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West Point

West Point

The United States Military Academy, also known as West Point, or simply USMA, is a U.S. service academy and former Army fort. Established in 1802, it is the oldest military academy in the United States. Its graduates are known as "The Long Gray Line" because of the color of cadet uniforms. The Academy is located at West Point, New York, on a scenic overlook of the Hudson River, about 50 miles (80 km) north of New York City. Occupying over 16,000 acres (65 km²), it is one of the largest school campuses in the world. Its unique combination of facilities include a ski slope, a small nuclear reactor, and an artillery range, in addition to the academic buildings and sports facilities found on a typical university campus. The post itself was first occupied in 1778, and it is thus the oldest continuously occupied military post in the United States.

Overview

1778 The mission of the Academy is "to educate, train, and inspire the Corps of Cadets so that each graduate is a commissioned leader of character committed to the values of Duty, Honor, Country and prepared for a career of professional excellence and service to the Nation as an officer in the United States Army." Graduates are awarded a Bachelor of Science degree and commissioned as Second Lieutenants in the U.S. Army. They must serve a minimum of five years on active duty followed by three years in the reserves.

Rank

Unlike virtually all other bachelor-degree granting institutions in the U.S. (but like the other military academies), the Academy does not refer to its students as freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors; they are instead officially called "fourth class," "third class," "second class," and "first class." Colloquially, freshmen are "plebes"; sophomores, "yearlings" or "yuks"; juniors, "cows"; seniors, "firsties." Most cadets consider plebe year to be the most difficult because of the transition from civilian to cadet. However, the third class year, or "yuk" year is generally considered to be the hardest academically.
- Fourth Class (Plebe) — Cadet Private (Member of Squad)
- Third Class (Yearling) — Cadet Private First Class (Member of Squad) or Cadet Corporal (Team Leader)
- Second Class (Cow) — Cadet Sergeant (Squad Leader); Platoon Sgt, various staff positions at the Company and Battalion level; Cadet First Sergeant (First Sergeant); Cadet Sergeant Major (Sergeant Major of a Battalion)
- First Class (Firstie) — Cadet Lieutenant (Platoon Leader), various staff positions within a Company; Cadet Captain (Company Commander, Battalion Commander, Regimental Commander), various staff positions at the Battalion level up to Brigade level; Cadet First Captain (Brigade Commander), highest position in the Corp of Cadets; Command Sergeant Major, at the Regimental and Brigade level

Organization

The Corp of Cadets has the following organization:
- 1 Brigade
- 4 Regiments
- 2 Battalions in each regiment
- 4 Companies per battalion

Training

Second Lieutenant In addition to the school year Cadets must complete mandatory summer training. All Cadets must complete the following:
- Cadet Basic training
- Cadet Field training
- A West Point detail as Cadre for either Cadet Basic training or Cadet Field training or IAW or Prep school.
- A military development school

History

The site was selected for the construction of a fort by George Washington, and the fortifications were designed in 1778 by Tadeusz Kościuszko. In addition to various forts surrounding the area, a great chain was strung across the Hudson River in order to obstruct British ships attempting to navigate the river. Though never tested, the chain performed its purpose by preventing British movement up and down the river. General Washington considered West Point one of the most important positions on the continent. The high ground above a narrow "s" curve in the Hudson River enabled the Continental Army to control the vital river traffic. He felt that the British Army could have split the colonies in two if they gained control of this land. It was as commander of the fortifications at West Point that Benedict Arnold committed his famous treason when he attempted to sell the fort to the British. George Washington quickly realized the need for a national military academy, however his Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson argued that there was no provision in the Constitution which allowed for the creation of a military academy. However, when Jefferson became president, he signed legislation establishing the United States Military Academy on March 16, 1802 and the school opened on July 4 of the same year. The Superintendent from 1817-1833 was Col. Sylvanus Thayer. He is known as the "father of the Military Academy." He upgraded academic standards, instilled military discipline and emphasized honorable conduct. Inspired by the French École Polytechnique, Thayer made civil engineering the foundation of the curriculum. For the first half century, USMA graduates were largely responsible for the construction of the bulk of the nation's initial railway lines, bridges, harbors and roads. (The tradition continues in the hands of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.) The development of other technical schools in the United States during the post-Civil War period allowed West Point to broaden its curriculum beyond a strict civil engineering focus. After World War I, Superintendent Douglas MacArthur sought to further diversify the academic curriculum. In recognition of the physical demands of modern warfare, MacArthur pushed for major changes in the physical fitness and athletic programs. "Every cadet an athlete" became an important goal. At the same time, the cadet management of the Honor System, long an unofficial tradition, was formalized with the creation of the Cadet Honor Committee. In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson signed legislation increasing the strength of the Corps of Cadets from 2,529 to 4,417 (more recently reduced to 4,000). Women were first admitted in 1976. No classes graduated in 1810 or 1816 and there were two graduating classes each in 1861, 1917, 1918, 1922 and 1943. West Point began collegiate tradition of the class ring, beginning with the class of 1835, and continuing ever since. The lone exception is the class of 1837, which had class cuff links. In recent decades, the Academy's curricular structure has been markedly changed to permit cadets to major in any one of more than a dozen fields, including a wide range of subjects from the sciences to the humanities.

Women at the Academy

cuff links West Point first accepted women as Cadets in 1976, when Congress authorized the admission of women to all of the service academies. Women comprise about 15 to 17 percent of entering plebes — or freshmen — and they pursue the same academic and professional training as do their male classmates, except that the physical education requirements for women are different from those of men. The first class with female cadets graduated in 1980. In 1989, Kristen Baker became the first female First Captain at West Point. In 1995, Rebecca Marier became the academy's first female valedictorian. Following the Air Force Academy sexual assault scandal and due to concerns about alleged sexual assault in the U.S. military the U.S. Department of Defense was required to establish a task force to investigate sexual harassment and assault at the United States military academies in the law funding the military for the 2004 fiscal year. Though the definitions were broad, the report, issued August 25, 2005, showed that during 2004 fifty percent of women at West Point reported instances of sexual harassment while 111 incidents of sexual assault were reported.[http://www.dtic.mil/dtfs/doc_recd/High_GPO_RRC_tx.pdf]

Sports

sexual assault The Military Academy's sports teams were historically called The Black Knights of the Hudson, but the nickname has been officially shortened to Black Knights. U.S. sports media use Army as a synonym for the Academy; this usage is officially endorsed. The Army mascot is the Mule.

Football: "Go Army, Beat Navy!"

Army's football team at one time was considered a top-tier college program, reaching its pinnacle under coach Earl Blaik when Army won consecutive national championships in 1944 and 1945 as well as produced three Heisman trophy winning players; Doc Blanchard in 1945, Glenn Davis in 1946 and Pete Dawkins in 1958. The football team plays its home games on Blaik Field at historic Michie Stadium located on campus near Lusk Reservoir. In recent years Army was a member of Conference USA, its NCAA Division I-A football program reverted to its former independent status after the 2004 season. It competes with the other academies for the Commander in Chief's Trophy. The 2005 football season marked Army's fourth consecutive loss in the Army-Navy Game.

Other sports

It is a member of the Division I Patriot League in most other sports; its men's hockey program competes in Atlantic Hockey. West Point also has a very competitive wrestling program currently coached by Coach Charles Barbi.

Notable alumni

Atlantic Hockey

Graduate alumni

The Academy has seen many notable graduates pass through its halls. Some graduates later served as Superintendents of the Academy.

Non-graduate alumni

- Edgar Allan Poe excelled in language, but he was expelled for neglecting duties at West Point before graduating. He would have been in the class of 1834.
- James McNeill Whistler, artist, dropped out of the class of 1855.
- Courtney Hodges, four-star general in World War II, would have been in the class of 1909; dropped out after the first year because "found deficient" in mathematics (so was his classmate George Patton, but Patton reentered to graduate with the next class).
- Timothy Leary, counterculture icon and LSD proponent, dropped out of the class of 1943.
- Fred Phelps, famously homophobic evangelist, was appointed to the class of 1950 but dropped out before even attending.
- Richard Hatch, winner of the first Survivor, dropped out of the class of 1986.
- Dan Hinote, professional NHL ice hockey player, dropped out in 1996 when he was drafted by the Colorado Avalanche. He was the first NHL player ever drafted from West Point.

Superintendents

The commanding officer of the United States Military Academy is its superintendent. This position is roughly equivalent to the president of a civilian university. Since 1812, all superintendents have themselves been West Point graduates, though this has never been an official prerequisite to hold that position. Sylvanus Thayer served as superintendent from 1817-1833, and he instituted a number of reforms to make the academy a top-tier academic institution, which it remains today. For this, Thayer is known as the "Father of the U.S. Military Academy." In recent times, the position of superintendent has been held by a Lieutenant General. Lt. Gen. William J. Lennox, Jr. (1950?- ), Class of 1971, is the current superintendent, and has held the position since 2001. The current dean of West Point is BG Patrick Finnegan (1971). He recently replaced (Summer of 2005) BG Dan Kaufman (1968).

Points of interest

Outside the secured area of the academy, there are two public buildings: the visitors center and the West Point Museum. The visitor's center offers historical and informational videos, parking, rest rooms, a gift shop, maps, pamphlets, a full-scale cadet barracks room, and a movie theater; arrangements for guided tours can also be made. These tours are operated by a licensed contractor, West Point Tours, Inc., and leave the visitor's center several times during the day. The tours will stop and allow tourists to tour the Cadet Chapel (if not in use at the time), the parade grounds and Trophy Point. For the rest of the tour, the tourists remain on the bus and as the tour guide narrates the tour of the rest of the campus. The West Point Museum is located directly behind the visitor's center. The museum is in the renovated Olmsted Hall at Pershing Center on the grounds of the former Ladycliff College. The grounds were purchased by West Point after the college closed in the early 1980s. The building is named after the museum's primary donor, Major General George H. Olmsted, Class of 1922. The museum's collections represent all major categories of military study from arms, cannon and artillery to uniforms, military art and objects reflecting West Point’s history. Originally opened in 1854, the West Point Museum is the oldest and largest military museum in the country. It contains some of our most interesting national military treasures and one of the finest collections of military small arms available for public viewing. Every American armed conflict is represented in the 135 exhibits. An additional gallery portrays the history of the United States Army during peacetime and its role as a formative nation builder of our country. West Point’s history during and after the Revolutionary War, as well as the institutional history of the Military Academy, are traced in the West Point gallery devoted to the school, the cadet and the officer. The museum also provides exhibits in Thayer Hall to support the Department of History cadet curriculum with exhibit themes which range from ancient to modern civilizations. West Point is often the first place for automobile tourists to stop and view on the New York City to Albany scenic Hudson River route.

External links

- [http://www.usma.edu/ United States Military Academy Official Website]
- [http://www.goarmysports.com/ Official Army athletics site]
- [http://www2.powercom.net/~rokats/usma.html USMA Cadet insignia]
- [http://www.westpointtours.com/ West Point Tours] - authorized tour operator for public tours of USMA
- [http://www.west-point.org/class/ USMA class pages starting in 1924] Category:United States Military Academy Category:Universities and colleges in New York Category:Orange County, New York Category:Hudson River Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks ko:웨스트포인트 군교

United States military academies

The United States military academies, sometimes known as the United States service academies, are federal academies for the education and training of commissioned officers for the United States armed forces. There are five or six U.S. military academies, depending on how strictly one defines the term:
- United States Military Academy, also known as "West Point" and "Army", founded 1802
- United States Naval Academy, also known as "Annapolis" and "Navy", founded 1845
- United States Coast Guard Academy, founded 1876
- United States Merchant Marine Academy, also known as "Kings Point", founded 1942
- United States Air Force Academy, founded 1954
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, founded 1972 There is no dispute as to the status of the first five listed. The status of the sixth, the Uniformed Services University (USU), is more complex. USU specializes in training health care professionals for the U.S. military. However, the only program at USU that truly functions as a military academy is its F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine. While it accepts military and civilian students, its graduates have a 7-year service commitment upon graduation. The graduate nursing program at USU is open only to commissioned officers. USU also operates graduate programs in biomedical research and public health; some of its specialties are only open to military personnel, while others are open to civilians as well, with no postgraduate service requirement. The term service academies can be used to refer to all of the academies, apart from USU, collectively; however, in popular use, it is more often reserved for the three academies that play NCAA Division I-A football: Army, Navy, and Air Force.

Fort

Fortifications are military constructions and buildings designed for defense in warfare. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs. The term is derived from the Latin fortis ("strong") and facere ("to make"). Many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may class as fortresses, smaller ones formerly often bore the name of fortalices. The word "fortification" can also refer to the practice of improving an area's defense with defensive works. The art of laying out a military camp or constructing a fortification traditionally classes as castrametation, since the time of the Roman legions. The art/science of laying siege to a fortification and of destroying it has the popular name of siegecraft and the formal name of poliorcetics. In some texts this latter term also applies to the art of building a fortification. poliorcetics situation, Groningen (province), Netherlands]] Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely permanent fortification and field fortification. Permanent fortifications are erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can supply of constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of enduring materials. Field fortifications are extemporized by troops in the field, perhaps assisted by such local labor and tools as may be procurable, and with materials that do not require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood and light timber. There is also an intermediate branch known as semipermanent fortification. This is employed when in the course of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality with the best imitation of permanent defences that can be made in a short time, ample resources and skilled civilian labor being available. Medieval-style fortifications were largely made obsolete by the arrival of cannons on the 14th century battlefield. Fortifications in the age of blackpowder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb and disperse the energy of cannon fire. Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. This placed a heavy emphasis on the geometry of the fortification to allow defensive cannonry interlocking fields of fire to cover all approaches to the lower and thus more vulnerable walls. Fortifications also extended in depth, with protected batteries for defensive cannonry, to allow them to engage attacking cannon to keep them at a distance and prevent them bearing directly on the vulnerable walls. The result was star shaped fortifications with tier upon tier of hornworks and bastions, of which Bourtange illustrated above is an excellent example. There are also extensive fortifications from this era in the Nordic states and in Britain, the fortifications of Berwick on Tweed being a fine example. The arrival of explosive shells in the nineteenth centuary led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification. Star forts of the cannon era did not fare well against the effects of high explosive, and the intricate arrangements of bastions, flanking batteries and the carefully constructed lines of fire for the defending cannon could be rapidly disrupted by explosive shells. Worse, the large open ditches surrounding forts of this type were an integral part of the defensive scheme, as was the covered way at the edge of the counter scarp. The ditch was extremely vulnerable to bombardment with explosive shells. In response, military engineers evolved the polygonal style of fortification. The ditch became deep and vertically sided, cut directly into the native rock, layed out as a series of straight lines creating the central fortified area that gives this style of fortification its name. Wide enough to be an impassable barrier for attacking troops, but narrow enough to be a difficult target for enemy shellfire, the ditch was swept by fire from defensive blockhouses set in the ditch as well as firing positions cut into the outer face of the ditch itself. The profile of the fort became very low indeed, surrounded outside the ditch by a gently sloping open area so as to eliminate possible cover for enemy forces, while the fort itself provided a minimal target for enemy fire. The entrypoint became a sunken gatehouse in the inner face of the ditch, reached by a curving ramp that gave access to the gate via a rolling bridge that could be withdrawn into the gatehouse. Much of the fort moved underground, with deep passages to connect the blockhouses and firing points in the ditch to the fort proper, with magazines and machine rooms deep under the surface. The guns however were often mounted in open emplacements, simply protected by a parapet, both for a lower profile, and since experience with guns in closed casemates had seen them put out of action by rubble as their own casemates were collapsed around them. Steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries, however the advances in modern warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Only underground bunkers are still able to provide some protection in modern wars. Many historical fortifications were demolished during the modern age, but a considerable number survive as popular tourist destinations and prominent local landmarks today.

Examples

landmark (Rajasthan, India)]] India (~1780)]] India, India]]
- List of fortifications
- List of forts

External links

- [http://85.1911encyclopedia.org/F/FO/FORTIFICATION_AND_SIEGECRAFT.htm 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica on Fortifications and siegecraft]
- [http://www.tunnelrats.org.au Information on Australian World War 2 Fortifications]
- [http://www.educ.um.edu.mt/militarymalta A Military History of Malta (Fortifications)] Category:Fortification ja:%E8%A6%81%E5%A1%9E

West Point, New York

: For other meanings, see West Point (disambiguation). West Point (disambiguation) West Point is a federal military base (and a census-designated place) located in the Town of Highlands in Orange County, New York. As of the 2000 census, the area had a total population of 7,138. The United States Military Academy is located at West Point and is often itself called "West Point".

History

West Point was a fortified site during the Revolutionary War. General Benedict Arnold attempted to turn over the site to the enemy in 1780 for a bribe. On November 29, 1890, the U.S. Naval Academy defeated the U.S. Military Academy 24–0 in the first Army-Navy football game.

Geography

West Point is located at 41°22'15" North, 74°2'34" West (41.370933, -74.042851). West Point and the contiguous village of Highland Falls, New York, are on the west bank of the Hudson River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 64.9 km² (25.1 mi²). 63.0 km² (24.3 mi²) of it is land and 1.9 km² (0.7 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 2.95% water..

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 7,138 people, 996 households, and 939 families residing in the CDP. The population density is 113.3/km² (293.4/mi²). There are 1,044 housing units at an average density of 16.6/km² (42.9/mi²). The racial makeup of the CDP is 82.31% White, 9.09% African American, 0.50% Native American, 3.35% Asian, 0.15% Pacific Islander, 1.64% from other races, and 2.96% from two or more races. 6.56% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 996 households out of which 75.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 87.8% are married couples living together, 4.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 5.7% are non-families. 5.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 0.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 3.53 and the average family size is 3.66. The age distribution is 21.9% under the age of 18, 51.2% from 18 to 24, 23.0% from 25 to 44, 3.8% from 45 to 64, and 0.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 21 years. For every 100 females there are 207.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 259.7 males. All of these statistics are typical for military bases. The median income for a household in the CDP is $56,516, and the median income for a family is $56,364. Males have a median income of $7,302 versus $10,741 for females. The per capita income for the CDP is $13,158. 2.0% of the population and 2.0% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 2.6% of those under the age of 18 and 0.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

External links

- [http://www.usma.edu United States Military Academy at West Point] Category:Orange County, New York Category:Unincorporated communities in New York Category:Census-designated places in New York ja:ウェストポイント (ニューヨーク州)

Trophy Point

Trophy Point is a scenic overlook of the Hudson River Valley located at West Point, New York. It has been the subject of numerous works of art since the early 19th century. 400px Category:Hudson River

Acre

:This article is about the unit of measure known as the acre. For other definitions, see Acre (disambiguation). An acre is an English unit of area. It is most frequently used to describe areas of land.

UK definition

The UK has a definition of the acre in [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995] as 4,046.856422 4 m². This is equivalent to 43,560 square feet using the definition of foot in the same source.

US definition

The US has a definition of the acre in [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44] as 43,560 square feet. However, the US has two definitions of foot (international foot and survey foot) and thus two definitions of acre:
- The international acre is 4,046.856422 4 m². This is based on international foot of 0.3048 m.
- The US survey acre is 4,046.87261 m². This is based on the US survey foot of 1200/3937 m.

Related linear measurements

Two obsolete, but related, measurements are the acre's length and the acre's breadth.
- 1 acre's length = 1 furlong, 40 poles, or 220 yards
- 1 acre's breadth = 1 chain, 4 poles, or 22 yards

Conversion

An international acre is equivalent to exactly:
- 4 046.856 422 4 m² (SI unit)
- 40.468 564 224 a,
- 0.404 685 642 24 ha,
- 43 560 square feet,
- 4840 square yards,
- 160 square rods,
- 4 rood,
- 1/640 square mile,
- a 10:1 rectangle of 1 furlong by 1 chain.
- 10 square chains. An acre is equivalent to approximately:
- a square of side 208.71 feet (63.61 metres). One square mile is 640 acres. A square parcel of land ¼ mile wide is 40 acres. A square parcel of land ½ mile on a side is 160 acres, the usual land tract under the Homestead Act in the United States. This results in common field lengths of ½ mile, with every rod in width equal to one acre. An American Football field covers approximately 1.32 acres.

History

The acre was selected as approximately the amount of land tillable by one man behind an ox in one day. This explains its rectangular definition one-chain by one-furlong parcel of land; a long narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. Statutory values were enacted in England by acts of
- Edward I,
- Edward III,
- Henry VIII,
- George IV and
- Victoria - the British "Weights and Measures Act" of 1878 defined it as containing 4840 square yards.

External links

- [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
- [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44] Category:Units of area Category:Imperial units Category:Customary units in the United States Category:Real estate ja:エーカー

1778

1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- The term thoroughbred was first used in the United States in an advertisement in a Kentucky gazette to describe a New Jersey stallion called Pilgarlick.
- January 18 - Third Pacific expedition of Capt. James Cook, with ships HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first view O'ahu then Kaua'i in the Hawaiian Islands, which he names the "Sandwich Islands."
- February 5 - South Carolina becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.
- February 6 - American Revolutionary War: In Paris the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France signaling official recognition of the new republic.
- February 23 - American Revolutionary War: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and begins to train the Continental Army.
- July 10 - American Revolutionary War: Louis XVI of France declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain.
- July 27 - American Revolution: First Battle of Ushant - British and French fleets fight to a standoff.
- August 26 - Triglav, at 2,864 metres above sea level the highest peak of Slovenia, was ascended for the first time by four brave men: Luka Korošec, Matevž Kos, Štefan Rožič and Lovrenc Willomitzer on Sigismund Zois's initiative.
- September - The Massachusetts Banishment Act, providing punishment for Loyalists, is passed.
- November 26 - In the Hawaiian Islands, Captain James Cook becomes the first European to discover Maui.
- France introduced the first state-controlled brothel.
- The first settlement was made in the area of what is now Louisville, Kentucky by 13 families under Col. George Rogers Clark.
- Phillips Academy, the most prestigious secondary boarding school in the United States, was founded by Samuel Phillips Jr.

Births

- January 3 - Antoni Melchior Fijałkowski, Polish bishop (d. 1861)
- February 22 - Rembrandt Peale, American artist (d. 1860)
- March 19 - Edward Pakenham, British general (d. 1815)
- April 10 - William Hazlitt, English essayist (d. 1830)
- May 18 - Charles William Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, British politician (d. 1854)
- August 11 - Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, German patriot (d. 1852)
- September 8 - Clemens Brentano, German poet (d. 1842)
- September 19 - Henry Peter Brougham, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1868)
- November 1 - Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (d. 1837)
- December 17 - Sir Humphry Davy, English chemist (d. 1829)

Deaths

- January 10 - Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish botanist (b. 1707)
- February 18 - Joseph Marie Terray, French statesman (b. 1715)
- February 20 - Laura Bassi, Italian scholar (b. 1711)
- March 5 - Thomas Augustine Arne, English compoer (b. 1710)
- March 7 - Charles De Geer, Swedish industrialist and entomologist (b. 1720)
- March 13 - Charles le Beau, French historian (b. 1701)
- April 22 - James Hargreaves, English weaver, carpenter, and inventor (b. 1720)
- May 16 - Robert Darcy, 4th Earl of Holderness, English diplomat and politician (b. 1718)
- May 30 - Voltaire, French philosopher (b. 1694)
- June 12 - Philip Livingston, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1716)
- June 16 - Konrad Ekhof, German actor (b. 1720)
- June 24 - Pieter Burmann the Younger, Dutch philologist (b. 1714)
- July 2 - Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Swiss philosopher (b. 1712)
- July 2 - Bathsheba Ruggles, American murderer (b. 1746?)
- August 5 - Charles Clémencet, French historian (b. 1703)
- August 12 - Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, British general and politician (b. 1714)
- November 9 - Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Italian artist (b. 1720)
- November 20 - Francesco Cetti, Italian Jesuit scientist (b. 1726) Category:1778 ko:1778년 ms:1778

Bachelor of Science

A Bachelor of Science (B.S., B.Sc. or less commonly, S.B. or Sc.B. from the Latin Scientiae Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for courses taken that generally last three years in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Germany, India, Quebec, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and South Africa or four years in the rest of North America and Scotland. In North America, a Bachelor of Science degree usually requires students to take a majority of their courses (usually one half or three quarters) in the sciences, namely life sciences, physical sciences, or the mathematical sciences. Most universities plan the Science Bachelor degree as a liberal arts course schedule. In the UK, which subjects are considered science subjects varies, e.g. economics degrees may be B.A. in one university but B.Sc. in another. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation B.Sc. or B.S. for a major/pass degree and B.Sc. (Hons) or B.S. (Hon) for an honours degree. Formerly, in the University of Oxford the degree of B.Sc. was a postgraduate degree. This former degree, still actively granted, has since been renamed M.Sc.

"Tagged" or specified degrees

Many colleges of engineering, business, education, etc. also offer the Bachelor of Science as a tagged degree. A tagged degree incorporates the name of the major into the degree title, and generally requires more specialized course work than a degree with an untagged major. Some examples of tagged degrees include, but are not limited to:
- Bachelor of Science in Agriculture
- Bachelor of Science in Architecture
- Bachelor of Science in Business
- Bachelor of Science in Chemistry
- Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering
- Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
- Bachelor of Science in Computer Science
- Bachelor of Science in Education
- Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering
- Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service (BSFS)
- Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
- Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN)
- Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy The Bachelor of Science in Foreign service, a degree granted by only a small number of institutions, can be found at schools (colleges) of foreign service or foreign affairs, including the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University, Washington, DC.

George Washington

George Washington (February 22 1732 – December 14 1799) was the successful Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and later became the first President of the United States, an office to which he was elected twice (1789-1797). Washington first gained prominence as an officer during the French and Indian War, a war which he inadvertently helped to start. After leading the American victory in the Revolutionary War, he refused to lead a military regime, returning to civilian life at Mount Vernon. In 1787 he presided over the Constitutional Convention that drafted the current U.S. Constitution, and in 1789 was the unanimous choice to become the first President of the United States. His two-term Washington Administration set many policies and traditions that survive today. After his second term expired, Washington again voluntarily relinquished power, thereby establishing an important precedent that was to serve as an example for other future republics. Because of his central role in the founding of the United States, and his enduring legacy, Washington is often called the "Father of his Country". Scholars rank him with Abraham Lincoln among the greatest of presidents.

Early life

According to the Julian calendar, Washington was born on February 11 1731; according to the Gregorian calendar, which was adopted during Washington's life and is used today, he was born on February 22 1732 (Washington's Birthday is celebrated on the Gregorian date). At the time of his birth, the English year began March 25 (Annunciation Day, or Lady Day), hence the difference in his birth year. His birthplace was Pope's Creek Plantation, south of Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County, Virginia. Washington was part of the economic and cultural elite of the slave-owning planters of Virginia. His parents Augustine Washington (1693–April 12 1743) and Mary Ball (1708–August 25 1789) were of English descent. He spent much of his boyhood at Ferry Farm in Stafford County, near Fredericksburg and visited his Washington cousins at Chotank in King George County. He was home schooled and was also trained as a surveyor (obtaining his certificate from the College of William and Mary). He surveyed the Shenandoah Valley for Lord Fairfax, a distant relative, in western Virginia and retained a lifelong interest in western lands. His only foreign trip was a short visit to Barbados in 1751. He survived an attack of smallpox, although his face was scarred by the disease. He was initiated as a Freemason in Fredericksburg on February 4 1752. On brother Lawrence's death in July 1752, he rented and eventually inherited the estate, Mount Vernon in Fairfax County, Virginia (near Alexandria).

French and Indian War and afterwards

Alexandria At twenty-two years of age, George Washington fired some of the first shots of what would become a world war. The trouble began in 1753, when France began building a series of forts in the Ohio Country, a region also claimed by Virginia. Robert Dinwiddie, the governor of Virginia, had young Major Washington deliver a letter to the French commander, asking them to leave. The French refused, and so in 1754 Dinwiddie sent Washington, now promoted to lieutenant colonel in the First Virginia Regiment, on another mission to the Ohio Country. There, Washington and his troops ambushed a French Canadian scouting party. After a short skirmish, Washington's American Indian ally Tanacharison killed the wounded French commander Ensign Jumonville. Washington then built Fort Necessity, which soon proved inadequate, as he was compelled to surrender to a larger French and American Indian force. The surrender terms that Washington signed included an admission that he had "assassinated" Jumonville. (The document was written in French, which Washington could not read.) The "Jumonville affair" became an international incident and helped to ignite the French and Indian War, a part of the worldwide Seven Years' War. Washington was released by the French with the promise not to return to the Ohio Country for one year. Washington was always eager to serve in the British Army, which had a low regard for colonials. His opportunity came in 1755, when he accompanied the Braddock Expedition, a major effort by the British to retake the Ohio Country. The expedition ended in disaster at the Battle of the Monongahela. Washington distinguished himself in the debacle—he had two horses shot out from under him, and four bullets pierced his coat—yet he sustained no injuries and showed coolness under fire in organizing the retreat. In Virginia, Washington was acclaimed as a hero, and he commanded the First Virginia Regiment for several more years, although the focus of the war had shifted elsewhere. In 1758 he accompanied the Forbes Expedition, which successfully drove the French away from Fort Duquesne. Washington's goal at the outset of his military career had been to secure a commission as a regular British officer—rather than staying a mere colonial officer. The promotion did not come, and so in 1759 Washington resigned his commission and married Martha Dandridge Custis, a wealthy widow with two children. Washington adopted her two children, but never fathered any of his own. The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon where he took up the life of a genteel farmer and slave owner. He held local office and was elected to the provincial legislature, the House of Burgesses. By 1774 Washington had become one of the colonies' wealthiest men. In that year, he was chosen as a delegate from Virginia to the First Continental Congress. Although the American Revolution had not yet devolved into open warfare, tensions between the colonies and Great Britain continued to rise, and Washington attended the Second Continental Congress (1775) in military uniform—the only delegate to do so. He strongly supported independence.

American Revolution

American Revolution, 1851, Metropolitan Museum]] The Continental Congress needed to select as commander in chief of its newly formed Continental Army a natural leader with a commitment to the cause, suitable military experience, a commanding personality, and a base in a major colony. Washington was the unanimous selection, and was selected on June 15 1775. The Massachusetts delegate John Adams suggested his appointment, citing his "skill as an officer... great talents and universal character." He assumed command on July 3. During his first great military triumph Washington drove the British forces out of Boston on March 17, 1776, by stationing artillery on Dorchester Heights. The British army, led by General William Howe, retreated to Halifax, Canada. Washington moved his army to New York City in anticipation of a British offensive there. In August the British invaded in overwhelming numbers and Washington led a clumsy retreat that almost failed. He lost the Battle of Long Island on August 22 but managed to move most of his forces to the mainland. However, several other defeats sent Washington scrambling across New Jersey, leaving the future of the Revolution in doubt. On the night of December 25 1776, Washington staged a brilliant comeback. He led the American forces across the Delaware River to smash the Hessian forces in Trenton, New Jersey. Washington followed up the assault with a surprise attack on General Charles Cornwallis' forces at Princeton on the eve of January 2, 1777, eventually retaking the state of New Jersey. The successful attacks built morale among the pro-independence colonists. In summer 1777 the British launched a two-pronged attack, with Burgoyne marching south from Canada while Howe attacked the national capital of Philadelphia. Washington moved south but was badly defeated at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11. An attempt to dislodge the British, the Battle of Germantown, failed as a result of fog and confusion, and Washington was forced to retire to winter quarters at the miserably inadequate Valley Forge. In the face of high rates of disease Washington insisted on vaccinations to protect the soldiers from smallpox, which probably stem impact of that deadly disease over the harsh winter. Washington stood steadfast, demanding supplies from Congress. His men recovered their morale despite the harsh winter conditions. A new system of drill and training was established by Baron Friedrich von Steuben, who had served on the Prussian general staff. Von Steuben improving the army’s fighting capabilities so that it could match the British in the field. Washington attacked the British army moving from Philadelphia to New York at the Battle of Monmouth on June 28 1778, a drawn contest, but the British effort to disrupt the national government had failed. Burgoyne’s invading army, meanwhile, was captured at Saratoga in October, giving the British a crushing defeat. It now seemed likely that the British would never reconquer the new nation, and France signed a formal alliance with the U.S. After 1778 the British made one last effort to split apart the new nation, this time focused on the southern states. Rather than attack them there, Washington's forces moved to West Point New York. In 1779 Washington ordered a fifth of the army to carry out the Sullivan Expedition, an offensive against four of the six nations of the Iroquois Confederacy which had allied with the British and attacked American settlements along the frontier. There were no battles but at least forty Iroquois villages were destroyed and the hostile Indians moved permanently to Canada. In October, 1781 American and French forces and a French fleet trapped General Cornwallis at Yorktown in Virginia. Washington quick-marched south, taking command of the American and French forces September 14, and pressed the siege until Cornwallis surrendered. It was the end of significant fighting, though British forces remained in New York City and a few other places until the final peace was ratified in 1783. In March 1783, Washington learned about a conspiracy that was being planned by some of his officers who were upset about back pay in the Continental Army's winter camp at Newburgh, New York. He was able to defuse this plot. Later in 1783, by means of the Treaty of Paris, the British recognized American independence. Washington disbanded his army and on November 2 at Rockingham House in Rocky Hill, New Jersey and gave an eloquent [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&fileName=mgw3b/gwpage016.db&recNum=347 farewell address] to his soldiers. A few days later the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and the governor took possession of the city; at Fraunces Tavern in the city on December 4, he formally bid his officers farewell.

Activities between Revolution and Presidency

Fraunces Tavern On December 23 1783 General George Washington resigned his commission as Commander in Chief of the Army to the Congress, which was then meeting at the Maryland State House in Annapolis. This action was of great significance for the young nation, establishing the precedent that civilian elected officials, rather than military officers, possessed ultimate authority. Washington was a firm republican, believing that the people are sovereign and that no one should ever come to power in America because of military force, or because of birth in a noble family. At the time of Washington's departure from military service, he was listed on the rolls of the Continental Army as "General and Commander in Chief." (See Retirement, death, and honors section below for more on this topic.) Although the world was at peace in the late 1780s, Washington worried that the fledling nation had such a weak central government that it could not survive a future war. He therefore endorsed plans to create a new constitution. His support guaranteed it would happen and he presided over the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. For the most part he did not participate in the debates involved, but his prestige was great enough to maintain collegiality and to keep the delegates at their labors. He adamantly enforced the secrecy adopted by the Convention during the summer. Many believe that the Framers created the Presidency with Washington in mind. After the Convention, his support convinced many, including the Virginia legislature, to support the Constitution. Washington farmed roughly 8,000 acres (32 km²). Like many Virginia planters at the time, he was frequently in debt and never had much cash on hand. In fact, he had to borrow $600 to relocate to New York, then the center of the American government, to take office as president. In 1788–1789, George Washington was elected the first President of the United States. The First U.S. Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a significant sum in 1789. Washington, the wealthiest individual in the nation at the time and whose wealth (all of it in land that could eventually be sold) by some estimates exceeded $500 million in current dollars (as of 2005), refused to accept his salary.

Presidency

Main article: Washington Administration Washington Administration]] George Washington was elected unanimously by the Electoral College in 1789, and remains the only person ever to be elected president unanimously (a feat which he duplicated in 1792). As runner-up with 34 votes, John Adams became Vice President-elect. In 1791 Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, leading to protests. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, the protests turning into full-scale riots, and outright rebellion. Washington raised an army, and marched at its head into the rebellious districts. There was no fighting, but Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. After two terms, Washington issued his "Farewell Adress" (actually a letter), and refused to run for a third term in office. This precedent of two terms was only to be broken successfully by Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940 and 1944.

Cabinet

Supreme Court appointments

As the first President, Washington appointed the entire Supreme Court, a feat almost repeated by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during his four terms in office (1933–45). Washington appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:
- John Jay - Chief Justice - 1789
- James Wilson - 1789
- John Rutledge - 1790
- William Cushing - 1790
- John Blair - 1790
- James Iredell - 1790
- Thomas Johnson - 1792
- William Paterson - 1793
- John Rutledge - Chief Justice, 1795 (an associate justice since 1790)
- Samuel Chase - 1796
- Oliver Ellsworth - Chief Justice - 1796

Major Presidential Acts

- Signed Judiciary Act of 1789
- Signed Indian Intercourse Acts, starting in 1790
- Signed Residence Act of 1790
- Signed Bank Act of 1791
- Signed Coinage Act of 1792 or Mint Act
- Signed Fugitive Slave Act of 1793
- Signed Naval Act of 1794

States admitted to the Union

- North Carolina (1789)
- Rhode Island (1790)
- Vermont (1791)
- Kentucky (1792)
- Tennessee (1796)

Retirement, death, and honors

Tennessee The Apotheosis of Washington is found in the rotunda of the United States Capitol]] After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He established a distillery there and became probably the largest distiller of whiskey in the nation at the time. In 1798 his distillery produced 11,000 gallons of whiskey and a profit of $7,500. During that year, Washington was appointed Lieutenant General in the United States Army (then the highest possible rank) by President John Adams. Washington's appointment was to serve as a warning to France, with which war seemed imminent. Washington never saw active service, however, and upon his death one year later the U.S. Army rolls listed him as a retired Lieutenant General, which was then considered the equivalent to his rank as General and Commander in Chief during the Revolutionary War. Within a year of this 1798 appointment, Washington fell ill from a bad cold with a fever and a sore throat that turned into acute laryngitis and pneumonia and died on December 14 1799, at his home. Modern doctors believe that Washington died from either a streptococcal infection of the throat or, since he was bled as part of the treatment, a combination of shock from the loss of blood, asphyxia, and dehydration. One of the physicians who administered bloodletting to him was Dr. James Craik, one of Washington's closest friends, who had been with Washington at Fort Necessity, the Braddock expedition, and throughout the Revolutionary War. Washington's remains were buried in a family graveyard at Mount Vernon. Congressman Henry Light Horse Harry Lee, a Revolutionary War comrade, famously eulogized Washington as "a citizen, first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." With the exception of Dwight Eisenhower, who held a lifetime commission as General of the Army (five star), George Washington is the only President with military service to reenter the military after leaving the office of President. Even though he had been the highest-ranking officer of the Revolutionary War, having in 1798 been appointed a Lieutenant General (now three stars), it seemed, somewhat incongruously, that all later full (that is, four star) generals in U.S. history (starting with General Ulysses S. Grant), and also all five-star generals of the Army, were considered to outrank Washington. General John J. Pershing had attained an even higher rank of six-star general, General of the Armies (above five star—though the most stars Pershing actually ever wore were four). This issue was resolved in 1976 when Washington was, by Act of Congress, posthumously promoted to the rank of General of the Armies, outranking any past, present, and future general, and declared to permanently be the top-ranked military officer of the United States. [https://www.perscom.army.mil/tagd/tioh/rank/goa.htm]

Summary of Military Career

- 1753: Commissioned Lieutenant Colonel of the Virginia Militia
- 1754: Led abortive expedition to Fort Duquesne, later served as aide to General Edward Braddock
- 1755: Promoted to Colonel and named Commander of all Virginia Forces. Commissioned a Brigadier General later that year
- 1758–75: Retired from active military service
- June 1775: Commissioned General and Commander in Chief of the Continental Army
- 1775–81: Commands the Continental Army in over seven major battles with the British
- December 1783: Resigns commission as Commander in Chief of the Army
- July 1798: Appointed Lieutenant General and Commander of the Provisional Army to be raised in the event of a war with France
- 14 December 1799: Dies and is listed as a Lieutenant General (r) on the U.S. Army rolls
- 19 January 1976: Approved by the United States Congress for promotion to General of the Armies
- 11 October 1976: Declared the senior most U.S. military officer for all time by Presidential Order of Gerald Ford
- 13 March 1978: Promoted by Army Order 31-3 to General of the Armies with effective date of rank July 4, 1776

Personal information

Gerald Ford Admirers of Washington circulated an apocryphal story about his honesty as a child. In the story, he wanted to try out a new axe, so he chopped down his father's cherry tree; when questioned by his father, he gave the famous non-quotation: "I cannot tell a lie. It was I who chopped down the cherry tree.". The story first appeared after Washington's death in a naïve "inspirational" children's book by Parson Mason Weems, who had been rector of the Mount Vernon parish (See also George Washington's axe for an elaboration of this story). Parson Weems also fabricated a famous story about Washington praying for help in a lonely spot in the woods near Valley Forge. Nevertheless, Washington was a man of great personal integrity, with a deeply held sense of duty, honor and patriotism. He was courageous and farsighted, holding the Continental Army together through eight hard years of war and numerous privations, sometimes by sheer force of will. Because of Washington's involvement in Freemasonry, some publicly visible collections of Washington memorabilia are maintained by Masonic lodges, most notably the George Washington Masonic Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia. The museum at Fraunces Tavern Museum in New York City includes specimens of Washington's false teeth. Washington was notable for his modesty and carefully controlled ambition. He never accepted pay during his military service, and was genuinely reluctant to assume any of the offices thrust upon him. When John Adams recommended him to the Continental Congress for the position of general and commander in chief of the Continental Army, Washington left the room to allow any dissenters to freely voice their objections. In later accepting the post, Washington told the Congress that he was unworthy of the honor. However, it should be reminded that Washington was always an ambitious man. He ensured that during the Continental Congress he arrived and was always present wearing his old colonial uniform so as to make it clear to all that he was deeply interested in commanding the continental troops. Congress actually made him the commander of the continental army before they authorized an army for him to command. In reality, no one else could have ensured that the southern colonies would assist the northern ones unless Washington was part of the equation; aside from a few other, less endearing leaders, Washington was likely, overall, the only choice that would achieve this. It is often said that one of Washington's greatest achievements was refraining from taking more power than was due. He was conscientious of maintaining a good reputation by avoiding political intrigue. He had no interest in nepotism or cronyism, rejecting, for example, a military promotion during the war for his deserving cousin William Washington lest it be regarded as favoritism. Thomas Jefferson wrote, "The moderation and virtue of a single character probably prevented this Revolution from being closed, as most others have been, by a subversion of that liberty it was intended to establish." Washington had to be talked into a second term of office as President, and very reluctantly agreed to it. However, he refused to serve a third term, setting a precedent that held until the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. At John Adams's inauguration, Washington is said to have approached Adams afterwards and stated "Well, I am fairly out and you are fairly in. Now we shall see who enjoys it the most!" Washington also declined to leave the room before Adams and the new Vice President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson, establishing the principle that even a former president is only, in the end, a private citizen.

Trivia

- A popular belief is that Washington wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. He did not. He did, however, powder his hair, as represented in several portraits, including the well-known unfinished Gilbert Stuart [http://www.npg.si.edu/cexh/stuart/athen1.htm depiction].
- A number of younger men were essentially surrogate sons to the childless Washington, including Alexander Hamilton, Lafayette, Nathanael Greene, and George W. P. Custis, Washington's step-grandson. George Custis' daughter Mary would eventually become the wife of General Robert E. Lee.
- Washington was a cricket enthusiast and was known to have played the sport, which was popular at that time in the British colonies.
- Through his father's family, Washington was a direct descendant of King Edward III and William the Conqueror of England.
- One story about Washington has him throwing a silver dollar across the Potomac River. He may have thrown an object across the Rappahannock River, the river on which his childhood home, Ferry Farm, stood. However, the Potomac is over a mile wide at Mount Vernon. Also silver dollars did not exist then.
- Grew hemp, a common crop at the time used for fiber production, specifically to make rope. [http://www.stanford.edu/~johnbrks/theCafe/substance/marijuana.html]

Washington and slavery

Washington owned many slaves throughout his life, as did most of his peers in the Virginia plantation aristocracy. He was noteworthy, however, for the humane treatment of his slaves and for his growing unease with the "peculiar institution". Historian Roger Bruns has written, "As he grew older, he became increasingly aware that it was immoral and unjust. Long before the Revolution, Washington had taken the unusual position of refusing to sell any of his slaves or to allow slave families to be separated." After the Revolution, Washington told an English friend, "I clearly foresee that nothing but the rooting out of slavery can perpetuate the existence of our [Federal] union by consolidating it on a common bond of principle." He wrote to his friend John Francis Mercer in 1786, "I never mean... to possess another slave by purchase; it being among my first wishes to see some plan adopted, by which slavery in this country may be abolished by slow, sure, and imperceptible degrees." Ten years later, he wrote to Robert Morris, "There is not a man living who wishes more sincerely than I do to see some plan adopted for the gradual abolition [of slavery]." abolition As President, Washington was mindful of the risk of splitting apart the young republic over the question of slavery. He did not advocate the abolition of slavery while in office, but did sign legislation enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the Northwest Territory, writing to his good friend the Marquis de la Fayette that he considered it a wise measure. Lafayette urged him to free his slaves as an example to others— Washington was held in such high regard after the revolution that there was reason to hope that if he freed his slaves, others would follow his example. Lafayette purchased an estate in French Guiana and settled his own slaves there, and he offered a place for Washington's slaves, writing "I would never have drawn my sword in the cause of America if I could have conceived thereby that I was founding a land of slavery." Nevertheless, Washington did not free his own slaves in his lifetime. Washington included provisions in his will which freed his slaves upon his death. His widow Martha freed those she owned shortly before she died. As cited in Henry Wiencek's Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America, one of his slaves, Oney Judge Staines, escaped the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia in 1796 and lived the rest of her life free in New Hampshire.

Religious beliefs

Washington's religious views are a matter of some controversy. There is considerable evidence that he (like a number of Founding Fathers of the United States) was a Deist—believing in God but not believing in revelation or miracles. Before the Revolution, when the Episcopal Church was still the state religion in Virginia, he served as a vestryman (lay officer) for his local church. He spoke often of the value of prayer, righteousness, and seeking and offering thanks for the "blessings of Heaven". He sometimes accompanied his wife to Christian church services; however there is no record of his ever becoming a communicant in any Christian church, and he would regularly leave services before communion—with the other non-communicants. When Rev. Dr. James Abercrombie, rector of St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, mentioned in a weekly sermon that those in elevated stations set an unhappy example by leaving at communion, Washington ceased attending at all on communion Sundays. Long after Washington died, asked about Washington's beliefs, Abercrombie replied: "Sir, Washington was a Deist!" His adopted daughter, Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis, and several others have said, however, that he was, indeed, a Christian. Various prayers said to have been composed by him in his later life are highly edited. He did not ask for any clergy on his deathbed, though one was available. His funeral services were those of the Freemasons at the request of his wife, Martha. Washington was an early supporter of religious pluralism. In 1775 he ordered that his troops not burn the pope in effigy on Guy Fawkes Night. In 1790 he wrote to Jewish leaders that he envisioned a country "which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance.... May the Children of the Stock of Abraham, who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; while every one shall sit under his own vine and fig tree, and there shall be none to make him afraid."

Legacy

Abraham, site of Washington's first inauguration as President]] Washington peacefully relinquished the presidency to John Adams after serving two terms in office. This is seen as one of Washington's most important legacies. Referring to this act, George III, the King of England defeated during the Revolution, called him "the greatest character of the age" and Napoleon complained "They wanted me to be another Washington". All presidents since Washington followed the custom of limiting their service in office to two terms, until Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was elected four times (1932, 1936, 1940, 1944). The Constitution was subsequently amended by the Twenty-second Amendment to set an express two-term limit upon future presidents. Washington set many other precedents that established tranquility in the presidential office in the years to come and is generally regarded by historians as one of the greatest presidents. He was also lauded posthumously as the "Father of His Country" and is often considered to be the most important of the United States' "Founding Fathers". He has gained fame around the world as a quintessential example of a benevolent national founder. Americans often refer to men in other nations considered the Father of their Country as "the George Washington of his nation" (for example, Mahatma Gandhi's role in India). Washington was ranked #26 in Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history.

Monuments and memorials

Today Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States, along with the icons such as the flag and great seal. Perhaps the most pervasive commemoration of his legacy is the use of his image on the one dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin. The image used on the dollar bill is derived from a famous portrait of him painted by Gilbert Stuart, itself one of the most notable works of early American art. The capital city of the United States, Washington, D.C., is named for him. The District of Columbia was created by an Act of Congress in 1790, and Washington was deeply involved in its creation, including the siting of the White House. The Washington Monument, one of the most well-known landmarks in the city, was built in his honor. The George Washington University, also in D.C., was named after him, and it was founded in part with shares Washington bequeathed to an endowment to create a national university in Washington. The only state named for a president is the state of Washington in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. Washington selected West Point, New York, as the site for the United States Military Academy. The United States Navy has named three ships after Washington. Other examples include the George Washington Bridge, which extends between New York City and New Jersey, and the palm tree genus Washingtonia is also named after him. See also: List of places named for George Washington List of places named for George Washington

Scholarly Secondary Sources

The literature on George Washington is immense. The Library of Congress has a comprehensive bibliography [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwbib.html online]. Notable recent works include:
- Anderson, Fred 2000. [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/a/anderson-war.html?oref=login Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766].
- Comora, Madeleine & Deborah Chandra. George Washington's Teeth. Illustrated by Brock Cole. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003; ISBN 0374325340. A lighthearted chronicle of his dental struggles, aimed at children and adults.
- Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310. Powerful interpretation of Washington's career.
- Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism. (1994), the leading scholarly history of the 1790s.
- Ferling, John E. The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (1989), solid and scholarly.
- Fisher, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing. (2004), prize-winning military history focused on 1775-1776.
- Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. ISBN 0316286168 (1994 reissue). Single-volume condensation of Flexner's popular four-volume biography.
- Freeman, Douglas. S. Washington: An abridgement in one volume by Richard Harwell of the seven-volume George Washington by Douglas Southall Freeman (1968), the standard scholarly biography.
- Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. George! A Guide to All Things Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2. Grizzard is a leading scholar of Washington.
- Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. The Ways of Providence: Religion and George Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-1-0.
- Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1400060818.
- [Lodge, Henry Cabot]. George Washington (vol 2, 1899 covers 1783-99) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12653 online at Project Gutenberg] old but generally accurate. Freeman and Flexner are much better.
- McDonald, Forrest . The Presidency of George Washington. (1988), Intellectual history showing Washington as exemplar of republicanism.
- Wiencek, Henry. An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003. ISBN 0374175268.
- Nash, Gary B. The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America. Viking, 2005. ISBN 0670034207. A left-wing interpretation of the era, with little on Washington.

Notes

#The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as such is on the cover of the circa 1778 Pennsylvania German almanac (Lancaster: Gedruckt bey Francis Bailey). This identifies Washington as "Landes Vater" or Father of the Land.

External links

- [http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/] Full version of the on-line Papers of George Washington and other information from the University of Virginia
- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/washpap.htm The Papers of George Washington] from the Avalon Project (includes Inaugural Addresses, State of the Union Messages, and other materials)
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/commission.html Library of Congress: Washington's Commission as Commander in Chief]
- [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/49.htm Farewell Address]
- [http://www.libraryreference.org/washington.html Biography of George Washington]
- [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/s004/f647706.htm A pedigree of George Washington]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-2/washington.htm Teaching about George Washington]
- [http://www.thirty-thousand.org/pages/section_IB5.htm The First Presidential Veto] Analysis of the first veto by a U.S. President
- [https://www.perscom.army.mil/tagd/tioh/rank/goa.htm General Washington's military rank]
- [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gw1.html White House Biography]
- [http://www.chicago-scots.org/clubs/History/Names-U-Z.htm]
-
- [http://www.archontology.org/nations/us/us2/washington.php George Washington: Archontology.org, chronology, dates, terms, election results]

1778

1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

West Point

Overview

Rank

Organization

Training

History

Women at the Academy

Sports

Football: "Go Army, Beat Navy!"

Other sports

Notable alumni

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United States military academies

See also

Fort

Examples

See also

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West Point, New York

History

Geography

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Trophy Point

Acre

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Related linear measurements

Conversion

History

See also

External links

1778

Events

Births

Deaths

Bachelor of Science

"Tagged" or specified degrees

See also

George Washington

Early life

French and Indian War and afterwards

American Revolution

Activities between Revolution and Presidency

Presidency

Cabinet

Supreme Court appointments

Major Presidential Acts

States admitted to the Union

Retirement, death, and honors

Summary of Military Career

Personal information

Trivia

Washington and slavery

Religious beliefs

Legacy

Monuments and memorials

Scholarly Secondary Sources

See also

Notes

External links

Further Reading

1778

Events