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Vikramshila

Vikramshila

Vikramshila University was one of the two most important centers of Buddhist learning in India, along with Nalanda University. Vikramashila was established by King Dharampal of Bengal (783 to 820) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at Nalanda. Atisha, the renowned pandita, is sometimes listed as a notable abbot. Vikramashila was destroyed by Muslim invaders along with the other major centers of Buddhism in India around 1200. Remains have been partially excavated at village Antichak in the Bhagalpur district, Bihar state, India, and the process is still underway.

External link

- [http://bihar.nic.in/Depts/Tourism/Vikramshila.htm Bihar Government Tourism Department]
- [http://www.bhagalpuronline.com/homepage%20files/vikaramshila.htm Vikramshila page Bhagalpuronline] Category: History of Bengal Category: Buddhism

Also see

- Ancient Universities of India Category:Ancient Universities of India

Nalanda

Nalanda is a historical place in central Bihar, India, 90 km south-east of the state capital of Patna. It is the place where one of the best known Universities of India existed. It is not inhabited now, and the nearest habitation is a village called Bargaon. Nalanda is important to the history of India, and that of Buddhism. Nalanda literally means the place that confers the lotus. The Jain Tirthankara Mahavira attained Moksha at Pavapuri, which is located in Nalanda. However, the site is better known for its importance in Buddhist history. The famous Nalanda University had been established at the site by the 5th century BCE and the Buddha is believed to have visited it and given sermons near "the Mango Grove of Pavarika". Later, Nalanda University became an important Buddhist centre of learning, at its peak accommodating up to 10,000 students. Among the famous teachers there was Nagarjuna. The Tang Dynasty Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang left detailed accounts of the university in the 7th century. In 1193, the Nalanda University complex was destroyed by Turkish Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khalji; this event is seen as the final milestone in the decline and near extinction of Buddhism in India. A vast amount of what is considered to be Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) actually stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nalanda teachers and traditions. Other forms of Buddhism, like the Mahayana followed in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan, found their genesis in the hallowed portals of the ancient university. Theravada, the other main school of Buddhism, followed in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and elsewhere, and later the mystic Theravada schools also developed here. A number of ruined structures survive. Nearby is the Surya Mandir, a Hindu temple. The known and excavated ruins extend over an area of about 150,000 square metres, although if Xuanzang's account of Nalanda's extent is correlated with present excavations, almost 90% of it remains unexcavated. In 1951, a modern centre for Pali (Theravadin) Buddhist studies was founded nearby, the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara. Presently, this institute is pursuing an ambitious program of satellite imaging of the entire region. The Nalanda Museum contains a number of manuscripts, and shows many examples of the items that have been excavated.

External links

- [http://sarvadharma.org/Museum/Articles/nalanda.htm The Sack of Nalanda]
- [http://www.asiasocietymuseum.com/buddhist_trade/himalaya_tibet.html Manuscript originally from Nalanda]
- [http://www.infolanka.com/nalanda/ Nalanda College, Sri Lanka]
- [http://www.nalandacollege.ca Nalanda College, Toronto, Canada]
- [http://www.nalanda-monastery.org/ Nalanda Monastery, Lavaur, France]
- [http://indiaculture.nic.in/en/Org/nalanda.htm Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar State, India] Category:Former Buddhist Temples Category:Ruins Category:Cities of Ancient India Category:Ancient Universities of India Category:Jainism

783

Events Births Deaths
- July 12 - Bertrada, wife of Pippin III (b. 720) Category:783 ko:783년

Atish Dipankar Srigyan

Atiśa Dipamkarashrijnana (982 - 1054 CE) was a Buddhist teacher who reintroduced Buddhism into Tibet after King Langdharma had nearly destroyed it. He studied and mastered all of the traditions of Buddhism in India. After different trials to invite him to Tibet, he finally accepted the invitation and came to Tibet for the rest of his life. Some tibetan sources say he was also abbot of Vikramashila University at one point, one of the great centers of Buddhist learning after Nalanda University.

Early life

He was born in the village Vajrayogini in the Bikrampur region of Bengal, currently in Bangladesh, in 980 CE. His childhood name was Chandragarbha. From a very young age he showed an extraordinary aptitude for Dharma and studied sincerely under more than 100 teachers. He received, practiced, and mastered the instructions on the Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism and was regarded highly by all the traditions of Buddhism in India at the time.

Preaching in Sumatra and Tibet

In 1011 CE, Atiśa, along with more than 100 disciples, went to Srivijaya in what is now Indonesia and became a disciple of Dharmakirti, known in Tibetan as Serlingpa Gser-gling-pa, to receive instructions on Bodhicitta. Atiśa stayed with Serlingpa for 12 years. He then returned to Magadha where he met great Buddhist scholars who all acknowledged his superior knowledge and scholarship. In the 11th century, the king Byang-chub 'Od invited Atiśa to come from Bengal to Tibet, in order to help him raise money to build a large statue of Manjuśri. Atiśa composed his famous "Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment". It is a short text on lamrim, the stages of the path to enlightenment. Dromtonpa, the principal disciple of Atiśa kept the complete legacy of Atiśa and this became later known as as the Kadampa (Bka'-gdams-pa) tradition. This was later revived by the Tibetan teacher Tsongkhapa (Btsong-ka-pa), the founder of the Gelug (Dge-lugs) tradition. Since that time the Kadampa school of Atiśa is named Old Kadampa and Tsongkhapas Gelug school is named New Kadampa. Firstly the tradition on the instructions on Bodhicitta were kept very secret. In Tibet Atiśa passed it only to his main disciple Dromtonpa. Later the instructions became known in Tibet as Training the Mind (Tib. blo-ljong) and were integrated and emphasised in all four tibetan buddhist schools. Suvarnadvipa is generally taken to mean insular Southeast Asia. In Atiśa's time the area was dominated by the great empire of Srivijaya which was known as a seat of Buddhist learning.

Writings

Atiśa wrote, translated and edited more than two hundred books, which helped spread Buddhism in Tibet. He discovered several sanskrit manuscripts in Tibet and copied them himself. He translated many books from Sanskrit to Tibetan. He also wrote several books on Buddhist scriptures, medical science and technical science in Tibetan. Dipankar wrote several books in Sanskrit, but only their Tibetan translations are extant now. 79 of his compositions have been preserved in Tibetan translation in the Tenjur (bstan-sgyur). Following are his most notable books- :
- Vodhipathapradipa, :
- Charyasanggrahapradipa :
- Satyadvayavatara :
- Vodhisattvamanyavali :
- Madhyamakaratnapradipa :
- Mahayanapathasadhanasanggraha :
- Shiksasamuchchaya Abhisamya :
- Prajnaparamitapindarthapradipa :
- Ekavirasadhana :
- Vimalaratnalekha Vimalaratnalekha is a Sanskrit letter to Nayapala, king of Magadha. Charyasamgrahapradipa contains some kirtan verses composed by Atiśa.

Death

After staying for thirteen years in Tibet, Atiśa died in 1053 CE in a village called Lethan, near Lhasa, at the age of 73. The site of his last rites at Lethan has turned into a shrine. His ashes were brought to Dhaka, Bangladesh on 28 June 1978 and placed in Dharmarajika Bauddha Vihara.

References

- [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/D_0238.htm Banglapedia Article on Atisha Dipamkara]
- [http://www.lamayeshe.com/otherteachers/atisha/tibet.shtml Tibetan Biography of Atisha]
- Geshe Sonam Rinchen, Atisha's Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, Snow Lion Publications

External links

- [http://www.meditateinlondon.org.uk/buddhist-quote.php Buddhist quote - Atisha's advice] Category:982 births Category:1054 deaths Category:Buddhist philosophers Category:Bangladeshi people

1200

Events

- University of Paris receives charter from Philip II of France
- Mongol victory over Northern China — 30,000,000 killed

Births

- Al-Abhari, Persian philosopher and mathematician (died 1265)
- Ulrich von Liechtenstein, German nobleman and poet (died 1278)
- Adam Marsh, English Franciscan (approximate date; died 1259)
- John Fitzalan, Lord of Oswestry
- Matthew Paris, English Benedictine monk and chronicler (approximate date; died 1259)
- Rabbi Isaac ben Moses of Vienna (died 1270)
- Dogen Zenji, founder of Soto Zen (died 1253)

Deaths

- Joscelin III of Edessa
- Zhu Xi, Chinese philosopher (born 1130) Category:1200 ko:1200년

Bhagalpur district

Bhagalpur district is one of the thirty-seven districts of Bihar state, India, and Bhagalpur town is the administrative headquarters of this district. Bhagalpur district is a part of Bhagalpur division.

States and territories of India

India is subdivided into twenty-eight states, six union territories and the National Capital Territory.

History

Pre-independence

British India, which included all of modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan, but not Ceylon, was made up of two types of territorial divisions, provinces and Princely States.

Provinces

Provinces of India were ruled directly by British officials; a governor, chief commissioner, or Administrator, who were appointed by the Viceroy. By 1947 British India had fifteen provinces: Ajmer-Merwara, Assam, Baluchistan, Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces and Berar, Coorg, Delhi, Madras, Northwest Frontier, Orissa, Punjab, Sind, and United Provinces.

Princely States

Princely states were ruled by local, hereditary rulers, who acknowledged British sovereignty in return for local autonomy and British India had hundreds of princely states, which varied greatly in size, from Hyderabad, with a population of over ten million, to tiny states. Most of the princely states were under the authority of a British political agent responsible to the governor of a province. Two divisions, the Central India Agency and Rajputana Agency, consisted of numerous princely states which were governed by a political agent appointed by the Governor-General of India, rather than the governor of a province, and the four largest princely states, Hyderabad, Baroda, Mysore, and Jammu and Kashmir, were directly under the authority of the Governor-General.

Other European Possessions

- Portuguese India included the coastal enclaves of Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli,
- French India included five enclaves, Pondichery, Chandernagore, Yanaon, Karikal, and Mahe.
- Danish India (integrated into British India prior to independence

Post-independence

With the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, provinces and princely states were assigned to one country or the other, with two provinces, Punjab and Bengal, partitioned between India and Pakistan along religious lines. Hyderabad's Muslim ruler attempted to remain independent, but the Indian army intervened and Hyderabad was annexed to India. India and Pakistan contested for control of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; the state had a Muslim majority, but its Hindu ruler acceded to India. The period from independence in 1947 to the beginning of the Indian republic in 1950 saw the consolidation of the former princely states into new provinces, usually governed by a rajpramukh, (governor) appointed by the Governor-General of India. In 1950, the Indian constitution took effect, the office of the Governor-General was abolished, and India created several different categories of states. Part A states, which were the former provinces, were ruled by an elected governor and state legislature. The nine Part A states were Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh (formerly Central Provinces and Berar), Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh (formerly United Provinces). The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of princely states, governed by a rajpramukh. They were Hyderabad, Saurashtra, Mysore, Travancore-Cochin, Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh, Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), and Rajasthan. The ten Part C states included both former princely states and provinces. They were governed by a chief commissioner. The Part C states included Delhi, Kutch, Himachal Pradesh, Bilaspur, Coorg, Bhopal, Manipur, Ajmer, and Tripura. Jammu and Kashmir had special status until 1957. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands was established as a union territory, ruled by a Lieutenant Governor appointed by the central Indian government. The French enclave of Chandernagore voted to join India in 1949, and officially became part of India in 1952, becoming part of the state of West Bengal in 1954. The remainder of French India, Pondichery, Yanaon, Karikal, and Mahe, were administered by India after 1954, formally becoming a union territory in 1962. Dadra and Nagar Haveli was occupied by India 1954, and Goa, Daman, and Diu in 1961, and they subsequently became union territories. In 1953, the Telugu-speaking northern portion of Madras state voted to become the new state of Andhra Pradesh, the first of India's linguistic states.

The States Reorganization Act of 1956

In 1956, the States Reorganization Act took effect, which erased the distinction between parts A, B, and C states, and reorganized state boundaries along linguistic lines. The new states, mostly the former Part A states, were Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore (later renamed Karnataka), Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Pondichery, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Laccadive, Mincoy, and Amandivi Islands became union territories. The remainder of the states were merged into the new states or union territories. Several new states and union territories have been created out of existing states since 1956. Bombay State was split into the linguistic states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on May 1 1960. Haryana was created in 1966 out of Punjab. The union territories of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland were created out of Assam. In 2000 three new states were created; Jharkhand was created out of the southern districts of Bihar, Chhattisgarh was created out of eastern Madhya Pradesh, and Uttaranchal was created out of northwestern Uttar Pradesh. The Kingdom of Sikkim was annexed to India as a state in 1975. In addition, several union territories have become states, namely Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above the age of eighteen are eligible to vote. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature. India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are eighteen appellate High Courts, having jurisdiction over a large state or a group of states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.

Politics

Chief Justice of India For most of its independent history, India's national government has been controlled by the Indian National Congress Party. Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, Congress, usually led by a member of the Nehru-Gandhi family, dominated national politics for over forty years. In 1977, a united opposition, under the banner of the Janata Party, won the election and formed a non-Congress government for a short period after the unpopular 'emergency rule' imposed by Indira Gandhi in the previous Congress regime. In 1996, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a political party with a right wing nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established for the first time a serious opposition to the largely centre-left Congress. But power was held by two successive coalition governments, who stayed on with the support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) along with smaller parties and became the first non-Congress government to sustain the full five year term after it returned to power in 1999. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by short-lasting governments, with seven separate governments formed within that period. One however, a Congress government formed in 1991, lasted the full five years and initiated significant economic reforms. In the 2004 Indian elections the Congress party returned to power after winning the largest number of seats, by a narrow margin. Congress formed a government in alliance with the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and with several mostly-regional parties called the United Progressive Alliance. The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments formed since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single majority party, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.

States and union territories

India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into districts), six Union Territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government, though some have elected governments. India has had two scientific bases in Antarctica – the Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri, but has made no territorial claims so far.

Geography

Maitri in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]] India's entire north and northeast states are made up of the Himalayan Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile Indo-Gangetic plain. Towards western India, bordering southeast Pakistan, lies the Thar Desert. The southern Indian peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan plateau. The plateau is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. India is home to several major rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, and the Krishna. The rivers are responsible for the fertile plains in northern India which are conducive to farming. The Indian climate varies from a tropical climate in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalaya have a tundra climate. India gets most of its rains through the monsoons.

Economy

monsoon India has an economy ranked as the tenth largest in the world in terms of currency conversion and fourth largest in terms of purchasing power parity. It recorded one of the fastest annual growth rates of 6.9% for the year ending March 2005. India's per-capita income by purchasing power parity is US$ 3,262, ranked 125th by the World Bank. India's foreign exchange reserves amount to over US$ 143 billion. Mumbai serves as the nation's financial capital and is also home to both the headquarters of the Reserve Bank of India and the pre-eminent Bombay Stock Exchange. While a quarter of Indians still live below the poverty line, a large middle class has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the IT industry. The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on agriculture, which now contributes to less than 25 % of GDP. Other important industries are mining, petroleum, diamond polishing, films, textiles, information technology services, and handicrafts. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in software and business process outsourcing services, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005. Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages. business process outsourcing While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3 % of India's GDP. The actual employment generation, both direct and indirect, is estimated to be 42 million, or about 10 % of India's work force. In monetary terms, it contributes about US$4 billion in foreign exchange. India's major trading partners are the United States, Japan, China and the United Arab Emirates. India's main exports items include agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellry, software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals and leather products while its main import commodities are crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion while the imports were worth at US $89.33 billion.

Demographics

India is the second most populous country in the world, with only China having a larger population. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China with the world's largest population, estimated at 1.6 billion. Language, religion, and caste are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse Indian population today. Its biggest metropolitan agglomerations are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Chennai (formerly Madras). Chennai]] India's literacy rate is 64.8 % with 53.7 % of females and 75.3 % of males being literate. The sex ratio is 933 females for every 1000 males. Work Participation Rate (WPR) (the percentage of workers to total population) stands at 39.1 % with male WPR at 51.7 % and female WPR at 25.6 % inote|eu{inote|demostats{inote|religion{ref|languages{inote|tongues{see2|Christianity in India|Jews in India{seealso3|List of Indian languages by total speakers|List of cities in India|Religion in India{main|Culture of India{seealso4|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India{main|Sports in India{main|Holidays in India{Official Holidays of India{Topics related to India{portal{sisterlinks|India{wikitravel{wikicities|india|India{explain-inote{Web reference | title=India facts and figures | work=Embassy of India| URL= http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Forex reserves up by $1bn | work=Economic Times| URL= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India Economy | work=Travel Document Systems |URL= http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Services | work=India in Business| URL= http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work=Times of India | URL= http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= US, UAE, UK, China, Japan among India's top trade partners | work=Indian Express| URL= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/business/20050102-0.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= CIA Factbook : India | work=CIA Factbook | URL= http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census| work=Census of India| URL=http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Debating India & India's literacy rate | work=Debating India | URL= http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India – Country profiles | work=indexmundi.com | URL= http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work=Census of India | URL= http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Languages of India | work=India image | URL= http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm| date=August 14 | year=2005{Book reference | Author=K.M. Matthew | Title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 | Publisher= Malaya Manorama | Year=2003 | ID=ISBN 8190046187{mnb|afgh|1{mnb|LoC|2{South Asia{Asia{Commonwealth of Nations{SAARC{Life in India{Link FA|sv{Link FA|sv

Category:Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion that originated in India and is currently practiced around the world. Category:Eastern culture Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements Category:Religion in India ms:Category:Agama Buddha ja:Category:仏教

Ancient Universities of India

There have been several cities in Ancient India that had been great centers of learning.
- Takshashila now near Islamabad, Pakistan (7th BCE- 460 CE), the world's first university
- Nalanda in Bihar (About 425- 1040 CE)
- Odantapuri in Bihar (About 550- 1040CE)
- Somapura now in Bangladesh (Gupta period to Turkish conquest)
- Jagaddala (Pala period to Turkish conquest)
- Vikramshila in Bihar (About 800- 1040CE)
- Valabhi in Gujarat (Maitrak period to Arab raids)
- Varanasi in UP (8th century to modern times)
- Manyakheta in Karnataka
- Sharada Temple in Kashmir
- Ratnagiri in Orissa

External references

- [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0488.htm Somapura Mahavihara]
- [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/ebdha240.htm The six Buddhist universities of ancient India]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/IndiaArchaeology/message/2547 The historic Vikramasila university]
- [http://www.everesttrekking.com/tibet/SamyeMonastery.html Samye Monastery] a copy of Odantapuri
- [http://thedailystar.net/2003/08/04/heritage.htm Paharpur]
- [http://web.archive.org/web/20040306013904/http://www.swaveda.com/Literature/Poetry/Anthology.htm Vidyakara's Subhasitaratnakosa (Jagaddla)]
- [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Bakhshali_manuscript.html The Bakhshali manuscript] from Takshashila region
- [http://web.archive.org/web/20030809151051/http://mwobd.org/abmeb.html Ancient Buddhist Monastic Establishments in Bangladesh]
- [http://www.koausa.org/KoshSam/sharda1.html Sarada Temple in Kashmir]
- [http://www.indiasite.com/archaeology/ratnagiri.html A Center Of Great Buddhist Teachings] Category:Ancient Universities of India

Passengers: Original Soundtracks 1

Original Soundtracks No. 1 is a 1995 album recorded by U2 and Brian Eno (see 1995 in music). It is a collection of songs written for mostly imaginary movies. Because it is highly experimental —bespeaking the increasing influence of Brian Eno on the band —the record company was reluctant to release it as a U2 album, so the epithet The Passengers was devised instead. Because of the "difficult" nature of the music (the album's sound is fairly similar to that of Radiohead's post-OK Computer albums) and the decision to release it under another name, the album is easily the least known and worst selling in the U2 catalogue. Further, critical reaction from the press, the fans, and even the band members, has been mixed. Drummer Larry Mullen, Jr. is noted for his disgust of the album: "There's a thin line between interesting music and self-indulgence. We crossed it on the Passengers record." [http://www.threechordsandthetruth.net/u2quotes/larry.htm] About half of the album is instrumental, and the vocal tracks generally stray from the clear hooks and melodies that usually define U2's work. Of these, the delicate "Miss Sarajevo", featuring Italian tenor Luciano Pavarotti on vocals, is considered the most memorable. Reflecting on the album in 1997, Mullen stated, "It hasn't grown on me. However, 'Miss Sarajevo' is a classic." [http://atu2.com/news/article.src?ID=2586]

Music for films

The album alleges to be a collection of songs written for movies. The booklet contains detailed descriptions of each film for each song, even though many of them are not real (although some, such as Ghost in the Shell and Miss Sarajevo, are). For example, for "Slug", from the fictional movie of the same name, the description provided is: :Von Heineken's third feature, Slug is an extension of the gritty, photo-realistic style he developed in Alcatura (1984) and Breaking Glass (1986). Deiter, a young car mechanic (Karl Popper) unable to attract the attention of the cashier Nela (Catarena Hofennes) arranges an eloborate hold-up at which he will play the hero by seeing off the 'gangsters' and thus saving Nela. Things start to go badly wrong when the robbers realise that the till is really full of cash, abandon their agreement with Deiter and try to escape with the money, whereupon the escapade developes into a confused shootout during which Nela shoots a security guard in the foot and is subsequently arrested. Racked by guilt for having implicated her, Deiter sets out to secure her release by fair means or foul, seducing the Chief Warden of the woman's prison (Jutta Minnit) in the process. These descriptions includes many pseudonyms and in-jokes. In this description, "Peter Von Heineken" is a play on "Paul McGuinness", the name of U2's manager, and "Karl Popper" is the name of a philosopher. The movie descriptions are credited to "Ben O'Rian and C.S.J. Bofop". "Ben O'Rian" is an anagram for "Brian Eno", and "C.S.J. Bofop" is also "Brian Eno" with each letter of the alphabet shifted forward once. The concept can be seen as something of a successor to Eno's Music for Films album (1978).

Miss Sarajevo

1978 "Miss Sarajevo" is based on a real film, a documentary by Bill Carter. It chronicles a beauty pageant held in the midst of war-torn Yugoslavia. From the album's liner notes: :Bill Carter's award-winning documentary Miss Sarajevo chronicles one of the more bizarre events of the war in former Yugoslavia--when several artists mounted an elaborate beauty contest under mortar fire. The camera follows the organizers through the tunnels and cellars of the city, giving a unique insight into life during a modern war, where civilians are the targets. The film captures the dark humour of the besieged Sarajevans, their stubborn refusal to be demoralised, and suggests that surrealism and dadaism are the appropriate responses to fanaticism. Carter traveled to Sarajevo in the winter of 1993 to offer humanitarian aid and quickly found himself in the heart of the conflict. He lived for six months in a burnt out office building, subsisting on baby food and whatever water he could find in the rivers and sewers and delivering food and medicine to those in need. He originally contacted U2 while they were on their Zoo TV Tour. Feeling that the western media was ignoring the human aspect of the war, Carter wanted to show audiences the real people involved. The band arranged for several satellite link-ups where Carter gave the locals--who had been cut off from communication with the rest of Europe for about a year and a half at this point--an opportunity to be heard before stadiums of thousands. "The idea was simple, instead of doing what the news does, which is entertain you, I wanted to do something that the news rarely does, make a person care about the issue...I wanted young people in Europe to see the people in the war, I didn't want them see politicians or religious leaders or military spokesmen." --Bill Carter [http://forum.interference.com/t88958.html] The link-ups were brief and unedited. He had his camera sent to him from his home in California so he could film the documentary (which has no links to the band aside from the song written for it) with the same goal of exposing people to the individuals living through the war. "The war is just a backdrop, it could be any war, the point is the vitality of the human spirit to survive, [to] laugh, to love, and to move on, that is something we will be addressing always." The song protests the war in Bosnia, criticizing the international community for its inability to stop the war or help those affected by it. It was the only single released from the album. Its video combines clips from Bill Carter's documentary--which contains some striking imagery, such as a shot of the contestants holding up a banner with the words "DON'T LET THEM KILL US" [http://www.u2wanderer.org/disco/view.shtml?images/sing036-01.jpg]--with footage from the Passengers' first performance of the song at the 1995 Pavarotti and Friends concert. In addition to that performance, the song was played once on U2's Popmart Tour in 1997, at the band's Sarajevo show (with Brian Eno). The real Miss Sarajevo--the winner of the original pageant--was in attendence. The song has since been played a number of times on the band's 2005 Vertigo Tour. The "Miss Sarajevo" music video (with director's commentary) and a brief documentary about U2's Sarajevo concert are available on the DVD edition of The Best of 1990-2000.

Track listing

#"United Colours" (5:31) #"Slug" (4:41) #"Your Blue Room" (5:28) #"Always Forever Now" (6:24) #"A Different Kind of Blue" (2:02) #"Beach Sequence" (3:25) #"Miss Sarajevo" (5:41) #"Ito Okashi" (3:25) #"One Minute Warning" (4:40) #"Corpse (These Chains are Way Too Long)" (3:35) #"Elvis Ate America" (2:59) #"Plot 180" (3:41) #"Theme from The Swan" (3:24) #"Theme from Let's Go Native" (3:07) All songs written by the Passengers. Produced by Brian Eno. "Miss Sarajevo" was released as a single. It appears on U2's The Best of 1990-2000 compilation. "Your Blue Room" was released as a promotional single. It was later released as the B-side of "Staring At The Sun" in 1997 and appears on the extended version of The Best of 1990-2000 as well. The Japanese edition includes "Bottoms (Watashitachi No Ookina Yume)" (4:11), a B-side to the "Miss Sarajevo" single, as a bonus track. It is an instrumental version of the U2 song "Zoo Station", which appears on 1991's Achtung Baby.

Personnel

- Brian Eno--strategies, sequencers, synthesizer, treatments, mixing, chorus voices, vocal on "A Different Kind of Blue"
- Bono--vocals, guitar, piano on "Beach Sequence"
- Adam Clayton--bass, narration on "Your Blue Room"
- The Edge--guitars, chorus voices, vocal on "Corpse," organ on "Your Blue Room"
- Larry Mullen, Jr.--drums, percussion, rhythm sequence on "One Minute Warning," rhythm synthesizer on "United Colours"
- Luciano Pavarotti--tenor voice on "Miss Sarajevo"
- Holi--vocals
- Howie B--mixing, treatments, scratching, call vocal and rhythm track on "Elvis Ate America"
- Craig Armstrong--string arrangement on "Miss Sarajevo"
- Paul Barrett--string arrangement on "Always Forever Now"
- Des Broadbery--sequencer on "Always Forever Now"
- David Herbert--saxophone on "United Colours" and "Corpse"
- Holger Zschnderlein--additional synthesizer on "One Minute Warning".

External links

- [http://www.u2wanderer.org/disco/alb011.html Discography entry at U2 Wanderer]--Comprehensive details on various editions, cover scans, lyrics, and more.
- [http://u2-lyrics.org/passengers_original_soundtracks_1/ Album lyrics]--Searchable album lyrics.
- [http://lyrics.interference.com/u2/lyrics/albums/passengers/os1/info/index.html "Movie information"]--Contains the descriptions of each film from the booklet, along with information about the films that are real.
- [http://lyrics.interference.com/u2/lyrics/albums/passengers/os1/info/scrambles.html "Scrambled names and other surprises"]--Deciphers the disguised names and in-jokes in the liner notes.
- [http://www.u2wanderer.org/disco/coll36.html Together for the Children of Bosnia]--Documents a Pavarotti and Friends concert held for the children of Bosnia. Features the Passengers on three tracks, "Miss Sarajevo," "One," and the ensemble performance "Nessun Dorma."
- [http://www.geocities.com/cirrusminor9/html/os1info.htm Quotes and information]--Detailed background on some of the songs. Category:U2 albums Category:Brian Eno albums Category:Electronica albums Category:1995 albums Category:Island Records albums

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De woordtjes alle drie wel claer en wel bescheiden
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Vikramshila

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