributaries include:
- Shiva River in Nandurbar district of Maharashtra State
- Gomai River in Nandurbar
- Vaki River in Nandurbar
- Arunavati River in Dhule district of Maharashtra state
- Burai River in Dhule
- Panzara River in Jalgaon, Dhule districts of Maharashtra state
  - Kaan River in Dhule
- Bori River in Jalgaon
- Aner River in Jalgaon, Dhule
- Girna River in Nashik, Malegaon, Jalgaon districts of Maharashtra state. Joins Tapti River at Kapileshwar at Dhule and Jalgaon Border
  - Titur River in Jalgaon
  - Mausam River in Malegaon
- Waghur River in Jalgaon, Aurangabad
- Purna River in Amravati, Akola, Buldhana, Jalgaon districts of Maharashtra state and Madhya Pradesh State. Joins Tapti River at Changdev in Jalgaon
  - Nalganga River in Buldhana
  - Vishwaganga River in Buldhana,
  - Nipani River in Buldhana
  - Mann River in Buldhana, Akola districts of Maharashtra state
    - Mas River in Buldhana, Akola
    - Utawali River in Buldhana, Akola
    - Vishwamitri River in Akola
    - Nirguna River in Washim,Akola
      - Gandhari River in Akola
  - Aas River in Akola
  - Vaan River in Buldhana, Akola, Amravati districts of Maharashtra state
  - Morna River in Akola , Washim
  - Shahanur River in Akola, Amravati
    - Bhavkhuri River in Amravati
  - Katepurna River in Akola, Washim districts of Maharashtra state
  - Umaa River in Akola, Washim
  - Pendhi River in Akola, Amravati
  - Chandrabhaga River in Amravati
    - Bhuleswari River in Amravati
  - Aarna River in Amravati
- Gadga River in Amravati district of Maharashtra state
- Sipna River in Amravati
- Khapra River in Amravati
- Khandu River in Amravati
- Tigriy River in Amravati
- Surkhi River in Amravati
- Burshi River in Amravati district of Maharashtra state
- Ganjal River in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh state

Places of interest

Major towns along the river include Multai Betul, Burhanpur in Madhya Pradesh, Bhusawal in Maharashtra, and Surat in Gujarat. Major crossings of the river include a road bridge Sawalde in Dhule for National Highway 3, and a railway bridge at Bhusawal for the Bhusawal - Khandwa section of the Central Railway. The river is dammed by Hatnur Dam in Jalgaon, Maharashtra. Other important sites along the river include the Melghat Tiger Reserve in Amravati district, part of Project Tiger, on the southeast bank along the Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra boundary. Historical landmarks include the Asirgarh, fortess near Burhanpur, also known as the "key to the Deccan", and Changdev in Jalgaon, for the ancient Temple of Changdeo Maharaj.

External link


- [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=372&theme=2 Tapti River Watershed Map and data] — World Resources Institute Category:Rivers of India

Gujarat

Gujarat (ગુજરાત in Gujarati) is the most industrialized state in India after Maharashtra and is located in western India, bordered by Pakistan to the northwest and Rajasthan to the north. Its capital is Gandhinagar, a planned city close to Ahmedabad, the former state capital and the commercial center of Gujarat. The state of Gujarat was created on May 1, 1960, out of the northern, predominantly Gujarati-speaking portion of Bombay state. The southern, predominantly Marathi-speaking portion of Bombay state became Maharashtra. Gujarat has become one of the fastest-growing states in the country; Gujarat had an average per capita income of Rs. 9,289.10, compared to Rs. 6400, the average for all Indian states. Gujarat has given India three of the most prominent leaders in the independence movement: Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and Morarji Desai. Gujaratis have also been leaders in the arts and the sciences; Vikram Sarabhai, a Gujarati, was the father of India's space program. They are, however, mostly noted for their entrepreneurial spirit.

Administrative divisions of Gujarat

See article, Districts of Gujarat Gujarat comprises of 25 districts. The districts are : districts

Geography

Gujarat is the westernmost state of India. It is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west, by the state of Rajasthan to the north and northeast, by Madhya Pradesh to the east, and by Maharashtra to the south and southeast. The relief is low in the most part of the state. The climate is mostly dry, and even desertic in the north-west. Gujarat has about 1600 km of coastline and it is the longest coastline of all Indian states. This coastline includes the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Cambay. The major cities in Gujarat are Ahmedabad, Vadodara (Baroda), Surat, and Rajkot. Ahmedabad is the largest city in the state and the sixth largest in India. Other important cities in the south of Gujarat are Nadiad, Anand Ankleshwar, Bharuch, Navsari, Vapi, and Valsad; in the north are Jamnagar, Bhuj and Dwarka. Gujarat is home to several National Parks, including Gir Forest National Park (Girnar), near Junagadh, Velavadar National Park in Bhavnagar District, Vandsa National Park in Bulser District, and Marine National Park on the Gulf of Kutch in Jamnagar District. The last remaining Asian lions, famous for their dark black manes, live in Girnar. There are also a number of wildlife sanctuaries and nature preserves, including Anjal, Balaram-Ambaji, Barda, Jambughoda, Jessore, Kachchh Desert, Khavda, Nal Sarovar, Narayan Sarovar, Paniya, Purna, Rampura, Ratanmahal, and Surpaneshwar.

History

Situated on the western coast of India, the name of the state is derived from Gujjaratta, which means the land of the Gujjars. It is believed that a tribe of Gujjars migrated to India around the 5th century. The history of Gujarat, however, began much earlier. Settlements of the Indus Valley Civilisation, also known as the Harappan Civilisation, have been found in the area now known as Gujarat. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centres in the Maurya and Gupta empires. After the fall of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an independent Hindu kingdom. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled briefly by Harsha during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sind sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. A branch of the Pratihara clan ruled Gujarat after the eighth century. In 775 the first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Iran. The Solanki clan of Rajputs ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. After 1243, the Solkanis lost control of Gujarat to their feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to dominate Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan. In 1297 to 1298 Ala ud din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's sacking of Delhi at the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's Muslim governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence, and his son, Sultan Ahmed Shah (ruled 1411 to 1442), established Ahmedabad as the capital. Cambay eclipsed Bharuch as Gujarat's most important trade port. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar conquered it and annexed it to the Mughal empire. It remained a province of the Mughal empire until the Marathas conquered eastern and central Gujarat in the 18th century; Western Gujarat (Kathiawar and Kutch) were divided among numerous local rulers. Kutch Kutch Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat, acquiring several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The British East India Company established a factory in Surat in 1614, which formed their first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Mumbai after the British acquired it from Portugal in 1668. The Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwads of Baroda (Vadodara), made a separate peace with the British, and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into dozens of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira, Panch Mahals, and Surat, were ruled directly by British officials.

Indian Independence Movement

The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic participants of India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Morarji Desai, K.M. Munshi, Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas all hailed from Gujarat. It was also the site of the most number of popular revolts, including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the Salt Satyagraha. See Also: List of Gujarati Freedom Fighters

Post Independence

After Indian independence and the partition of India in 1947, the new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state, which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Agitation by Marathi nationalists for their own state led to the split of Bombay state on linguistic lines; on 1 May 1960, it became the new states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. The first capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad; the capital was moved to Gandhinagar in 1970. In Gujarat a few new towns have been established since Indian independence in 1947. Most of these are more like settlements established near existing urban centres. Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar are three rehabilitation towns more of refugee settlements than self-sufficient towns. The last two now form part of the city of Ahmedabad. Ankleswar and Mithapur were two of the earlier industrial towns established in Gujarat. A complex of three small townships for the oil refinery, the Fertilizer Factory and Petro-chemicals plant also came up near Baroda. Kandla is the only new port town established in the State. Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on January 26, 2001 at 9:00am claiming a staggering 20,000 lives, injuring another 200,000 people and severely affecting the lives of 40 million Gujaratis. The economic and financial loss to Gujarat and India was deeply felt for years to come. It was also the site of one of the worst outbreaks of communal violence between Hindus and Muslims, which left over 1,000 people dead.

Politics

Gujarat is governed by a Legislative Assembly of 182 members. Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) are elected on the basis of adult suffrage from one of 182 constituencies, of which 13 are reserved for scheduled castes and 26 for scheduled tribes. The term of office for a member of the Legislative Assembly is five years. The Legislative Assembly elects a speaker, who presides over the meetings of the legislature. A governor is appointed by the President of India, and is empowered to summon, prorogue, and dissolve the Legislative Assembly, and to address the House after every general election and the commencement of each year's first session of the Legislative Assembly. The Leader of the Legislative Assembly is the leader of the majority party or coalition in the legislature (Chief Minister), or his or her designee. The Leader sets the dates of the legislative sessions, and decides what business is to be transacted in the legislature and what order it is taken up. The administration of the state is led by the Chief Minister. After independence in 1947, the Indian National Congress party (INC) ruled the Bombay state (which included present-day Gujarat and Maharashtra). Congress continued to govern Gujarat after the state's creation in 1960. During and after India's State of Emergency of 1975-1977, public support for the Congress Party eroded, but it continued to hold government until 1995. In the 1995 Assembly Polls, the Congress lost to the BJP and Keshubhai Patel came to power. His Government lasted only 2 years. The fall of that government was provoked by a split in the BJP led by Shankersinh Vaghela. BJP returned to power in 1998 state assembly polls and has won most of the subsequent polls. In 2001, following the loss of 2 assembly seats in by-elections, Keshubhai Patel resigned and handed over power to Narendra Modi. The BJP retained a majority in the 2002 election, and Narendra Modi has since served as Chief Minister of the state. As of 2004, key figures in Gujarat politics are: # Narendra Modi, Chief Minister (BJP) # Shankersinh Vaghela, MIP representing Kapadvanj constituency; Indian Government Textile Minister (INC). # Keshubhai Patel (BJP) # Sureshbhai Mehta (BJP) Main article: Chief Ministers of Gujarat Following are the Chief Ministers of Gujarat. (They are ordered by the date from which they took office for the first time)
- Dr. Shri Jivraj Narayan Mehta
- Balwantrai Mehta
- Hitendra K Desai
- Ghanshyambhai C. Oza
- Chimanbhai J Patel
- Babubhai J Patel
- Madhavsinh F. Solanki
- Amarsinh Chaudhary
- Chhabildas Mehta
- Keshubhai S. Patel
- Sureshchandra R. Mehta
- Shankersinh L. Vaghela
- Dilipbhai Ramanbhai Parikh
- Narendra Modi

Economy

It is one of India's most prosperous states, having a per-capita GDP significantly above India's average. Major resources produced by the state include cotton, peanuts, dates, sugarcane, and petrol. Surat, a city by the Gulf of Khambat, is a hub of global diamond trade. Much of its diamond trade is controlled by a handful of families professing the Jain faith. Also on the Gulf of Khambat, 50 kilometers southeast of Bhavnagar, is the Alang Ship Recycling Yard, the world's largest. Anand is host to Amul dairy, one of the largest milk product producers of the world. Gujarat is the largest producer of milk in India. Reliance Industries Limited was founded by one of Gujarat's most respected industrialists, the late Dhirubhai Ambani.

Educational institutions

Gujarat is home to an Indian Institute of Management, located in the city of Ahmedabad. The institute has been rated as the best in Asia by Asiaweek and one of the best in the world. Its graduates work in high positions for Fortune 500 companies and other major companies throughout the world. Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology [http://www.da-iict.org] is the first institute in India to recognise ICT as the emerging technical discipline and impart education in the same. Gujarat also hosts an extension campus, the National Institute of Design at Gandhinagar, for the prestigious NID at Ahmedabad. Gujarat has got four state agricultural Universities, namely [http://www.aau.in Anand Agricultural University], [http://www.jau.in Junagadh Agricultural University], [http://www.nau.in Navsari Agricultural University] and [http://www.sdau.edu.in Saradar Krushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University] engaged in Teaching, Research and Extension Education. Nirma Institue of Technology is one of the premier engineering institue of west india.
- Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar [http://www.ayurveduniversity.com]
- Anand Agricultural University, Anand [http://www.aau.in/]
- Saurashtra University, Rajkot [http://www.saurashtrauniversity.edu/]
- Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara [http://www.msubaroda.ac.in/]
- Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan [http://www.ngu.ac.in/]
- Gujarat University, Ahmedabad [http://www.gujaratuniversity.org.in/default.htm]
- Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad [http://www.gujaratvidyapith.org/]
- Bhavnagar University, Bhavnagar [http://www.bhavuni.edu/]
- Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University, Ahmedabad
- Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar [http://www.spuvvn.edu/]
- Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh[http://www.jau.in/]
- Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari [http://www.nau.in/]
- Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar [http://www.sdau.edu.in/]
- South Gujarat University, Surat

Demography

Its primary language is Gujarati. The majority of its residents are Hindus, with significant percentages following Islam, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Christianity. As Gujarat is a heavily industrialized state of India, it attracts lots of outsiders, mostly from North India, Bihar, and South India. Hundreds of thousands of non-Gujarati workers live in Gujarat.

Tourism

Lothal is the site of the ancient ruins of the first Indian port, during the times of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Modhera Sun Temple is famous for its rare position as specifically and uniquely designed for the worship of the Sun, Lord Surya. While the main temple is beautifully and intricately designed with complex architecture, painting and sculptures, there is a central pond and surrounding it stand 108 small temples for each of the Sun God's 108 names. Dwarka city on the tip of the Arabian Sea is famous for being the legendary home of Lord Krishna, the eight Avatara of Vishnu, hero of the Mahabharata epic. Ancient ruins of a city and temple complex found underwater suggest a historical basis for the legend. The Rann of Kutchch covers a large portion of western Gujarat, and is world-famous for its rare ecosystem, fossils, wildlife and terrain. Only 500 years earlier, the area was the Arabian Sea. While the city of Ahmedabad is a large and fast-growing modern metropolis, it was also the home of the Indian Independence Movement, with the Sabarmati Ashram of Mahatma Gandhi a standing legacy. Its main tourist sites include Palitana, Diu, Kutch, Jamnagar, Junagadh, and Rajkot.

See also


- List of people from Gujarat
- List of Maitraka rulers of Gujarat
- List of Solanki rulers of Gujarat
- List of Vaghela rulers of Gujarat
- List of Muzaffarid rulers of Gujarat

References


- [http://www.gujaratassembly.gov.in/pastcm.htm Chief Ministers of Gujarat]

External links


- http://www.mngujaratisamaj.org An organization of Minnesota Gujaratis.
- [http://www.gujaratindia.com/ Official portal of Gujarat Government]
- [http://www.webindia123.com/GUJARAT/history/history.htm History of Gujarat]
- [http://www.1upindia.com/states/gujarat/history.html http://www.map4travel.com/maps/india/gujarat.php Gujarat Map More information about history of Gujarat]
- [http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Gujarat List of rulers of Gujarat]
- [http://www.aau.in Anand Agricultural University]
- [http://www.jau.in Junagadh Agricultural University]
- [http://www.nau.in Navsari Agricultural University]
- [http://www.sdau.in Sardar Krushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University] Category:States and territories of India ja:グジャラート州

Goa

Goa (गोआ in Devanāgarī) is India's smallest state in terms of area and the fourth smallest in terms of population after Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. It is located on the west coast of India, in the region known as the Konkan, and is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and Karnataka to the east and south. The Arabian Sea makes up the state's west coast. Panaji is the state's capital, and Vasco-da-Gama (Vasco) its largest town. Portuguese merchants first landed in Goa in the 16th century but soon after colonised it. The Portuguese colony existed for about 450 years, until it was annexed as part of India in 1961. Internationally renowned for its beaches, Goa is visited by hundreds of thousands of foreign and domestic tourists each year. Besides beaches, Goa is also known for its world heritage architecture including the Bom Jesus Basilica. Goa also has rich flora and fauna, owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, which are classified as a biodiversity hotspot.

Origin of name

biodiversity hotspot The precise origin of the name Goa is unclear. The Indian epic Mahabharata refers to the area now known as Goa, as "Goparashtra" or "Govarashtra", which means a nation of cowherds. "Gopakapuri" or "Gapakapattana" were used in some ancient Sanskrit texts, and these names were also mentioned in other sacred Hindu texts such as the Harivansa and the Skanda. In the latter, Goa is also known as "Gomanchala". Gove, Govapuri, Gopakpattan, and Gomant are some other names that the region is referred to in certain inscriptions and texts such as the Puranas. It has also been known as "Aprant".

History

Purana Goa has a long history stretching back to the 3rd century BC, when it formed part of the Mauryan Empire. Goa was later ruled by the Satavahanas of Kolhapur (in Maharashtra) around two thousand years ago. It eventually passed to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 580 to 750. Over the next few centuries Goa was successively ruled by the Silharas, the Kadambas and the Chalukyans of Kalyani, rulers of Deccan India. In 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. However the kingdom's grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 they were forced to surrender it to Harihara I of Vijayanagar. The Vijayanagar monarchs held on to the territory for the next hundred years until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga. After the dynasty crumbled, the area came under the hands of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur who made Velha Goa their auxiliary capital. In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first European to set foot in India through a sea route, landing in Kozhikode in Kerala, followed by an arrival in what is now known as Old Goa. The Portuguese arrived with the intention of setting up a colony and seizing complete control of the spice trade from other European powers after traditional land routes to India were closed by the Ottoman Turks. Later, in 1510, Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the ruling Bijapur kings on behalf of a local sovereign, Timayya, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in Velha Goa (or Old Goa). The Portuguese intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified enclaves established elsewhere along India's coasts. Timayya With the imposition of the Inquisition (1560–1812), many of the local residents were forcibly converted to Christianity by missionaries, threatened by punishment or confiscation of land, titles or property. Many converted, however retaining parts of their hindu heritage, including the "caste system". To escape the Inquisition and harassment, thousands fled the state, settling down in the neighbouring towns of Mangalore and Karwar in Karnataka. With the arrival of the other European powers in India in the 16th century, most Portuguese possessions were surrounded by the British and the Dutch. Portuguese possessions in India were a few enclaves along India's west coast, with Goa being the largest of these holdings. An interesting development of the 18th century in Goa is the Conspiracy Of The Pintos in 1787 which was inspired by the French Revolution. This was the first ethnic rebellion against Portuguese rule in Goa. Goa soon became their most important possession in India, and was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. The Portuguese encouraged its citizens to marry local women, and to settle in Goa. However among the local population (both Christian and Hindu) this was looked down upon. Progeny of these unions called the "mestizo" (mixed) were favourably considered by the Portuguese rulers. Subsequently, a senate was created, which maintained direct communications with the king. In 1843 the capital was moved to Panjim from Velha Goa. By mid-18th century the area under occupation had expanded to most of Goa's present day state limits. After India gained independence from the British in 1947, Portugal refused to accede to India's request to relinquish their control of its exclave. Arbitration by the World Court and the United Nations General Assembly in the 1950s ruled in favour of self determination. Finally, on 1961-12-12, the Indian army moved in, taking the colony by force. After a brief skirmish lasting for twenty-six hours, Goa, along with Daman and Diu (enclaves lying to the north of Maharashtra), was made into a federally administered Union Territory. The UN drafted a resolution condemning the invasion which was vetoed by the Soviet Union. Though most nations later recognised the annexation, Portugal acknowledged it only after its Carnation Revolution in 1974. On 1987-05-30, the Union territory was split, and Goa was elevated as India's twenty-fifth state.

Geography and climate

1987-05-30 Goa encompasses an area of 3,702 km² (1,430 sq mile). It lies between the latitudes 14°53'54" N and 15°40'00" N and longitudes 73°40'33" E and 74°20'13" E. Most of Goa is a part of the coastal country known as the Konkan, which is an escarpment rising up to the Western Ghats range of mountains, which separate it from the Deccan Plateau. The highest point is the Sonsogor, with an altitude of 1,167  metres (3,827  feet). Goa has a coastline of 101  km (63  miles). Goa's main rivers are the Mandovi, the Zuari, the Terekhol, Chapora and the Betul. The Mormugao harbour on the mouth of the river Zuari is one of the best natural harbours in South Asia. The Zuari and the Mandovi are the lifelines of Goa, with their tributaries draining 69% of its geographic area. Goa has more than forty estuarine, eight marine and about ninety riverine islands. The total navigable length of Goa's rivers is 253 km (157 miles). Goa has more than three hundred ancient tanks built during the rule of the Kadamba dynasty and over a hundred medicinal springs. Most of Goa's soil cover is made up of laterites which are rich in ferric aluminium oxides and reddish in colour. Further inland and along the river banks, the soil is mostly alluvial and loamy. The soil is rich in minerals and humus, thus conducive to plantation. Some of the oldest rocks in the Indian subcontinent are found in Goa between Molem and Anmod on Goa's border with Karnataka. The rocks are classified as Trondjemeitic Gneiss estimated to be 3,600 million years old, dated by the Rubidium isotope dating method. A specimen of the rock is exhibited in the Goa University. Goa, being in the tropical zone and near the Arabian Sea, has a warm and humid climate for most of the year. The month of May is the hottest, seeing day temperatures of over 35°C (95°F) coupled with high humidity. The monsoon rains arrive by early June and provide a much needed respite from the heat. Most of Goa's annual rainfall is received through the monsoons which last till late September. Goa has a short cool season between mid-December and February. These months are marked by cool nights of around 20°C (68°F) and warm days of around 29°C (84°F) with moderate amounts of humidity. Further inland, due to altitudinal gradation, the nights are a few degrees cooler.

Subdivisions

February.]] The state is divided into two districts: North Goa and South Goa. Panaji is the headquarters of the north Goa district and Margao of the south district. Each district is governed by a district collector, an administrator appointed by the Indian government. The districts are further divided into eleven talukas – Talukas of North Goa are Bardez, Bicholim, Pernem, Ponda, Satari and Tiswadi. Talukas of South Goa are Canacona, Mormugao, Quepem, Salcette and Sanguem. Headquarters of the respective talukas are Mapusa, Bicholim, Pernem, Ponda, Valpoi, Panaji, Chaudi, Vasco, Quepem, Margaon and Sanguem. In the Parliament of India, Goa has two seats in the Lok Sabha, one representing each district, and one seat in the Rajya Sabha.

Flora and fauna

Rajya Sabha Forest cover in Goa stands at 1,424 km², most of which is owned by the government. Most of the forests in the state are located in the interior eastern regions of the state. The Western Ghats, which form most of eastern Goa, have been internationally recognised as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. In the February 1999 issue of the National Geographic Magazine, Goa was compared with the Amazon and Congo basins for its rich tropical biodiversity. The important forests products are bamboo canes, Maratha barks, chillar barks and the bhirand. Coconut trees are ubiquitous and are present in almost all areas of Goa barring the elevated regions. A large number of deciduous vegetation consisting of teak, sal, cashew and mango trees are present. Fruits include jackfruits, mangos, pineapples and blackberries. Foxes, wild boars and migratory birds are found in the jungles of Goa. The avifauna includes kingfishers, mynas and parrots. Numerous types of fish are also caught off the coast of Goa and in its rivers. Crabs, lobsters, shrimps, jellyfish, oysters and catfish form some of the piscine catch. Goa also has a high snake population, which keeps the rodent population in control. Goa has many famous National Parks, including the renowned Salim Ali bird sanctuary. Other wildlife sanctuaries include the Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Molem Wildlife Sanctuary, Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, Madei Wildlife Sanctuary, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuaryand the Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary located on the island of Chorao. Goa has more than 33% of its geographic area under government forests (1224.38 sq.km.) of which about 62% has been brought under Protected areas (PA) of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Park. Since there is a substantial area under private forests and a large tract under cashew, mango, coconut, etc. plantations the total forest and tree cover constitutes 56.6% of the geographic area.

Economy

Goa is India's richest state with a GDP per capita one and a half times that of the country as a whole, and one of its fastest growth rates: 8.23% (yearly average 1990-2000). Tourism is Goa's primary industry: it handles 12% of all foreign tourist arrivals in India. Goa has two main tourist seasons. Tourism is particularly focussed in the coastal areas, while its impact is more limited in the outer parts. The land away from the coast is rich in minerals and ores and mining forms the second largest industry. Mining in Goa focuses on ores of iron, bauxite, manganese, clays, limestone and silica. Agriculture, while of shrinking importance to the economy over the past four decades, offers part-time employment to a sizable portion of the populace. Rice is the main agricultural crop, followed by areca, cashew and coconut. The fishing industry provides employment for about forty thousand people, though recent official figures indicate a decline of the importance of this sector and also a fall in catch, perhaps coupled with the fact that traditional fishing has given way to large-scale mechanised trawling. Medium scale industries include the manufacturing of pesticides, fertilisers, tyres, tubes, footwear, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, wheat products, steel rolling, fruits and fish canning, cashew nuts, textiles, brewery products. Goa is also notable for its low liquor prices due to its very low excise duty on alcohol. Another source of cash inflow into the state comes from many of its citizens who work abroad and remit money to their families.

Transport

Goa's main form of public transport largely consists of privately operated buses linking the major towns to rural areas. Government-run white-with-blue-and-red-stripes buses, maintained by a service called the Kadamba Transport Corporation, links both major routes (like the Panjim-Margao route) and also some of the more remote parts of the state and taluka headquarters. In large towns such as Panjim and Margao, intra-city buses serve its citizens. Public transport in Goa is not very efficient, and most buses stop plying on routes a little after dusk. Residents depend heavily on their own transport, usually motorised two-wheelers. Goa has two National Highways passing through it. NH-17 runs along India's west coast and links Goa to Bombay in the north and Mangalore to the south. NH-4A running across the state connects the capital Panjim to Belgaum in east, linking Goa to cities in the Deccan. The NH-17A connects NH-17 to Mormugao Harbour from Cortalim, and the new NH-17B, once complete will be a four lane highway connecting Mormugao Harbour to NH-17 at another location, Verna, via Dabolim airport. Goa has a total of 224 km of National highway, 232 km of state highway and 815 km of district highway. Hired forms of transport include unmetered taxis, and, in urban areas, auto rickshaws. A unique form of transport in Goa is the yellow-and-black two-wheeler Motorcycle taxi, operated by drivers who are locally called "pilots". These vehicles transport a single pillion rider, at fares that are usually negotiated prior or after the journey. In some places in Goa, there are river crossings which are serviced by the ferry boats, operated by the river navigation departments. Goa has two rail lines – one run by the South Central Railway and the other by the Konkan Railway. The line run by the South Central Railway was built during the colonial era linking the port town of Vasco da Gama to Hubli in Karnataka and passing through Margaon. The line, earlier a metre gauge, was recently converted to broad gauge. The Konkan Railway line, which was built during the 1990s, runs parallel to the coast connecting Mumbai to the Malabar Coast. Goa's sole airport – the Dabolim Airport is a military airport, though civilian flights are permitted when the fields can be spared from military uses. In addition to regular flights, the airport handles a large number of chartered flights. The Mormugao harbour near the city of Vasco handles mineral ore, petroleum, coal and international containers. Much of the shipments consist of minerals and ores from Goa's hinterland. Panaji, which is situated on the banks of the Mandovi, also has a minor port, which used to handle passenger steamers between Goa and Mumbai till the late 1980s.

Demographics

1980s A native of Goa is called a Goan in English, Goenkar in Konkani, Goês (male) or Goesa (female) in Portuguese and a Govekar in Marathi. Goa has at present a population of 1.344 million residents, making it India's fourth smallest (after Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh). The population has a growth rate of 14.9% per annum. There are 363 people for each square kilometre of the land. 49.77% of the population live in urban areas. The sex ratio is 960 females to 1000 males. Goa's literacy rate is 82.32%, broken down into: males 88.88% and females 75.51%. Hinduism (65%), Catholicism (30%) and Islam are the three main religions in Goa. Roman Catholicism reached India during the period of European colonization, which began in 1498 when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrived on the Malabar coast. During the Goa Inquisition under the Pourtuguese, Hindus were forced to convert and thousands of Hindus in Goa who refused or were suspected of practising heresy were burned alive. Goa's major towns include Vasco, Margao (also spelt as Margaon, Margão or Madgaon), Marmagao (also known as Murgaon or Mormugão), Panjim and Mapusa. The region connecting the last four towns is considered a de facto conurbation, or a more or less continuous urban area. Following the end of Portuguese rule, the most widely used languages are Konkani as the primary spoken language, and English and Marathi for official, literary or educational purposes. Language is a controversial issue in Goa, over which an agitation was fought between two contending pro-Konkani and pro-Marathi camps between 1985-87. After the agitation ended in 1987, a complex formula grants 'official language' status to Konkani, while Marathi is also allowed to be used "for any or all official purposes." Given the bitter rivalry between the two lobbies, clubbed with a maudlin issue has resulted in a stalemate over the actual implementation. Portuguese, the earlier language of the elite, has been hit by shrinking numbers, though a small section still prefer it as the medium for discourse at home, while even a few Portuguese books have been published in recent years. English, viewed as a language of opportunity and social mobility is widely understood by the many of the state residents. Hindi, India's national language, is also spoken as a second or third language.

Culture

Hindi The most popular celebrations in Goa are Christmas, Ganesh Chaturthi, New Year's Day, the Shigmo festival and the Carnival. However, since the 1960s, the celebrations of the Shigmo and carnival have shifted to the urban centres, and in recent times these festivals are seen more as a means of attracting tourists. Celebrations for all festivals usually last for a few days and include parties and balls. Western English songs have a large following in most parts of Goa. Traditional Konkani folk songs too have a sizable following. Manddo, the traditional Goan music which originated in the