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Washington National Cathedral

Washington National Cathedral

, and a presidential burial in the cathedral mausoleum: Woodrow Wilson. Eisenhower lay in repose at the cathedral before lying in state. In addition, a memorial service for Harry Truman took place at National Cathedral, which foreign dignitaries attended because of the advanced age of his wife, Bess.]] Washington National Cathedral, officially the Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul and an Episcopal church, is designated the national house of prayer of the United States. Concurrently, the cathedral is also the official seat of both the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church, USA and the Episcopal Diocese of Washington, motherchurch of the Episcopal Church in the District of Columbia and Maryland counties of Charles, St. Mary's, Prince George's and Montgomery. Located at Massachusetts and Wisconsin Avenues, Northwest in Washington, DC, it is the sixth largest cathedral in the world and second largest in the United States. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The National Cathedral is affiliated to the government by a charter of Congress, signed on January 6, 1893, but does not receive any federal, state or city funding. The National Cathedral Association provides most funding for the cathedral. Contruction began in 1907, when the foundation stone was laid in the presence of Theodore Roosevelt, and lasted for 83 years; the last finial was placed in the presence of George H.W. Bush in 1990. The Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation officially oversees the Washington National Cathedral and its sister institutions: National Cathedral School, St. Albans School, Beauvoir School, Cathedral College

Leadership

The current dean of the Washington National Cathedral is the Very Reverend Samuel T. Lloyd III who officially took office on April 23, 2005. Prior to becoming dean, Lloyd was the rector of Trinity Church in Boston, Massachusetts. The current Bishop of Washington, the Right Reverend John Bryson Chane, was formerly the dean of the St. Paul's Cathedral in San Diego, California. Former Deans of the cathedral are:
- Alfred Harding (1909–1916)
- George C. F. Bratenahl (1916–1936)
- Noble C. Powell (1937–1941)
- Zebarney T. Phillips (1941–1942)
- John W. Suter (1944–1950)
- Francis B. Sayre, Jr. (1951–1978)
- John T. Walker (1978–1989)
- Nathan D. Baxter (1992–2003)

Establishment

In 1792 Pierre L'Enfant's Plan of the Federal City set aside land for a "great church for national purposes." The National Portrait Gallery now occupies that site. In 1891, a meeting was held to renew plans for a national cathedral. In 1893 the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation of the District of Columbia was granted a charter from the United States Congress to establish the cathedral. The commanding site on Mount Saint Alban was chosen. Right Reverend Henry Yates Satterlee, first Episcopal Bishop of the Diocese of Washington chose Frederick Bodley, England's leading Anglican church architect, as the head architect. Henry Vaughan was selected supervising architect. Construction started September 29, 1907 with a ceremonial address by President Theodore Roosevelt and the laying of the cornerstone. In 1912, Bethlehem Chapel opened for services in the unfinished cathedral, which have continued daily ever since. When construction of the cathedral resumed after a brief hiatus for World War I, both Bodley and Vaughan had died. American architect Philip Hubert Frohman took over the design of the cathedral and was henceforth designated the principal architect. Funding for the National Cathedral has come entirely from private sources. Maintenance and upkeep continue to rely entirely upon private support.

Music

The Great Organ was installed by the Ernest M. Skinner Organ Company, 1938. The Washington National Cathedral Choir of Men and Boys, founded in 1909, is currently one of very few cathedral choirs of men and boys in the United States with an affiliated school, in the English tradition. The 18-22 boys singing treble are ages 8-14 and attend St. Albans School, the Cathedral school for boys, on singing scholarships. In 1997, the Cathedral Choir of Men and Girls was formed, using the same men as the choir of the men and boys. The two choirs currently share service duties and occasionally collaborate. The girl choristers attend the National Cathedral School on singing scholarships. Both choirs have recently recorded several CDs, including a Christmas CD and a Patriotic CD, both of which the choirs collaborated on. Currently, Michael McCarthy serves as Director of Music. Erik Suter is Organist and Associate Choirmaster. Scott Hanoian is Assistant Organist and Choirmaster. Former organists and choirmasters include Edgar Priest, Robert George Barrow, Paul Callaway, Richard Wayne Dirksen, Douglas Major and James Litton. The resident symphonic chorus of the Washington National Cathedral is the Cathedral Choral Society. Every summer, the choral society performs with the National Symphony Orchestra.

National Cathedral Association (NCA)

The National Cathedral Association is an organization that seeks to provide funds and promote the Washington National Cathedral. It consists of more than 14,000 people nationwide. Subdivided into committees by state, more than 88 percent of its members live outside the Washington area. Every year, a state has a state day at the cathedral where a state is recognized by name in the prayers. Every four years, a state has a Major State Day, at which time those who live in the state are encouraged to make a pilgrimage to the cathedral and dignitaries from the state are invited to speak.

Architecture

National Symphony Orchestra National Symphony Orchestra Washington National Cathedral was completed on 29 September 1990 after almost a century of planning and 83 years in construction. Its final design shows a mix of influences from the various Gothic architectural styles of the middle ages, marked, among other things, by pointed arches, flying buttresses, vaulted ceilings, stained-glass windows, stone-carved decorations, and three similar towers, two on the west front and one surmounting the crossing. Its west end is reminiscent of Bristol Cathedral. Washington National Cathedral consists of a long, narrow rectangular mass formed by an eight bay nave with wide side aisles and a five bay chancel, intersected by a six bay transept. Above the crossing rising 91 m (301 ft) above the ground is the Gloria in Excelsis Tower. Its top, at 206 m (676 ft) above sea level is the highest point in Washington, DC, with the Pilgrim Observation Gallery providing a sweeping view of the city. In total, the cathedral is 115 m (375 ft) above sea level. Uniquely, the tower has two full sets of bells — a 53-bell carillon and a 10-bell peal for change ringing. The cathedral sits on a landscaped 57 acre (230,000 m²) plot on Mount Saint Alban, in northwest Washington, DC. The one story porch projecting from the south transept has a large portal with a carved tympanum. This portal is approached by the Pilgrim Steps, a long flight of steps 12 m (40 ft) wide. Most of the building is constructed using gray Indiana limestone. Some concrete and structural steel were used sparingly. The interior of Washington National Cathedral abounds in architectural sculptures, wood carvings, mosaics and wrought iron pieces. There is even a gargoyle of Darth Vader on the north tower. Stones from Canterbury Cathedral were sent for construction of the pulpit. Glastonbury Abbey provided stone for the bishop's cathedra, his formal seat. The high altar is made from the ledge of rock in which Christ's sepulchre was hewn. There are other works of art including over two hundred stained glass windows, the most familiar of which may be the Space Window, honoring man's landing on the Moon, which includes a fragment of lunar rock at its center. Most of the decorative elements have Christian symbolism, in reference to the church's Episcopalian roots, but the cathedral is filled with memorials to persons or events of national significance: statues of Washington and Lincoln, state seals embedded in the mosaic floor of the narthex, state flags that hang along the nave, stained glass commemorating events like the Lewis and Clark expedition.

National House of Prayer

Washington National Cathedral's role as the national house of prayer has over the years united Americans in several religious and secular services hosted at the site. During World War II, monthly services “on behalf of a united people in a time of emergency” were held.

Major Events

World War II Washington National Cathedral has played host to many major events, showing the cathedral's proud distinction as being "the national house of prayer for all people." Some of the major events that showed the cathedral's proud distinction include:
- State funerals of two American presidents:
  - General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower (1969)
    - Eisenhower lay in repose at the cathedral before lying in state
  - Ronald Reagan (2004) [http://www.cathedral.org/cathedral/programs/reagan/1.shtml]
- Funeral for Katharine Graham (2001)
- Presidential prayer service the day after a presidential inauguration
- Memorial services. Most notable ones:
  - President Harry Truman (1973)
    - Truman had planned a state funeral and burial at the cathedral. However, due the advanced age of his wife, Bess when he passed away, all the services were done in Missouri and were private. Foreign dignitaries gathered for a memorial service at the cathedral a week after the funeral.
  - Victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks in 2001 [http://www.cathedral.org/cathedral/programs/wtc9.11/wtc.shtml] In addition, Washington National Cathedral's pulpit was the last one from which Martin Luther King, Jr. spoke prior to his assassination in 1968. Many major events have been interfaith services, showing the cathedral's proud distinction. Services held at the cathedral that fall in this category are the 9/11 memorial service (even as Canada's service, on Parliament Hill, took place at the same time) and the Reagan funeral.

References in Popular Culture


- setting of Margaret Truman's Murder at the National Cathedral
- place of Mrs. Landingham's funeral in Season 2 finale of The West Wing Two Cathedrals
- Cathedral Close (area in and around the cathedral) is alluded to, often, but rather vaguely, in movie Along Came a Spider.

Last resting place

Washington National Cathedral and its mausoleum and columbaria are the last resting places of many notable American citizens:
- George Dewey, navy admiral
- Philip Frohman, cathedral architect
- Helen Keller, deaf role model
- Henry Yates Satterlee, first Episcopal bishop of Washington
- Leo Sowerby, founding director of the College of Church Musicians
- Henry Vaughan, cathedral architect
- Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States
  - Wilson is the only president buried in Washington D.C.

Resources


- [http://www.edow.org/ Episcopal Diocese of Washington]
- [http://www.cathedral.org/cathedral/index.shtml Washington National Cathedral website] Category:Episcopal cathedrals of the United StatesCategory:Washington, D.C. landmarks Category:Churches in the United States Category:National Register of Historic Places Category:Cemeteries in Washington, D.C.

Woodrow Wilson

Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was the 28th President of the United States (1913–1921). Initially an academic, he served as President of Princeton University and was the 45th state Governor of New Jersey (1911–1913). He was the second Democrat to serve two consecutive terms in the White House, the first having been Andrew Jackson, and his terms in office spanned his country's involvement in World War I.

Early life, education and family

Thomas Woodrow Wilson was born in Staunton, Virginia in 1856 to Reverend Dr. Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Janet Woodrow, making him the last president born in that state. His ancestry was Scots-Irish going back to Strabane, in modern-day Northern Ireland. Wilson grew up in Augusta, Georgia and always claimed that his earliest memory was of hearing that Abraham Lincoln had been elected and that a war was coming. Wilson's father and mother were originally from Ohio, but sympathized with the South in the Civil War. They cared for wounded Confederate soldiers at their church and let their son go out and see Jefferson Davis paraded in handcuffs by the victorious Union Army. Wilson would forever recall standing "for a moment at General Lee's side and looking up into his face". (To End All Wars, p. 3.) Despite suffering from dyslexia, Wilson taught himself shorthand to compensate for his difficulties and was able to achieve academically through determination and self-discipline, but never quite overcame his dyslexia. Wilson attended Davidson College for one year and then transferred to Princeton University, graduating in 1879. He was a member of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternal organization. Afterward, Wilson studied law at the University of Virginia for one year. At Virginia, Wilson served as President of the Jefferson Society. After completing and publishing his dissertation, Congressional Government, in 1886, he received his Ph.D. in political science from Johns Hopkins University. (His carved initials are still visible on the underside of a table in the History Department.) Wilson remains the only American president to have earned a research doctoral degree.

Family

Wilson first met Ellen Axson in a Presbyterian church; she was the daughter of a Presbyterian minister who was expelled from the ministry. He spent several weeks courting her, but she did not respond. Months later, in 1883, he ran into her by chance in a train station. She was more receptive. He proposed to her, and they were married on June 24, 1885 in Savannah, Georgia. They had three daughters, Margaret in 1886, Jessie in 1887, and Eleanor in 1889. The three were all unmarried when he entered the White House, but that quickly changed. Jessie married Francis B. Sayre on November 25, 1913, and Eleanor married William G. McAdoo, the Secretary of the Treasury on May 7, 1914. Ellen died three months after Eleanor's wedding, on August 6. He later married Edith Bolling Galt, a widow, on December 18, 1915.

Political writings and academic career

Wilson came of age in the decades after the Civil War, when Congress was supreme—"the gist of all policy is decided by the legislature"—and corruption rampant. Instead of focusing on individuals in explaining where American politics went wrong, Wilson focused on the American constitutional structure. (Congressional Government, 180) Under the influence of Walter Bagehot's The English Constitution, Wilson saw the American Constitution as pre-modern, cumbersome, and open to corruption. Before the vigorous presidencies of the turn of the 20th century, Wilson even favored a parliamentary system for the United States. Writing in the early 1880s in a journal edited by Henry Cabot Lodge, Wilson wrote :"I ask you to put this question to yourselves, should we not draw the Executive and Legislature closer together? Should we not, on the one hand, give the individual leaders of opinion in Congress a better chance to have an intimate party in determining who should be president, and the president, on the other hand, a better chance to approve himself a statesman, and his advisors capable men of affairs, in the guidance of Congress?" (the Politics of Woodrow Wilson, 41–48) Wilson started Congressional Government, his best known political work, as an argument for a parliamentary system, but Wilson was impressed by Grover Cleveland, and Congressional Government emerged as a critical description of America's system, with frequent negative comparisons to Westminster. Wilson himself claimed, "I am pointing out facts,—diagnosing, not prescribing, remedies.". (Congressional Government, 205) Wilson believed that America's intricate system of checks and balances was the cause of the problems in American governance. He said that the divided power made it impossible for voters to see who was accountable for ill-doing. If government behaved badly, Wilson asked, :"...how is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping? ... Power and strict accountability for its use are the essential constituents of good government.... It is, therefore, manifestly a radical defect in our federal system that it parcels out power and confuses responsibility as it does. The main purpose of the Convention of 1787 seems to have been to accomplish this grievous mistake. The 'literary theory' of checks and balances is simply a consistent account of what our Constitution makers tried to do; and those checks and balances have proved mischievous just to the extent which they have succeeded in establishing themselves... [the Framers] would be the first to admit that the only fruit of dividing power had been to make it irresponsible." (ibid, 186–7) The longest section of Congressional Government is on the United States House of Representatives, where Wilson pours out scorn for the committee system. Power, Wilson wrote, "is divided up, as it were, into forty-seven seigniories, in each of which a Standing Committee is the court baron and its chairman lord proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within reach the full powers of rule, may at will exercise an almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself." (ibid, 76). Wilson said that the committee system was fundamentally undemocratic, because committee chairs, who ruled by seniority, were responsible to no one except their constituents, even though they determined national policy. In addition to their undemocratic nature, Wilson also believed that the Committee System facilitated corruption. :"the voter, moreover, feels that his want of confidence in Congress is justified by what he hears of the power of corrupt lobbyists to turn legislation to their own uses. He hears of enormous subsidies begged and obtained... of appropriations made in the interest of dishonest contractors; he is not altogether unwarranted in the conclusion that these are evils inherent in the very nature of Congress; there can be no doubt that the power of the lobbyist consists in great part, if not altogether, in the facility afforded him by the Committee system. (ibid, 132) But by the time Wilson finished Congressional Government, Grover Cleveland was president, and Wilson had his faith in the United States government restored. By the time he was president, Wilson had seen vigorous presidencies from William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, and Wilson no longer entertained thoughts of parliamentary government at home. In his last scholarly work in 1908, Constitutional Government of the United States, Wilson said that the presidency "will be as big as and as influential as the man who occupies it". By the time of his presidency, Wilson merely hoped that presidents could be party leaders in the same way prime ministers were. Wilson also hoped that the parties could be reorganized along ideological, not geographic, lines. "Eight words," Wilson wrote, "contain the sum of the present degradation of our political parties: No leaders, no principles; no principles, no parties." (Frozen Republic, 145) Wilson served on the faculties of Bryn Mawr College and Wesleyan University before joining the Princeton faculty as professor of jurisprudence and political economy in 1890. A popular teacher and respected scholar, Wilson delivered an oration at Princeton's sesquicentennial celebration (1896) entitled "Princeton in the Nation's Service". (This has become a frequently alluded-to motto of the University, sometimes expanded to "Princeton in the World's Service.") In this famous speech, he outlined his vision of the university in a democratic nation, calling on institutions of higher learning "to illuminate duty by every lesson that can be drawn out of the past". 1896 Wilson was unanimously elected President of Princeton on June 9, 1902. In his inaugural address as Princeton's president, Wilson developed these themes, attempting to strike a balance that would please both populists and aristocrats in the audience. As president, Wilson began a fund-raising campaign to bolster the university corporation. The curriculum guidelines he developed during his tenure as president of Princeton proved among the most important innovations in the field of higher education. He instituted the now common system of core requirements followed by two years of concentration in a selected area. When he attempted to curtail the influence of the elitist "social clubs", however, Wilson met with resistance from trustees and potential donors. He believed the system was smothering the intellectual and moral life of the undergraduates. Opposition from wealthy and powerful alumni further convinced Wilson of the undesirability of exclusiveness and moved him towards a more populist position in his politics.

Political career

Wilson was president of the American Political Science Association from 1910 to 1911. Through his published commentary on contemporary political matters, Wilson developed a national reputation and, with increasing seriousness, considered a public service career. In 1910, he received an unsolicited nomination for the governorship of New Jersey, which he eagerly accepted.

Presidency

New Jersey In the presidential election of 1912, the Democratic Party nominated Wilson as its presidential candidate—even though Champ Clark was widely expected to get the nomination. William Howard Taft and Theodore Roosevelt split the Republican Party by running against each other, allowing Wilson's victory. On the day before Wilson's inauguration in March 1913, members of the Congressional Union, later known as the National Women's Party, organized a suffrage parade in Washington, D.C., to siphon attention away from inaugural events. It is said that when Wilson arrived in town, he found the streets empty of welcoming crowds and was told that everyone was on Pennsylvania Avenue watching the parade. Wilson experienced early success by implementing his "New Freedom" pledges of antitrust modification, tariff revision, and reform in banking and currency matters. His actions led to the establishment of the Federal Reserve System and Federal Trade Commission. Suffrage was only one of the volatile issues Wilson faced during his presidency; until Wilson announced his support for the suffrage amendment, a group of women calling themselves the Silent Sentinels protested in front of the White House, holding banners such as "Mr. President—What will you do for woman suffrage?" Domestically, his measures for reform often met with opposition, although he did succeed in passing a bill instituting the Federal Reserve. Wilson's attitude on racial issues is generally regarded as a stain on his reputation; many argue that he was instrumental in shaping the worst period of racism in American history. His administration instituted segregation in federal government for the first time since Abraham Lincoln began desegregation in 1863, and required photographs from job applicants to determine their race. Wilson also regarded those whom he termed "hyphenated Americans" (German-Americans, Irish-Americans, etc.) with suspicion: "Any man who carries a hyphen about with him carries a dagger that he is ready to plunge into the vitals of this Republic whenever he gets ready." hyphenated Americans Wilson's "History of the American People" is repeatedly quoted in the notoriously racist film The Birth of a Nation, which glorifies the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in resistance to Radical Republican Reconstruction. The film was based on a trilogy by Wilson's classmate Thomas Dixon, whose stated goal was "to revolutionize northern sentiment by a presentation of history that would transform every man in my audience into a good Democrat!" Wilson saw the film in a special White House screening on February 18, 1915, and director D.W. Griffith reported to the press that Wilson had exclaimed, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." The statement was widely reported and immediately controversial. In subsequent correspondence with Griffith, Wilson discussed Griffith's filmmaking enthusiastically, without challenging the accuracy of the quote. Given the film's strong Democratic partisan message and Wilson's documented views on race, it is not unreasonable to interpret the statement as supporting the Klan, and the word "regret" as referring to the film's depiction of Reconstruction. Wilson tried to remain aloof from the controversy, but finally, on April 30, issued a non-denial denial. Wilson's endorsement of the film's factual accuracy carried great weight and added to its popularity. The film in turn was one of the main factors that led, in the same year, to the reorganization (at Stone Mountain, Georgia) of the Ku Klux Klan, which had been dormant since it was outlawed in the 1870s. In the last year of his first term Wilson assembled an impressive record of legislation, borrowing much from Theodore Roosevelt's 1912 platform. Wilson signed the Federal Farm Loan Act, which lowered interest rates for farmers. The Farm Loan Act immediately lowered interest rates and farmers hailed it as "the Magna Carta of American farm finance." Wilson aggressively and successfully lobbied on Capitol Hill for the Keating-Owen Act, which banned child labor, the Kern-McGillicuddy Act, which set up a workmen's compensation system, and the Adamson Act, which improved conditions and wages for railroad workers. To prepare for the possibility of entering the war, Wilson expanded the army and navy with an estate tax and tax on high incomes. (To End All Wars, 90–92) Wilson was able to narrowly win reelection in 1916 by picking up many votes that had gone with Roosevelt and Eugene V. Debs in 1912. Wilson spent 1914, 1915, 1916, and the beginning of 1917 trying to keep America out of the War in Europe. He offered to be a mediator, but neither the Allies nor the Central Powers took his requests seriously. When Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and made a clumsy attempt to get Mexico on its side in the Zimmermann Telegram, Wilson took America into the Great War as an "associated belligerent." Wilson pushed the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 through Congress to suppress socialist, anti-British, pro-Irish, pro-German, or anti-war opinions. He also set up the United States Committee on Public Information, headed by George Creel (thus its popular name, Creel Committee), which filled the country with anti-German propaganda and, during the first Red Scare, ordered the Palmer Raids against leftists. Wilson had the socialist leader and Presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs arrested for attributing World War I to financial interests and criticizing the Espionage Act. Additionally, Wilson supported the American Protective League, a private pro-war organization notorious for its flagrant violations of American civil liberties. Between 1914 and 1918 the United States invaded or intervened in Latin America many times, particularly in Mexico, Haiti, Cuba, and Panama. The U.S. maintained troops in Nicaragua throughout his administration and used them to select the president of Nicaragua and then to force Nicaragua to pass the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty. American troops in Haiti forced the Haitian legislature to choose the candidate Wilson selected as Haitian president. After Haiti refused to declare war on Germany, Wilson had Haiti's government dissolved and then forced a new, less democratic constitution on Haiti through a sham referendum. American soldiers also expelled small farmers from their lands to work in chain gangs on public works projects and transferred the land to plantation owners. In 1919, Haitians rose up in rebellion against the Americans, resulting in 3,000 deaths. Gleijesus (1992) argues: "It is not that Wilson failed in his earnest efforts to bring democracy to these little countries. He never tried. He intervened to impose hegemony, not democracy." Between 1917 and 1920 the U.S. supported the "White" side of the Russian civil war, first monetarily, but later with a naval blockade and ground forces in Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, and Vladivostok.

World War I

Vladivostok Wilson had promised to keep the United States neutral in World War I, which contributed to his popular re-election in 1916. However in 1917 he officially decided that the United States should enter the conflict. A formal declaration of war against Germany was made on April 6, 1917, followed by a declaration of war against Austria-Hungary on December 7. After the Great War, Wilson participated in negotiations with the stated aim of assuring statehood for formerly oppressed nations and an equitable peace. On January 8, 1918, Wilson made his famous Fourteen Points address, introducing the idea of a League of Nations, an organization with a stated goal of helping preserve territorial integrity and political independence among large and small nations alike.

Post-War

Wilson intended the Fourteen Points as a means toward ending the war and achieving an equitable peace for all the nations. He sailed for Versailles on December 4, 1918 for the 1919 Paris Peace Conference (making him the first U.S. president to travel to Europe while in office), where he worked tirelessly to promote his plan. In an effort to gain French support for the League, Wilson ordered U.S. Marines to stop the German delegation from entering the conference. The charter of the proposed League of Nations was incorporated into the conference's Treaty of Versailles, but most of the other Fourteen Points fell by the wayside. For his peacemaking efforts, Wilson was awarded the 1920 Nobel Peace Prize. Receiving the award was bittersweet, however, because he was unable to convince Congressional opponents, such as Henry Cabot Lodge, to support the resolution endorsing U.S. entry into the League. United States membership, Wilson believed, was essential to ensuring lasting world peace. The Versailles settlement also led to economic devastation in Germany that led to the under consumption problems leading to the Great Depression. Opponents of Wilson believed that by supporting the Versailles Settlement, which was actually a series of treaties, they would create economic devastation.

Incapacity

On September 25, 1919, Wilson suffered a mild stroke that went unannounced to the public. A week later, on October 2, Wilson suffered a second, far more serious stroke that almost totally incapacitated him. Although the extent of his disability was kept from the public until after his death, Wilson was purposely, with few exceptions, kept out of the presence of Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, his cabinet or Congressional visitors to the White House for the remainder of his presidential term. John Barry, in The Great Influenza, has theorized that Wilson's predisposition to those strokes was a complication from the lethal pandemic of influenza in 1919, which sometimes affected the brain. While Wilson was incapacitated, his second wife, Edith Bolling Galt Wilson, served as steward, selecting issues for his attention and delegating other issues to his cabinet heads. This was to date the most serious case of presidential disability in American history, and was cited as a key example why ratification of the 25th amendment was seen as important. The amendment, which provides for installation of the Vice President as Acting President in case of presidential disability, was ratified in 1967. In 1921, Wilson and his wife retired from the White House to a home in the Embassy Row section of Washington, D.C. Wilson died there on February 3, 1924. He was buried in Washington National Cathedral. Mrs. Wilson stayed in the home another 37 years, dying on December 28, 1961.

Cabinet



Major presidential acts


- Signed Revenue Act of 1913
- Signed Federal Reserve Act of 1913
- Signed Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916
- Signed Espionage Act of 1917
- Signed Sedition Act of 1918

Secretary

Joseph Patrick Tumulty 1913-1921

Supreme Court appointments

Wilson appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:
- James Clark McReynolds (1914)
- Louis Dembitz Brandeis (1916)
- John Hessin Clarke (1916)

Memorials

1916 1916 Many memorials to Wilson exist:
- The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, established by Congress in 1968 as a "living memorial" to President Wilson, is a leading policy forum in Washington, D.C. and part of the Smithsonian Institution.
- Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs is a public policy school at Princeton University.
- Wilson House, an undergraduate dormitory at Johns Hopkins University, is named in his honor.
- Wilson Hall, an administrative building at James Madison University, is named in his honor.
- His portrait appeared on the U.S. $100,000 bill, issued in 1934. This bill was used only for transactions between the Federal Reserve and Treasury.
- The city of Bratislava (now capital of Slovakia, Europe) was named "Wilsonovo mesto" (Wilson City) after U.S. President Wilson for a short period of time after World War I. This was to commemorate President Wilson's support for creating the independent state of Czechoslovakia. For the same reason, the central railway station in Prague bears the name "Wilsonovo nádraží" (Wilson station).
- The Avenue du President Wilson in Paris, France, is named in honor of Wilson.
- Boulevard Wilson, a main street in Strasbourg, France, where the European Parliament is located, is named in honor of Wilson. Anyone arriving by train in Strasbourg will cross or travel on Boulevard Wilson, including those traveling to the European Parliament.
- Wilson has been the subject of books by two particularly noteworthy authors. Herbert Hoover's The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson is extremely sympathetic, and remains the only book written by one ex-President about another one. Sigmund Freud and William Bullitt's Thomas Woodrow Wilson: A Psychological Study is devastatingly unsympathetic, and was unpublished for 30 years after Freud's death.
- Woodrow Wilson Bridge across the Potomac River on the portion of the Capital Beltway which is also Interstate 95 is located in three jurisdictions, Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia; more than any other Interstate Highway bridge. It is one of the most heavily-traveled bridges in the world.
- Wilson was an early automobile enthusiast and, while president, he took daily rides to calm himself.

Media

See also


- U.S. presidential election, 1912
- U.S. presidential election, 1916
- History of the United States (1865–1918)
- USS Woodrow Wilson (SSBN-624) (An USN SSBN named after President Wilson.)
- Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library

External links


- [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ww28.html Official White House biography]
- [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=WilsonW Audio clips of Wilson's speeches]
- [http://www.geocities.com/peace_888grom/wilson-bio.html Woodrow Wilson – Biography]
- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/wilson1.htm First Inaugural Address]
- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/wilson2.htm Second Inaugural Address]
- [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_Wilson%27s_War_Address President Wilson's War Address]
- [http://www.libraryreference.org/wilson.html Woodrow Wilson Biography]
- [http://www.woodrowwilson.org Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library at His Birthplace] Staunton, Virginia
- [http://www.wilsonboyhoodhome.org/ Boyhood Home of President Woodrow Wilson] Augusta, GA
- [http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org Woodrow Wilson House] Washington,DC
- [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars] Washington,DC
- [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/wilson-links.html Woodrow Wilson Links]
-

Notes

# [http://www.multied.com/elections/Conventions/1912DEM.html http://www.multied.com/elections/Conventions/1912DEM.html] # Dray, 2002, p. 198. # Wade, 1987, p. p. 137.

References


- [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/dec28.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: December 28"]
- [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun09.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: June 9"]
- Dray, Philip. At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America, New York: Random House, 2002.
- Gleijesus, Piero. "The other Americas," Washington Post Book World, December 27, 1992, 5.
- Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America. New York: Simon and Schuster (1987). Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow Wilson, Woodrow ko:우드로 윌슨 ja:ウッドロウ・ウィルソン simple:Woodrow Wilson

Harry Truman

:: This article is about Harry S. Truman, the 33rd President of the United States. For other Harry Trumans, please see: Harry Truman. Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 – December 26, 1972) was the thirty-fourth Vice President (1945) and the thirty-third President of the United States (1945–53), succeeding to the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Truman's presidency was eventful, seeing the dropping of atomic bombs in Japan, the end of World War II, the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe, the beginning of the Cold War, the desegregation of the U.S. armed forces, the formation of the United Nations, the second red scare, and most of the Korean War. Truman was a folksy, unassuming president, and popularized phrases such as "The buck stops here" and "If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen." He exceeded the low expectations many had at the beginning of his administration, and developed a reputation as a strong, capable leader.

Early life

The buck stops here Harry Truman was born on May 8, 1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the eldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. A brother, John Vivian (1886–1965), soon followed, along with a sister, Mary Jane Truman (1889–1978). When Truman was six years of age, his parents moved the family to Independence, Missouri, and it was there that Truman would spend the bulk of his formative years. After graduating from high school in 1901, Truman worked at a series of clerical jobs before he decided to become a farmer in 1906, an occupation in which he remained for another ten years. He was the last president not to earn a college degree, although he studied for two years toward a law degree at the Kansas City Law School (currently the University of Missouri - Kansas City School of Law) in the early 1920s and was a fellow classmate of future United States Supreme Court Justice Charles Evans Whittaker. Charles Evans Whittaker With the onset of American participation in World War I, Truman enlisted in the National Guard, was chosen to be an officer, and then commanded a regimental battery in France. His unit was Battery D of the 129th Field Artillery, 60th Brigade, 35th Division. At his physical his eyesight was 20/50 in the right eye and 20/400 in the left eye. Before heading to France, Harry was sent for training at Fort Sill, near Lawton, Oklahoma. While at Ft. Sill he was given the additional duty of running the camp canteen (to provide candy, cigarettes, shoelaces, sodas, tobacco, writing paper, etc. to the soldiers). This position would mean that nearly every soldier there would come to know Lt. Truman, at least by sight, and his name. To help run the canteen, Harry enlisted the help of his Jewish friend Sergeant Edward Jacobson (Eddie), who had experience in a Kansas City clothing store as a clerk. Another man he would meet at Ft. Sill, who would pay dividends after the war, was Lt. James M. Pendergast, the nephew of Thomas Joseph (T.J.) Pendergast, a Kansas City politician. Kansas City]] In France, Captain Truman's battery performed very well under fire in the Vosges Mountains. Truman later rose to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the National Guard and always remained proud of his military background. Under his command the artillery battery, Battery D, did not lose a single man. At the war's conclusion, Truman returned to Independence and married his longtime love interest, Bess Wallace, on 28 June 1919. The couple had one child, Margaret (b. 24 February 1924). A month before the wedding, banking on the success they had at Ft. Sill and overseas, the men's clothing store of Truman & Jacobson opened at 104 West 12th St. in downtown Kansas City. The store went bankrupt in 1922 after being very successful the first couple of years, but then the bottom fell out of the grain market, and lower prices for wheat and corn meant less sales of silk shirts. What shirts and ties that they did manage to sell went mainly to former members of the 129th. It was simple economics: in 1919 wheat went for $2.15 a bushel, in 1922 it was 88 cents a bushel. Harry blamed the fall in farm prices on the policies of the Republicans, and Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon in Washington, a factor that would influence his decision to become a Democrat. Truman worked for years to pay off the debts. He and Eddie Jacobson were friends for the rest of their lives, and it was to Eddie he turned for advice on the Zionist issue.

Political career

In 1922, with the help of the Kansas City Democratic machine led by boss Tom Pendergast, Truman was elected judge of the County Court of Jackson County, Missouri — an administrative, not judicial, position. Although he was defeated for reelection in 1924, he won back the office in 1926 and was reelected in 1930. Truman performed his duties in this office diligently, and won personal acclaim for several popular public works projects, including the series of 12 Madonna of the Trail monuments to pioneer women dedicated across the country in 1928 and 1929. In 1924, at the urging of his friend Edgar Hinde, who said that it would be "good politics," Truman gave Hinde the $10 membership fee to join the Ku Klux Klan. The complicated evidence about, background for, and interpretation of this episode are discussed in detail in the article Notable Ku Klux Klan members in national politics. As a result of the intricate tactical twists and turns of machine politics, Truman emerged from this period decisively opposed to and opposed by the Klan. The Klan's enmity for him was increased even more during Truman's presidency, which marked the first significant improvement in the federal government's record on civil rights since the nadir of American race relations during the Wilson administration. In a similar paradox, Truman, who sometimes expressed negative views of Jews in his diaries, and referred to New York as "kike-town," also had a Jewish friend and business partner (Edward Jacobson), and later became one of the moving forces behind the creation of the state of Israel. In the 1934 election the Pendergast machine selected him to run for Missouri's open Senate seat, and he ran as a New Dealer in support of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Once elected, Truman supported the president on most issues and became a popular member of the Senate "club," and was even voted as one of the ten "best-dressed" senators, soon overcoming his initial reputation as a member of the Pendergast machine. Having always taken a keen interest in foreign affairs, Truman first gained national prominence in his second term when his preparedness committee (popularly known as the "Truman Committee") made a scandal of military wastefulness by exposing fraud and mismanagement. His advocacy of common-sense cost-saving measures for the military gained him wide respect, and he emerged as a popular choice for the vice-presidential slot in 1944. He was barely installed as vice president when Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, elevating him to the presidency. A famous story says that when Truman was summoned to the White House on April 12, it was the now former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt who informed him that the president was dead. Truman asked if there was anything he could do for her, to which the former First Lady replied, "Is there anything we can do for you? For you are the one in trouble now."

Presidency

Eleanor Roosevelt When Truman first took office, he was initially preoccupied with foreign policy: the Allied conference in Potsdam, the conclusion of the war in Europe, and then in August, with the decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. Truman was also one of the very few U.S. presidents to serve nearly an entire term without a vice president. It was not until Truman's second term, from 1949 to 1953, that he was joined by a vice president on his election ticket. Realizing that the interests of the Soviet Union were quickly becoming incompatible with the interests of the United States government in the absence of a common enemy, Truman's administration articulated an increasingly hard line against the Soviets. That Truman would follow an anti-Soviet course was clear even before the end of World War II. On June 23, 1941, a day after Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union Truman, then a Senator, publicly declared: "If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible, although I don't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances. Neither of them thinks anything of their pledged word." (New York Times, June 24 1941) Nonetheless, as a Wilsonian internationalist, Truman initially strongly supported the creation of the United Nations, and included former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt on the delegation to the U.N.'s first General Assembly in order to appease the public desire for peace after the carnage of the Second World War. Although some people were distrustful of his expertise on foreign matters, Truman was able to win broad support for the Marshall Plan, which was offered to the Eastern bloc countries and the Soviet Union, and then for the Truman Doctrine which sought to contain Soviet power in Europe. To get Congress to spend on the Marshall Plan, Truman used an ideological argument about averting Communism to get the funding; although, it is highly unlikely that he believed this because he offered Marshall Plan money to the Soviets, and U.S. ambassador George F. Kennan wrote a long message from Moscow known as "The Long Telegram," explaining how Russian policy had nothing to do with the expansion of Communism but was about traditional Russian fears of invasion. Following many years of Democratic majorities in Congress and Democratic presidents, voter fatigue led to a new Republican majority in the 1946 midterm elections, with the Republicans picking up 55 seats in the House of Representatives and several seats in the Senate. Truman fought the Republican Congress in 1947 and 1948 to prevent any reduction in tax rates. Modest cuts were eventually enacted over his veto, but they were short-lived: the onset of the Korean conflict in 1950 once again required an increase in taxes. 1950 As he readied for the approaching 1948 election, Truman made clear his identity as a Democrat in the New Deal tradition, advocating universal health insurance, and the repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act in a broad legislative program that he called the "Fair Deal." While it was widely expected that Truman would lose, he campaigned furiously and managed to pull off one of the greatest upsets in presidential election history by defeating Thomas E. Dewey and earning a term in the White House in his own right. Shortly after Truman's inauguration, he presented his Fair Deal program to Congress, but it was not well received and only one of its major bills was enacted. A few months later the nation's attention was focused solidly on foreign policy once again with the "fall of China" to Mao Zedong's Communists. The incident would prove to be catastrophic for the administration, because it signaled the end of the Democrats' ability to manage the early Cold War in the eyes of the American public. Within a year of Nationalist China's collapse, Alger Hiss was accused of being a Communist agent (accusation supported in 1996 by the VENONA project[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html]), war had broken out between South Korea and North Korea, and Senator Joseph McCarthy had publicly accused the State Department of being riddled with Communists. The Hiss case damaged the Truman White House and Senator McCarthy initially commanded broad public support, but events at home took a backseat to the war in Korea where Douglas MacArthur had won the imagination of the American people. Following the Chinese intervention in early November 1950, MacArthur advocated extending the war into mainland China. When Truman disagreed with him, MacArthur publicly aired his views, and the president responded by relieving him of command. In June 1950, President Truman issued the following statement[http://www.geocities.com/taiwanstatus/taiwanstatus] and ordered the Seventh Fleet of the United States Navy into the Strait of Formosa to prevent any conflict between the Republic of China and the PRC. : "The attack upon Korea makes it plain beyond all doubt that communism has passed beyond the use of subversion to conquer independent nations and will now use armed invasion and war. It has defied the orders of the Security Council of the United Nations issued to preserve international peace and security. In these circumstances the occupation of Formosa by Communist forces would be a direct threat to the security of the Pacific area and to United States forces performing their lawful and necessary functions in that area. : "Accordingly I have ordered the 7th Fleet to prevent any attack on Formosa. As a corollary of this action I am calling upon the Chinese Government on Formosa to cease all air and sea operations against the mainland. The 7th Fleet will see that this is done. The determination of the future status of Formosa must await the restoration of security in the Pacific, a peace settlement with Japan, or consideration by the United Nations." Truman's dispute with MacArthur was a deeply unpopular action that seriously wounded Truman's credibility with the American people. His unpopularity grew even more pronounced as the military situation in Korea became increasingly stalemated. Realizing that his electoral chances were slim after losing a primary to Estes Kefauver, Truman withdrew his candidacy for the election of 1952. After the election on January 7, 1953, Truman announced the development of the hydrogen bomb. Unlike other presidents, Truman lived in the White House very little during his term in office. Structural analysis of the building early in his term had shown the White House to be in danger of imminent collapse, partly due to problems with the walls and foundation that dated back to the burning of the building by the British during the War of 1812. While the White House was systematically dismantled to the foundations and rebuilt — a project that also added what is now known as the "Truman Balcony" to the curved portico of the White House — Truman was moved to Blair House nearby, which became his "White House." On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate Truman at Blair House. In response, Truman allowed for a genuinely democratic plebiscite in Puerto Rico to determine the status of its relationship to the United States. Truman also spent time on Little Torch Key in the Florida Keys during the White House reconstruction.

Israel

Truman, who had been a supporter of the Zionist movement as early as 1939, was a key figure in the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. In 1946, an Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry recommended the gradual establishment of two states in Palestine, with neither Jews nor Arabs dominating. However, there was little public support for the two-state proposal, and Britain was under pressure to withdraw from Palestine quickly due to attacks on British forces by armed Zionist groups. At the urging of the British, a special U.N. committee recommended the immediate partitioning of Palestine into two states, and with Truman's support, it was approved by the General Assembly in 1947. The British announced that they would leave Palestine by May 15, 1948, and the Arab League Council nations began moving troops to Palestine's borders. There was significant disagreement between Truman and the State Department about how to handle the situation, and meanwhile, tensions were rising between the U.S. and Soviet Union. In the end, Truman, amid controversy both at home and abroad, recognized the State of Israel 11 minutes after it declared itself a nation.

Civil rights

After a hiatus that had lasted since Reconstruction, the Truman administration marked the federal government's first steps in the area of civil rights. A particularly savage 1946 lynching of two young black men and two young black women near Moore's Ford Bridge in Walton County, Georgia, was an important event that focused attention on civil rights, and was one factor behind the issuing of a 1947 report by the Truman administration titled To Secure These Rights, which advocated, among other civil rights reforms, making lynching a federal crime. In 1948, he submitted a civil rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating several federal offices devoted to issues such as voting rights and fair employment practices. This provoked a firestorm of criticism from Southern Democrats in the time leading up to the national nominating convention, but Truman refused to compromise, saying "My forbears were Confederates... But my very stomach turned over when I learned that Negro soldiers, just back from overseas, were being dumped out of army trucks in Mississippi and beaten." In the same year, he issued Executive Order 9981, racially integrating the U.S. Armed Services following World War II. However, even as late as the 1948 nominating convention he was wavering on the issue of civil rights; a sharp address given by Hubert H. Humphrey, Jr., then the mayor of the Midwestern city of Minneapolis, Minnesota and candidate for the United States Senate seat then held by Joseph H. Ball, convinced the Democratic party to adopt a strong civil rights plank, which was wholeheartedly adopted by Truman.

Cabinet

Joseph H. Ball (All of the cabinet members when Truman became president in 1945 had been serving under Roosevelt previously.)

Supreme Court appointments

Truman appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:
- Harold Hitz Burton - 1945
- Fred M. Vinson - Chief Justice - 1946
- Tom Campbell Clark - 1949
- Sherman Minton - 1949

Major legislation signed


- Project Paperclip - September, 1946
- National Security Act - July 26, 1947
- Truman Doctrine - March 12, 1947
- Marshall Plan/European Recovery Plan

Post-presidency

In 1951, the U.S. ratified the 22nd Amendment, disqualifying presidents from running for a third term (or a second term, if they had served more than two years of another's term). The amendment did not apply to Truman, since he was president when it was passed. However, Truman withdrew his candidacy for the election of 1952 after losing the New Hampshire primary to Estes Kefauver. Truman had always maintained privately that he would not run for reelection in 1952. At the time of the New Hampshire primary, no candidate had elicited Truman's backing. Without a front-runner, and with no announcement that he would not run for reelection having been made, Truman's name was placed on the ballot. (In New Hampshire, interested individuals can nominate a person to be entered in the primary ballot without his or her consent.) By March 1952 Truman had announced his decision not to run, and pressure on Gov. Adlai Stevenson (D-Ill.) to run for the Democratic nomination increased. Truman made the most of his post-presidential years, making speeches and writing his memoirs after he left Washington. He returned home to take up residence at his mother-in-law's house in Independence, Missouri. His predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had organized his own presidential library, but legislation to enable future presidents to do something similar still remained to be enacted. Truman worked to garner private donations to build a presidential library which he then donated to the government, which would then maintain it, a practice adopted by all his successors. presidential library, 1965, by President Lyndon Johnson.]] Former members of Congress and the federal courts received a federal retirement package, and it was president Truman who ensured that servants of the other branches of government received similar privileges. Truman decided that he did not wish to be on any corporate payroll, which reflected his view that to take advantage of such a benefit would diminish the integrity of the nation's highest office. It cannot be said, however, that he foreswore all attempts to "cash in" after leaving office, as he received the then-record sum of $600,000 as an advance on the publication of his memoirs. In 1956, Truman took a trip to Europe with his wife, and was a universal sensation. In Britain he received an honorary degree in Civic Law from Oxford University. He met with his friend Winston Churchill for the last time, and on returning to the U.S. he gave his full support to Adlai Stevenson's second bid for the White House, although he had initially favored Gov. W. Averell Harriman (D-NY) for the nomination. Upon turning eighty, Truman was feted in Washington and asked to address the United States Senate. His advanced age showed, because he was so emotionally overcome by his reception that he was unable to deliver his speech. He also campaigned for senatorial candidates. A bad bathroom fall in 1964 severely limited his physical capabilities, and he was unable to maintain his daily presence at his presidential library. On December 5, 1972, he was admitted to Kansas City's Research Hospital and Medical Center with lung congestion. He subsequently developed heart irregularities, kidney blockages, and digestive problems, and died at 7:50 a.m. on December 26 at the age of 88. He is buried at the Truman Library. As Vietnam and in later years Watergate wrenched at the heart of the nation, Truman's reputation steadily rose, and even the band Chicago wrote a song about the nation's former president. Truman's longtime home (1919–72), the Wallace House at 219 North Delaware Street in Independence, Missouri, and his grandfather's farm nearby, are maintained as the Harry S. Truman National Historic Site. The headquarters building of the State Department in Washington, D.C., is named the Harry S. Truman Building in his honor.

Truman's middle initial

right Truman did not have a middle name, but only a middle initial. It was a common practice in southern states, including Missouri, to use initials rather than names. Truman said the initial was a compromise between the names of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp(e) Truman and Solomon Young. He once joked that the S was a name, not an initial, and it should not have a period, but official documents and his presidential library all use a period. Furthermore, the Harry S. Truman Library has numerous examples of the signature written at various times throughout Truman's lifetime where his own use of a period after the "S" is very obvious.

Memorials


- USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) is a Nimitz-class supercarrier of the United States Navy. The keel was laid by Newport News Shipbuilding November 29, 1993, and was christened September 7, 1996. The ship is currently based at Norfolk, Virginia.
- Truman Sports Complex

Media

See also


- U.S. presidential election, 1944
- U.S. presidential election, 1948
- History of the United States (1945-1964)
- Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum in Independence, Missouri
- USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)
- Truman State University
- Madonna of the Trail monuments across U.S. dedicated by then Judge Truman
- Give 'em Hell, Harry!, a one-man biographical play and film by Samuel Gallu, starring James Whitmore as Truman.

External links


-
- [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Truman Museum and Library]
- [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ht33.html White House biography]
- [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_hst.htm Truman Oval Office Recordings]
- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/truman.htm Inaugural Address]
- [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=TrumanHS Audio clips of Truman's speeches]
- [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/speriod.htm How Truman spelled his name]
- [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=296321024595230 Peter M. Carrozzo on Michael R. Gardner, Harry Truman and Civil Rights: Moral Courage and Political Risks]
- [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A40678-2003Jul10¬Found=true Harry Truman's Forgotten Diary (washingtonpost.com)]
- [http://keirsey.com/personality/Truman.html An analysis of Harry Truman's personality]
- [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/cabinet/cabinet.htm Harry Truman's cabinet]
-
- The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists asks, [http://www.thebulletin.org/web_only_content/sixty_years_later "Would you have dropped the bomb?"]

References

Part of this article was copied from: [http://www.nps.gov/elro/glossary/truman-harry.htm the National Parks Service: Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site] Material which is in the public domain. The original authors of the article cite the following references:
- American National Biography. Vol. 21. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, 857–863. ISBN 0195206355
- Black, Allida M. Casting Her Own Shadow: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Shaping of Postwar Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996, 51–85. ISBN 0231104057
- Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History. 2nd ed. New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan, 1996, 443–458. ISBN 0684804719
- Lash, Joseph. Eleanor: The Years Alone. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1972, 23, 36–37, 142–145, 210, 214, 296. ISBN 0393073610
- Truman, Margaret. Harry S. Truman. New York: William Morrow and Co. (1973). # quoted in 1974 pocket book edition, p. 429
- Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America. New York: Simon and Schuster (1987).
  - Notes: # Wade, 1987, p. 196, gives essentially this version of the events, but implies that the meeting was a regular Klan meeting, rather than an individual meeting between Truman and a Klan organizer. An interview with Hinde at the Truman Library's web site ([http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hindeeg.htm http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hindeeg.htm], retrieved June 26, 2005) portrays it as a one-on-one meeting at the Hotel Baltimore with a Klan organizer named Jones. Truman's biography, written by his daughter (Truman, 1973), agrees with Hinde's version, but does not mention the $10 initiation fee; the same biography reproduces a telegram from O.L. Chrisman stating that reporters from the Hearst papers had questioned him about Truman's past with the Klan, and that he had seen Truman at a Klan meeting, but that "if he ever became a member of the Klan I did not know it."
- Wexler, Laura. Fire in a Canebrake: The Last Mass Lynching in America, New York: Scribner, 2003.
  - Notes: # Wexler, 2003. In addition, information was drawn from one of the most authoritative works on Harry S. Truman, the Pulitzer Prize-winning biography:
- McCullough, David. Truman. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. ISBN 0671869205
  - Notes: # KKK: page 164–165

Notes

# [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/trumandiary1.html http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/trumandiary1.html], [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A40678-2003Jul10¬Found=true http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A40678-2003Jul10¬Found=true], both retrieved July 1, 2005. # [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/integration/IAF-12.htm http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/integration/IAF-12.htm], retrieved June 30, 2005. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman, Harry S. ja:ハリー・S・トルーマン ko:해리 S. 트루먼 simple:Harry S. Truman th:แฮร์รี เอส. ทรูแมน

Episcopal Church in the United States of America

is the national cathedral of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America.]] The Episcopal Church or the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America is the American national church of the Anglican Communion. It includes 108 dioceses in the United States, the US Virgin Islands, Haiti, Taiwan, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, and Honduras, and has an extra-provincial relationship with the dioceses of Puerto Rico and Venezuela. It is sometimes known as the Episcopal Church in the USA, abbreviated ECUSA. The main church of the Episcopal Church is the Washington National Cathedral, which also serves as a gathering place for the nation, under charter by Congress. Episcopal church buildings are often recognizable by their trademark red doors.

History

The Episcopal Church was founded in 1789 after the American colonies proclaimed independence from Great Britain. Prior to the American Revolutionary War, the Episcopal Church was part of the Church of England, whose clergy are required to accept the supremacy of the British monarch. When the clergy of Connecticut elected Samuel Seabury as their bishop, he sought consecration in England. The Oath of Supremacy proved too difficult a problem, so he went to Scotland, where the Scottish bishops (at the time being persecuted by the state) consecrated him in Aberdeen on November 14, 1784, the first Anglican bishop outside the British Isles. The American bishops thus descend in the Apostolic succession from the bishops of Scotland, and to this day the nine crosses which symbolise ECUSA's nine original dioceses in its arms form a St Andrew's cross, commemorating the Scottish link. In Scotland, the Episcopal Church is so known because unlike the national state Church of Scotland (which is Presbyterian, i.e. governed by Elders), it is governed by bishops (in Latin episcopi). The word "Anglican" comes from the Latin word Anglicana which literally means English.

The Church

Presbyterian Other than the name difference the national churches are roughly the same, however the different groups (i.e., High Church, Broad Church, and Low Church) within the national branches of the Church may be proportionally different in numbers. Like many other Anglican churches, it has entered into full communion with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. In the United States the Church has a membership of approximately 3 million, and has had such notable members as more than a quarter of all presidents of the United States and Supreme Court chief justices as well as roughly half of the members of Congress and Supreme Court associate justices. The full legal name of the national church corporate body is "The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America", but this name is rarely used.

Provinces

The Episcopal Church in the United States has nine provinces, numbered as follows #New England #New York, New Jersey, Haiti, United States Virgin Islands, and Convocation of American Churches in Europe #Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia #Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Kentucky, eastern Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee #Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, eastern Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin #Colorado, Iowa, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming #Arkansas, Kansas, western Louisiana, western Missouri, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, #Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawai'i, Idaho, Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Taiwan, Washington #Colombia, Ecuador, Honduras, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Venezuela Each province is subdivided into dioceses. See: Dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America

The Book of Common Prayer

The Episcopal Church publishes its own Book of Common Prayer (BCP), which was last updated in 1979. The BCP contains the worship services or liturgies for all Episcopalians. The BCP is a primary source for the theology of Episcopalians. Other BCPs were issued in 1789, 1892, and 1928. A proposed BCP was issued in 1786 but not adopted. The BCP is public domain; however, any new revisions of the BCP are copyrighted until they are approved by the General Convention. After this happens, the BCP is placed into the public domain. The text is controlled by the Custodian of the Standard Book of Common Prayer.

Church Polity

The basic unit of governance in the Episcopal Church is the diocese. The ordained leader of the diocese is a bishop. Other ordained leaders include priests (or presbyters) and deacons. Laity participate fully in the life and governance of the Church. The Church holds its General Convention every three years. The General Convention is bicameral. There is the House of Bishops and the House of Deputies, the latter being made up of both priests and lay persons. Each diocese elects four clergy and four laypeople as deputies. The head of the House of Bishops is the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church. The head of the House of Deputies is the president who is either a lay person or priest. The last General Convention was held in 2003. The next one will be held in 2006, in Columbus, Ohio.

Congregations

Each diocese is composed of congregations of various kinds: cathedrals, parishes, missions and chapels. A cathedrals acts as the mother church of the diocese, and, usually, as a parish as well. Most dioceses have a cathedral, though many do not. A few have two cathedrals or a cathedral and a pro-cathedral. Others designate a conference or retreat centre chapel as a cathedral. Usually a cathedral is led by a priest called a dean. A cathedral's lay governing body is known as a chapter, although some cathedrals have a vestry as well. Most congregations are parishes. A parish is a self-sustaining congregation, not supported by the diocese. The ordained leader of a parish is a priest, usually called a rector. Two primary lay leaders of every congregation are the wardens, sometimes referred to as senior and junior. In addition to the rector and wardens, there are additional lay persons elected to support the mission and ministry of the congregation. The rector, the wardens, and these laity comprise what is known as the vestry. The number of these additional laity vary depending on the size of the congregation. A mission is a congregation supported in part by the diocese. It is governed similarly to a parish but is mo