Education

National Register of Historic Places The public schools in the City of Fairfax are owned by the city, but administered by the Fairfax County Public Schools system under contractual agreement with Fairfax County. The schools include Fairfax High School, Lanier Middle School, Daniels Run Elementary School, and Providence Elementary School. George Mason University is located here.

Geography

Fairfax is located at 38°51'9" North, 77°18'15" West (38.852612, -77.304377). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 16.3 km² (6.3 mi²). None of the area is covered with water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 21,498 people, 8,035 households, and 5,407 families residing in the city. The population density is 1,315.4/km² (3,406.9/mi²). There are 8,204 housing units at an average density of 502.0/km² (1,300.1/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 72.91% White, 5.07% Black or African American, 0.34% Native American, 12.17% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 6.17% from other races, and 3.26% from two or more races. 13.64% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 8,035 households out of which 28.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.5% are married couples living together, 9.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 32.7% are non-families. 23.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.7% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.61 and the average family size is 3.07. In the city the population is spread out with 20.5% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 33.7% from 25 to 44, 23.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.8% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 37 years. For every 100 females there are 95.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 93.9 males. The median income for a household in the city is $67,642, and the median income for a family is $78,921. Males have a median income of $50,348 versus $38,351 for females. The per capita income for the city is $31,247. 5.7% of the population and 2.4% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 4.3% of those under the age of 18 and 2.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

External links

- [http://www.ci.fairfax.va.us Official website]
- [http://photos.historical-markers.org/va-fairfaxcity Fairfax's Historical Markers] Category:Cities in Virginia
- Category:Washington, D.C. suburbs ja:フェアファックス (バージニア州)

Fairfax County, Virginia

Fairfax County is a county of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States. As of 2005, the estimated population of the county is 1,366,175; making it by far the most populous county in Virginia, and one of the largest in the United States. It is also the most populous jurisdiction in the Greater Washington Area, surpassing the population of Washington, D.C. by over 500,000 residents, and Baltimore by 300,000 residents. Its county seat is the independent city of Fairfax⁶. Fairfax County is the location of many suburbs of Washington D.C. and the county lies just outside of Washington D.C.

History

Fairfax County was formed in 1742 from the northern part of Prince William County. It was named for Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron (1693-1781), proprietor of the Northern Neck. In 1757, the northwestern two-thirds of Fairfax County became Loudoun County. In 1789 part of Fairfax County was ceded to the federal government to form Alexandria County of the District of Columbia. Alexandria County was returned to Virginia in 1846, reduced in size by the secession of the independent city of Alexandria in 1870, and renamed Arlington County in 1920. The Fairfax County town of Falls Church became an independent city in 1948. The Fairfax County town of Fairfax became an independent city in 1961. Located near Washington, D.C., Fairfax County was an important region in the Civil War. The Battle of Chantilly or Ox Hill, during the same campaign as the second battle of Bull Run, was fought within the county; Bull Run straddles the border between Fairfax and Prince William County. For most of the Civil War, Union troops occupied the county, though the population remained sympathetic to the Confederacy. The growth of the Federal Government in the years during and after World War II spurred rapid growth in the county. As a result, the once rural county began to become increasingly suburban. Other large businesses continued to settle in Fairfax County and the opening of Tysons Corner Center spurred the rise of Tysons Corner itself. The technology boom and a steady government-driven economy also created rapid growth and an increasingly growing and diverse population. The economy has also made Fairfax County one of the wealthiest counties in the nation.

Geography

ConfederacyFairfax County is bounded on the north and southeast by the Potomac River; across the river to the northeast is Washington, DC, across the river to the northwest is Montgomery County, Maryland, across the river to the southeast is Prince George's County, Maryland and Charles County, Maryland; it is also partially bounded on the north and east by Arlington County and the independent cities of Alexandria and Falls Church; it is bound on the west by Loudoun County; and on the south by Prince William County and the independent cities of Manassas and Manassas Park. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,053 km² (407 mi²). 1,023 km² (395 mi²) of it is land and 30 km² (12 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 2.85% water.

Government and politics

The county is divided into nine supervisor districts: Braddock, Dranesville, Hunter Mill, Lee, Mason, Mount Vernon, Providence, Springfield, and Sully. The supervisor districts each elect one supervisor to the Board of Supervisors which governs Fairfax County. There is also a Chairman elected by the county at-large. Fairfax County was once considered a strong Republican bastion in the suburbs of Washington, D.C.. However, Democrats have increasingly made inroads in Fairfax County in the past decade with Democrats now controlling the Board of Supervisors and the School Board (which is officially nonpartisan) as well as the Sheriff and Commonwealth Attorney offices. Democrats in Fairfax also control the majority of Fairfax seats in the House of Delegates and State Senate. Due in part to gerrymandering, Republicans retain control of two out of three congressional seats that include parts of Faifax County. Communities closer to Washington D.C. generally favor Democrats by a larger margin than the outlying communities. In 2000, 2001, and 2005 Fairfax County voted Democratic in the races for Senate and Governor, and by increasing margins. In 2004, John Kerry won the county; the first Democrat to do so since Lyndon Johnson in his 1964 landslide (Coincidentally that was the last time Democrats carried the state). Kerry defeated Bush in the county 53% to 46%. The fact that Republicans had won Virginia's largest county in every presidential election since 1968 is partly the reason why the Old Dominion has not voted for a Democrat since 1964. Because Fairfax County is now trending heavily in favor of the Democratic Party, the state may not be as reliably Republican in future elections. Democratic Governor-elect Tim Kaine carried Fairfax County with over 60% of the vote in 2005, leading him to win over 51% of votes statewide.

Demographics

As of the census² of 2000, there are 969,749 people, 350,714 households, and 250,409 families residing in the county. The population density is 948/km² (2,455/mi²). There are 359,411 housing units at an average density of 351/km² (910/mi²). The racial makeup of the county is 69.91% White, 8.57% Black or African American, 0.26% Native American, 13.00% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 4.54% from other races, and 3.65% from two or more races. 11.03% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. Fairfax County is home to more than 60,000 Koreans, particularly in the Annandale area, along with substantial groups of immigrants from other, primarily Asian, countries. There are 350,714 households, of which 36.30% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.40% are married couples living together, 8.60% have a female householder with no husband present, and 28.60% are non-families. 21.40% of all households are made up of individuals and 4.80% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.74 and the average family size is 3.20. In the county, the population is spread out with 25.40% under the age of 18, 7.50% from 18 to 24, 33.90% from 25 to 44, 25.30% from 45 to 64, and 7.90% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females there are 98.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 96.20 males. The median income for a household in the county is $81,050, and the median income for a family is $92,146. Males have a median income of $60,503 versus $41,802 for females. The per capita income for the county is $36,888. 4.50% of the population and 3.00% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 5.20% of those under the age of 18 and 4.00% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. Judged by median income, Fairfax County was the richest county in the country through the late 1990's but was recently overtaken by Douglas County, Colorado and is currently the second wealthiest county in the country--as judged by median household income.

Education

One of the primary attractions of Fairfax County is its public school system, perennially rated one of the best in the country. The average cost per student in 2004-05 is $11,022. The school system contains several high schools with Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate degree programs, in addition to a science and technology magnet school, Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology. It is one of a select few Virginia Governor's Schools. Fairfax County is the home to George Mason University.

Economy

The economy of Fairfax County is a robust service economy. Fairfax most heavily relies on the Federal Government. Many citizens work for the government or for contractors of the Federal Government. Defense contractors in particular are prominent. The government is the largest employer with Fort Belvoir in southern Fairfax being the county's single largest employer. The top 5 largest private employers are the Inova Health System, Northrop Grumman, Booz Allen Hamilton, SAIC (Science Applications International Corporation) and Freddie Mac. Fairfax County also is home to several large companies such as Nextel, Gannett, Capital One, General Dynamics, NVR, and Freddie Mac.

Transportation

Roads

Several major highways run through Fairfax County including the Capital Beltway (I-495), I-66, I-95, and I-395. The American Legion Bridge connects Fairfax to Montgomery County, Maryland while the Woodrow Wilson Bridge connects Fairfax to Prince George's County, Maryland. The George Washington Parkway, Dulles Toll Road, and Fairfax County Parkway are also major arteries. Other notable roads include Braddock Road, Little River Turnpike, Virginia Route 123, US 50, US 29, and Virginia Route 28.

Air

Washington Dulles International Airport lies partly within Fairfax County and provides most air service to the county. Fairfax is also served by two other airports in the Washington area, Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport and BWI.

Public Transportation

Fairfax County operates its own bus service called the Fairfax Connector. It is also served by WMATA's metrobus service. Fairfax County is served by the Washington Metro. The Orange, Blue, and the Yellow lines all serve Fairfax County. In addition, VRE (Virginia Railway Express) also serves Fairfax County.

Towns, Independent Cities, and Other Localities

Three incorporated towns, Clifton, Herndon, and Vienna, are located within Fairfax County. The independent cities of Falls Church and Fairfax were formed out of areas formerly under the jurisdiction of Fairfax County, but are politically separate, despite the status of the City of Fairfax as county seat. Fairfax County contains an exclave located in the central business district of the City of Fairfax, in which many county facilities (including the courthouse and jail) are located. Other communities within Fairfax County are unincorporated places; Virginia law prohibits the creation of any new municipalities within any county with a population density of over 1,000 per square mile (which currently affects Fairfax and Arlington Counties in Northern Virginia, and Henrico County adjacent to Richmond).

Unincorporated Census Designated Places

The following localities within Fairfax County are identified by the U.S. Census Bureau as (unincorporated) Census-Designated Places: In addition, Fairfax County contains the following localities that are not Census Designated Places recognized by the Census Bureau:
- Fairfax Station
- Mason Neck

External links

- [http://www.co.fairfax.va.us/opa/ Fairfax County official website]
- [http://www.fxva.com/fxva/index.html Fairfax County Visitors Center]
- [http://www.fccc.org/main.html Fairfax County Chamber of Commerce]
- [http://www.celebratefairfax.org/index.asp Celebrate Fairfax]
- [http://icare.fairfaxcounty.gov/ Fairfax County Department of Tax Administration] - Property lookup database
- [http://www.fairfaxcountyeda.org/ Fairfax County Economic Development Authority]
- [http://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/ Fairfax County Government Website]
- [http://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/library/ Fairfax County Public Library System]
- [http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/index.shtml Fairfax County Public Schools]
- [http://photos.historical-markers.org/va-fairfax/ Fairfax County's Historical Markers]
- [http://www.co.fairfax.va.us/ Official Site of the County of Fairfax] Category:Virginia counties Category:Washington, D.C. suburbs Category:Potomac River counties

Address (geography)

An address is a code and abstract concept expressing the fixed location of a home, business or other building on the earth's surface.

Functions

Addresses have several functions: # Providing a means of physically locating a building, especially in a city where there are many buildings and streets, # Identifying buildings as the end points of a postal system, # A social function: someone's address can have a profound effect on their social standing, # As parameters in statistics collection, especially in census-taking or the insurance industry.

History

Until the advent of modern postal systems, most houses and buildings were not numbered. Streets may have been named for landmarks, such as a city gate or market, or for the professions of their inhabitants. In many cities in Asia, most minor streets were never named. This is still the case today in much of Japan. When postal systems were introduced, it became necessary to number buildings to aid in mail delivery.

Current addressing schemes

In most English-speaking countries the standard has become an alternating numbering scheme progressing in one direction up a street, with odd numbers running up one side and even numbers up the other, although there is significant variation on this basic pattern. Cities in North America, particularly those planned on a grid plan, often incorporate block numbers (explained below), quadrants (explained below), and cardinal directions into their street numbers, so that in many such cities, addresses roughly follow the Cartesian coordinate system. Japanese cities usually number buildings by block and neighbourhood (chome) rather than street; as a result most Japanese streets are unnamed. When building numbers were assigned in Florence, Italy, residential addresses were assigned blue or black numbers, while commercial addresses were assigned red numbers (written with a "/r" after the number). The two numbering sequences are independent; thus, 40/r is not necessarily anywhere near 40.

Block numbers

Block numbers are a system of assigning numbers based on distance rather than strictly sequentially. Typically, each block is assigned 100 numbers, such that the building numbers on that block vary only in the two least significant digits. For example, in Washington, D.C., the block of 7th Street, N.W., between D and E streets, N.W., is designated as the 400 block, meaning that building numbers on that block are in the range from 400 to 499 inclusive. It is common to indicate block numbers on street signs; for instance, the article on Pennsylvania Avenue shows a street sign indicating what is probably the most famous block number in the world. Some localities, such as the Borough of Queens in New York City, use a block numbering system in which a hyphen separates the hundreds digit from the tens digit. For example, a building number that might elsewhere be written 16709 is instead written 167-09. Some localities in the Midwest have a more elaborate system of block numbering. Such localities use compound block numbers to indicate the number of blocks from both the north-south and the east-west dividing lines. For example, an address might be of the form "N112 W16709 Such-and-such Street" rather than "16709 W. Such-and-such Street." Of course, such an address is in the northwest quadrant (see below) of the addressing system.

Quadrants

In cities with Cartesian-coordinate-based addressing systems, the streets that form the north-south and east-west dividing lines constitute the x and y axes of a Cartesian coordinate plane and thus divide the city into quadrants. The quadrants are typically identified in the street names, although the manner of doing so varies from city to city. For example, in one city, all streets in the northeast quadrant may have "NE" prefixed or suffixed to their street names, while in another, the intersection of North Calvert Street and East 27th Street can only be in the northeast quadrant.

Street-naming conventions

Street names may follow a variety of themes. In new developments, streets may all follow the same theme (e.g. bird species), or start with the same letter. Streets in Europe and Latin America are often named for auspicious dates. In many North American cities, such as Manhattan and Edmonton, Alberta, streets are simply numbered sequentially across the street grid. Washington, D.C., uses a system of numbered north-south streets combined with lettered and alphabetically named east-west streets; diagonal avenues are typically named after states.

Postal codes

Postal codes are a relatively recent development in addressing, designed to speed the sorting and processing of mail by assigning unique numeric or alphanumeric codes to each geographical locality.

Postal alternatives to physical addresses

For privacy and other purposes, postal services have made it possible to receive mail without revealing one's physical address or even having a fixed physical address. Examples are post office boxes and poste restante (general delivery).

Geographical Address Conventions in the Media

People may be said generally to get used to the form of geographical address used in their home location. However, this can cause confusion when people naturally extend their written generalisations from nationally used conventions to media where the audience is global. This can be observed most frequently with internet usage, and in films where a scene opens with the location listed on screen. A good example of this is Wikipedia, where a significant number of the contributors are Americans. For example it can be guessed that the contributors writing these phrases are Americans: Birmingham, England Birmingham, AL In the former example, the contributor can be guessed not to be from Birmingham in the UK because, although Birmingham is indeed a city in England, someone from Birmingham would be unlikely to use this format to describe their address. In the latter example it is common in the US to include state codes in addresses, which may be somewhat meaningless to persons outside of North America who are not accustomed to the US address format. In addition, the contributor in this latter example has assumed that others would not only understand from the use of a state code that their city of Birmingham is in the state of Alabama, but also that their city is in the USA. Another example of this phenomenon of US address forms being exported to a global audience is with Google Earth which is marketed globally -- try a search for Birmingham and then Birmingham, England. Next try St. Petersburg and St. Petersburg, Russia.

See also

- Delivery point
- Japanese addressing system
- National Land and Property Gazetteer

External links

- [http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/postal.html Frank's compulsive guide to postal addresses] Category:Human geography Category:Postal system

Virginia State Highway 7

rightVirginia State Highway 7 (also known simply as Route 7) is a major surface highway and busy commuter route in Northern Virginia. It extends from Virginia State Highway 400 in Alexandria to U.S. Highway 11 in Winchester. Route 7 passes through many economically important Virginia communities and is a main street (if not the main street) in most of those communities. Among those communities are Alexandria, Bailey's Crossroads, Seven Corners, Falls Church, Tysons Corner, Leesburg, and Berryville. Route 7 is called King Street inside the city limits of Alexandria, Leesburg Pike in Fairfax County, and Harry Byrd Highway in Loudoun County. In addition to numerous at-grade intersections, Route 7 has off-level interchanges with the following routes:
- Interstate 395
- Columbia Pike (VA 244)
- U.S. Highway 50
- Interstate 66
- Interstate 495 (Capital Beltway)
- Virginia State Highway 123
- Virginia State Highway 267
- Fairfax County Parkway
- Cascades Parkway (Secondary Route 1794)
- Algonkian Parkway (Secondary Route 1582)
- Virginia State Highway 28
- U.S. Highway 15 bypass in Leesburg Route 7 splits into business and bypass routes three times in Loudoun County. West of Interstate 395, Route 7 is part of the National Highway System. Category:Alexandria, Virginia Category:Clarke County, Virginia Category:Fairfax County, Virginia Category:Frederick County, Virginia Category:Loudoun County, Virginia 007

Interstate 395 (District of Columbia-Virginia)

.]] Interstate 395 in Virginia is a 13 mile (21 km) long spur route that begins at a junction with Interstate 95 in Springfield, Virginia and ends in downtown Washington, District of Columbia. It passes underneath the National Mall near the United States Capitol and ends at a junction with U.S. Highway 50 at New York Avenue, roughly a mile (2 km) north of the Capitol tunnel.

History: Shirley Highway

The portion of Interstate 395 between The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia and the interchange with Interstate 95 and the Capital Beltway at Springfield was originally part of the Henry G. Shirley Memorial Highway, named for a Virginia Highway Commissioner, who died on July 16, 1941, just a few weeks after approving work on the new expressway. Originally Virginia Highway 350, the full-length of the Shirley Highway was opened on Sept. 6, 1949 from a point south of the Pentagon to Woodbridge, Virginia along what is now the Interstate 95 corridor. Shirley Highway featured the United State's first reversible bus lanes, a precursor to today's HOV lanes.

Interstate Highway through Washington

Original plans called for I-395 to cut straight through Washington, DC and connect with I-95 again in Maryland. Neighborhood opposition halted this plan in 1977, diverting planned funding to construction of the Washington Metro. I-395 now ends in Washington, D.C., at a traffic signal at U.S. Highway 50, which is New York Avenue, near Mount Vernon Square.

Springfield Interchange

The jumble of highways in Virginia where I-395, I-95, and the Capital Beltway meet is officially called the "Springfield Interchange," and unofficially as The Mixing Bowl.

HOV facility

A noteworthy feature, at least from the standpoint of local commuters, is a reversible, barrier-separated HOV facility, with its own entrances and exits, provided as a third roadway of Interstates 395 and 95 between Washington, D.C., and Virginia State Highway 234 in Prince William County, Virginia. During rush hour, the HOV facility operates in the direction of rush-hour traffic and is reserved for HOV-3 and certain other users. At other times, the HOV facility may be open to all traffic, but still in only one direction, or it may be closed to all traffic.

Potomac River: Arland D. Williams Jr. Memorial Bridge

I-395 and US 1 cross the Potomac River from Virginia to Washington DC on a 3-span bridge. This bridge is known for the Air Florida plane that hit one of its spans during an evening rush hour snowstorm in 1982. The oldest span, formerly the Rochambeau, is now named Arland D. Williams, Jr. Memorial Bridge in honor of Arland D. Williams Jr., a passenger of Air Florida Flight 90 who survived the crash, escaped from the sinking aircraft, and perished in the Potomac River while saving others from the icy waters.

External links

- [http://www.kurumi.com/roads/3di/i395.html#395dc Kurumi - I-395 Washington, D.C.; Virginia]
- [http://www.roadstothefuture.com/main.html Roads to the Future]
- [http://www.virginiadot.org/comtravel/hov-novasched.asp HOV in Northern Virginia, from the Va. Dept. of Transportation]
- [http://www.springfieldinterchange.com/ Springfield Interchange reconstruction, from the Va. Dept. of Transportation] 95-3 District of Columbia 95-3 95-3

American Revolutionary War

The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known, especially internationally, as the American War of Independence, was a war fought primarily between Great Britain and revolutionaries within thirteen British colonies in North America. The war began largely as a colonial revolt against the economic policies of the British Empire, and eventually widened far beyond British North America, with France, Spain, and the Netherlands entering the war against Great Britain. Additionally, many American Indians fought on both sides of the conflict. Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture colonial coastal cities, but control of the countryside largely eluded them. French involvement proved decisive, with a naval victory in the Chesapeake leading to the surrender of a British army at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 recognized the independence of the United States of America. Because a great number of colonists fled the thirteen colonies and settled in the north, the war also paved the way for the eventual creation of what would become Canada. The terms American Revolutionary War and American Revolution are often used interchangeably, though the American Revolution included political and social developments before and after the war itself. This article refers solely to the military campaign; for a broader perspective, including the origins and aftermath of the war, see the American Revolution.

Combatants

Colonists

Colonists were divided over which side to support in the war. About 40 to 45 percent of the colonial population supported the struggle for independence, and were known as "Patriots" (or "Whigs"). About 15 to 20 percent supported the British Crown during the war, and were known as "Loyalists" (or "Tories"). Loyalists fielded perhaps 50,000 men during the war years in support of the British Empire. In some areas, the American Revolutionary War was a civil war. When the war began, the American revolutionaries did not have a professional army (also known as a "regular" or "standing" army). Each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local militia. Militiamen served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were generally reluctant to go very far from home, and would often come and go as they saw fit. Militia typically lacked the training and discipline of regular troops, but could be effective when led by talented officers. Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established (on paper) a regular army—the Continental Army—in June of 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war. Although as many as 250,000 Patriots may have served as regulars or militiamen in the eight years of the war, there were never more than 90,000 total men under arms for the revolutionaries in any given year. Armies in North America were small by European standards of the era; the greatest number of men that Washington personally commanded in the field at any one time was fewer than 17,000.

European nations

commander-in-chief Early in 1775, the British army consisted of about 36,000 men worldwide, but wartime recruitment steadily increased this number. Additionally, over the course of the war the British hired about 30,000 German mercenaries, popularly known in the colonies as "Hessians" because many of them came from Hesse. Germans would make up about one-third of the British troop strength in North America. By 1779, the number of British and German troops stationed in North America was over 60,000, though these were spread from Canada to Florida. France, the Netherlands and Spain entered the war against Great Britain in an attempt to dilute Britain's emerging superpower status. Early on, all three countries quietly provided financial assistance to the American rebels. France officially entered the war in 1778 and soon sent troops, ships, and military equipment to fight against the British for the remainder of the war. Spain entered the war in 1779, officially as an ally of France, not the United States—Spain was not keen on encouraging similar rebellions in her own empire. The Netherlands entered the war late in 1780, but was soon overwhelmed by the British.

Blacks and Native Americans

African-Americans, slaves and free blacks, served on both sides during the war. Black soldiers served in northern militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South, where slaveowners feared arming slaves. Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British, and Sir Henry Clinton issued a similar edict in New York in 1779. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms. Many of the rest served as orderlies, mechanics, laborers, servants, scouts and guides, although more than half died in smallpox epidemics that swept the British forces, and a number were driven out of the British lines when food ran low. Despite Dunmore's promises, the majority were not given their freedom. In response, and because of manpower shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. All-black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many were slaves promised freedom for serving in lieu of their masters; another all-black unit came from Haiti with French forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought as Patriots. Most American Indian communities east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, many divided over the question of which side to support. Most Native Americans who joined the fight fought against the United States, since native lands were threatened by ever expanding Anglo-American settlement. An estimated 13,000 warriors fought on the British side; the largest group, the Iroquois Confederacy, fielded about 1,500 warriors against the Patriots.

War in the North

Massachusetts, 1774 to 1776

Iroquois Confederacy In 1774, the British parliament effectively abolished the provincial government of Massachusetts. Lieutenant General Thomas Gage, already the commander-in-chief of British troops in North America, was also appointed governor of Massachusetts and was instructed by King George's government to enforce royal authority in the troublesome colony. However, popular resistance compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in Boston. Gage commanded four regiments of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Patriots. On the night of 18 April 1775, General Gage sent 900 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at Concord, Massachusetts. Several Patriot riders — including Paul Revere — alerted the countryside, and when the British troops entered Lexington on the morning of 19 April, they found 75 minutemen formed up on the village common. Shots were exchanged, and the British moved on to Concord, where there was more fighting. By the time the "redcoats" (as the British soldiers were called) began the return march, several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road. A running fight ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily. With the Battle of Lexington and Concord — the "Shot heard 'round the world" — the war had begun. Afterwards, thousands of Patriot militiamen converged on Boston, bottling up the British in the city. Late in May, Gage received by sea about 4,500 reinforcements and a trio of generals who would play a vital role in the war: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. They formulated a plan to break out of the city. On June 17, 1775, British forces under General Howe seized the Charlestown peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill. The battle was technically a British victory, but losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. Thus the siege was not broken, and General Gage was soon replaced by Howe as commander-in-chief for the British. In July of 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces. The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March of 1776, heavy cannons that had been captured by Patriots at Fort Ticonderoga were moved to Boston, a difficult feat engineered by Henry Knox. When the guns were placed upon Dorchester Heights, overlooking the British positions, Howe's situation became untenable. The British evacuated the city on March 17, 1776 and sailed for temporary refuge in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The colonial militia dispersed, and in April Washington took most of the Continental Army to fortify New York City.

Canada, 1775 to 1776

During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. Congress had initially invited French-Canadians to join them as the fourteenth colony, but when that failed to happen, an invasion of Canada was authorized in an attempt to drive the British from the Canadian provinces. Two expeditions were undertaken. On September 16, 1775, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, capturing Montreal on November 13. General Guy Carleton, the governor of Canada, escaped to Quebec. The second expedition, led by Colonel Benedict Arnold, set out from Fort Western (present day Maine) on September 25. The expedition was a logistical nightmare, and many men succumbed to smallpox. By the time Arnold reached Quebec in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Nevertheless, Arnold demanded the surrender of the city, to no avail. Montgomery joined Arnold, and they attacked Quebec on December 31, but were soundly defeated by Carleton. Montgomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and many men were taken prisoner. The Patriots held on outside Quebec until the spring of 1776, and then withdrew. Another attempt was made by the Patriots to push back towards Quebec, but failed at Trois-Rivières on June 8, 1776. Carleton then launched his own invasion, and defeated Arnold in a naval battle on Lake Champlain (the Battle of Valcour Island) in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion of Canada had begun. The invasion of Canada ended as an embarrassing disaster for the Patriots, but Arnold's improvised navy on Lake Champlain managed to delay the fateful British counter thrust (the Saratoga Campaign) until 1777.

New York and New Jersey, 1776 to 1777

Having withdrawn from Boston, the British now focused on capturing New York City. General Howe, with the services of his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, began amassing troops on Staten Island in July of 1776. General Washington, with a smaller army of about 20,000 men, unwittingly violated a cardinal rule of warfare, and divided his troops about equally between Long Island and Manhattan, thus allowing the Howes to engage only one half of the Continental Army at a time. In late August, the Howes transported about 22,000 men (including 9,000 "Hessians") to Long Island. In the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776, the British expertly executed a surprise flanking maneuver, driving the Patriots back to the Brooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe then laid siege to the works, but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime evacuation to Manhattan. Having taken Long Island, the Howes moved to seize Manhattan. On September 15, General Howe landed about 12,000 men on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Patriots withdrew to Harlem Heights, where they skirmished the next day, but held their ground. When Howe moved to encircle Washington's army in October, the Patriots again fell back, and a battle at White Plains was fought on October 28, 1776. Once more Washington retreated, but Howe, instead of aggressively pursuing the withdrawal, returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November, taking almost 3,000 prisoners. Four days later, Fort Lee, across the Hudson River from Fort Washington, was also taken. Hudson River is an iconic image of American history.]] General Lord Cornwallis continued to chase Washington's army through New Jersey, until the Patriots withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December. With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing Patriot army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 of the rebels. He controlled much of New York and New Jersey, and was in a good position to resume operations in the spring, with the rebel capital of Philadelphia in striking distance. The outlook of the Continental Army — and thus the revolution itself — was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote Thomas Paine, who was with the army on the retreat. The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Spirits were low, popular support was wavering, and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair. Washington reacted by taking the offensive,