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Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. It was founded by Harihara, also known as Hakka, and his brother Bukka Raya. It is named after its capital city (now ruined) of Vijayanagara, in modern Karnataka, India. It lasted from about 1336 to perhaps about 1660, though throughout its last century it was in a slow decline due to a massive and catastrophic defeat at the hands of an alliance of the sultanates, and the capital was taken and brutally razed and looted. Its foundation, and even great part of its history, is obscure; but its power and wealth are attested by more than one European traveller, such as the Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Nuniz, and the Venetian Niccolò Da Conti.

Founding

The founding of the original kingdom was based on the principality of Anegondi, based on a fortified town on the Tungabhadra river in the Deccan. In the century preceding the founding of the empire, the old kingdoms of the Deccan had been overrun by Muslim invaders from the north. From 1309, Malik Kafur reached and captured Warangal, later on reaching the Malabar kingdoms. Mubarak of Delhi reached Warangal again in 1323. Between 1334 and 1336, Muhammad Tughlaq of Delhi again overran the region, capturing Anegondi. There are several theories regarding the origin of this empire. Scholars like Prof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastry, Dr. N. Venkataramanayya and B. Surya Narayana Rao have supported the Telugu or Warrangal origin theory. Hakka and Bukka were brothers of the Kuruba clan and were commanders in the army of the King of Warangal. Muhammad bin Tughlaq after defeating the king of Warangal took Hakka and Bukka as prisoners of war to Delhi, where they were converted to Islam by force. However, the brothers escaped from Delhi vowed to preserve the Hindu culture and heritage. Under the guidance of Brahmin sage Vidyaranya founded the Vijayanagara Kingdom. The Emblem of the Kingdom was Varaha the incarnation of Lord Vishnu. The Kuruba descendents of the Kingdom still live in Hampi. But scholars like Fr. Heras, B. A. Saletore and Dr. P. B. Desai have ably rejected this theory. They hold the view that the Sangama brothers were closely connected with the Hoysalas. Dr. Desai is of the opinion that the founders of Vijayanagara never belonged to the Telugu region and the story of their captivity and conversion by the Sultan of Delhi is false. The testimony of epigraphs establishes the fact that the ancestral territory of the Sangama brothers was Karnataka and that the area round about Hampi constituted their homeland. That Harihara and his brothers hailed from the Kannada region and were legitimate successors to Hoysala sovereignty by natural process is supported by evidence. For example, they became over lords of the entire communions formerly ruled by the Hoysalas without any clash for the transfer of power. In keeping with the old tradition, they implicitly followed the Hoysala framework in all political and administrative matters. Lord Virupaksha of Hampi and Chennakeshava of Belur were worshipped. As pointed out by G. S. Gai almost half of the inscriptions of Vijayanagara are in Kannada. Many of their titles like “Bhashegetappuva - rayara - ganda” and “Rayamoovara - ganda” were in Kannada and were used in the same form even in Sanskrit. According to Dr. P. B. Desai, “the adoption of the pontiffs of Shringeri as their revered teachers and spiritual guides and the pasupata Kriyasaktis as their family priests by the Sangama is yet another testimony of their unquestionable identity with the Hoysala country and Karnataka” (Ref. Arthikage, Mangalore, India - History of Karnataka, http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm) According to another account,Muhammad bin Tughlaq made Harihara, son of Sangama, who was previously a notable or a minister of Anegondi, his governor there. Harihara, who may also be called Deva Raya, was the first emperor of the Vijayanagara empire. Another story avers that the hermit Vidyarnya himself founded the city after the discovery of a hidden treasure, ruled over it himself, and left it after his death to a Kuruba family who established the first regular dynasty. A fourth account states that while Vidyaranya was living his ascetic life amongst the mountains he was supported by meals brought to him by a shepherd of Kuruba caste called Bukka, "and one day the Brahmin said to him, 'You shall be king and emperor of all Bharata.' The other shepherds learned this, and began to treat this shepherd with veneration and made him their head; and he acquired the name of 'king,' and began to conquer his neighbours. Bukka established a city "and called it Vijaya Nagar – the city of victory . As Muhammud Tughlaq's rule ended amidst revolts against him by his Muslim subjects in the Deccan, the area ruled by Harihara expanded greatly and quickly. The city of Vijayanagara was established by about 1340 on the bank of the Tungabhadra opposite Anegondi. Harihara was succeeded, probably around 1343, by his brother, Bukka Raya, who ruled till about 1379. By the end of Bukka's reign, most of southern India to the south of the Tungabhadra had accepted his suzerainity.

The empire at its peak

In the following two centuries, the Vijayanagar empire dominated all of southern India, and was probably stronger than any other power in the Indian subcontinent. The empire during that period served as a bulwark against invasion from the Turkic Sultanates of the Indo-Gangetic Plain; and remained in constant competition and conflict with the five Deccan Sultanates that established themselves in the Deccan to the north of it. It remained a land power. In about 1510, Goa, which had been under the rule of the Sultan of Bijapur, was captured by the Portuguese, possibly with the approval or connivance of Vijayanagara. Commerce between the Portuguese and Vijayanagara became very important to both sides. The empire is generally considered to have reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya. Krishna conquered or subjugated territories on the east of the Deccan that belonged previously to Orissa. Many of the great monuments of the empire date from his time. Among these are the Hazara Rama temple, the Krishna temple and the Ugra Narasimha idol, all at Vijayanagara. He was followed by Achyuta Raya in 1530. In 1542, Achyuta was succeeded by Sada Siva Raya. But the real power lay with Rama (of the third dynasty), who seems to have made a point of unnecessarily provoking the Deccan sultanates, so that eventually they allied against him. In 1565, at the Battle of Talikota, the army of Vijayanagara was routed by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates. Rama Raya was killed in the Battle of Tallikot and his head (the real head) annually covered with oil and red pigment has been exhibited to the pious Mahomedans of Ahmudnuggur till 1829. With this, the last significant Hindu kingdom in the Deccan came to an end. Tirumala Raya the sole survivor left Vijayanagar with treasure on back of 550 elephants to Penukonda. [Please refer to Robert Sewell's excellent reasearch on Vijayanagar http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext02/fevch10.txt] Vijayanagara is considered by many today, especially in the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, to have been a golden age of culture and learning. The Haridasa Movement and the Empire: The Haridasa Movement presented, like the Virashaiva Movement, another strong current of Bhakthi, pervading the lives of millions. Thus the Haridasas presented two groups – Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The former were required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhwa through Kannada language to the people. The gospel of Madhwacharya was preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples like Narahari Thirtha, Padmanabha Thirtha, Akshobhya Thirtha, Jaya Thirtha and others. In the fifteenth century, the Haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraja of Mulbagal; but this disciple Vyasaraja (1447 – 1539 A. D.) provided it a strong organizational base. He was intimately associated with the Vijayanagar Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force. His eminent disciples were Sri Vadirajaswami and Purandaradasa.

The decline

While the empire still continued to have some power, and commanded respect, it went into a considerable decline. The rulers of this period are difficult to place clearly. It is known however that they continued to trade with the Portuguese, and that they gave the British the land grant that enabled the establishment of Madras.

Dynasties and rulers

This list is based on the book by Robert Sewell (A Forgotten Empire). Sangama Dynasty
- Harihara I (Deva Raya) 1336-1343
- Bukka I 1343-1379
- Harihara II 1379-1399
- Bukka II 1399-1406
- Deva Raya I 1406-1412
- Vira Vijaya 1412-1419
- Deva Raya II 1419-1444
- (unknown) 1444-1449
- Mallikarjuna 1452-1465 (Dates uncertain)
- Rajasekhara 1468-1469 (Dates uncertain)
- Virupaksha I 1470-1471 (Dates uncertain)
- Praudha Deva Raya 1476-? (Dates uncertain)
- Rajasekhara 1479-1480 (Dates uncertain)
- Virupaksha II 1483-1484 (Dates uncertain)
- Rajasekhara 1486-1487 (Dates uncertain) Saluva Dynasty
- Narasimha 1490-?
- Narasa (Vira Narasimha) ?-1509
- Krishna Deva 1509-1530
- Achyuta 1530-1542
- Sadasiva (in name only) 1542-1567 Tuluva dynasty
- Rama (ruled in practice) 1542-1565
- Tirumala (ruled in practice) 1565-1567
- Tirumala (crowned ruler) 1567-1575
- Ranga II 1575-1586
- Venkata I 1586-1614 Aravidu (dates uncertain, this information is based only on inscriptions), includes rulers by the names below. There is certainly more than one ruler under each name. The period extends from 1614 onward, till the last known reference in 1739.
- Ranga
- Venkata
- Rama The last known inscription referring to a monarch of his line is from 1793.

Deccan

The Deccan Plateau is a vast plateau in India, encompassing most of Central and Southern India. The name Deccan is anglicised form of the Prakrit dakkhin, itself derived from the Sanskrit dakṣiṇa, meaning south. It comprises the whole of peninsular India south of the Vindhya range and has an elevation which ranges from 1,500 to 2,500 feet (450 to 750 m). It is bounded in the west by the Western Ghats and in the east by the Eastern Ghats. These two formations form one of the vertex of a triangle which encompasses the plateau with the Vindhya range forming the third side. This region is one of the most stable land masses of the world.

Geography

It lies south of the Indo-Gangetic plain. It is bounded by the Western Ghats in the west, the Eastern Ghats to the east, the Nilgiris in the south and the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in the north. The plateau elevation is about 500 m on average. It is composed of black volcanic basalt soil. The chief crop is cotton, however sugarcane, rice and other crops also common. Several Indian states cover parts of the Deccan: Maharashtra covers most of the northern plateau, and Chhattisgarh the northeast corner. Andhra Pradesh covers the east-central portion of the Deccan, and Karnataka the west-central and most of the southern portion of the plateau, with the southernmost portion in Tamil Nadu. The largest city in the Deccan is Bangalore, southern India. Other major cities include Hyderabad, the capital of Andhra Pradesh, and Nagpur, Pune, and Sholapur in Maharashtra. The Godavari River and its tributaries, including the Indravati, drain most of the northern portion of the plateau, rising in the Western Ghats and draining east towards the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, Krishna River and its tributaries, including the Bhima River, which also run from west to east, drain the central portion of the plateau. The southernmost portion of the plateau is drained by the Kaveri River, which rises in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and bends south to break through the Nilgiri hills into Tamil Nadu, emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The vast volcanic basalt beds of the Deccan were laid down in the massive Deccan Traps eruption, which occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago. Some paleontologists speculate that this eruption may have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. During a period lasting many hundred of years there was a lot of volcanic activity in the region. The molten lava that erupted out of the volcanoes solidified into a hard rocky layer. Layer after layer was formed by the volcanic activity that lasted many hundreds of years, and when the volcanoes became extinct, they left a region of highlands with typically vast stretches of flat areas on top like a table. Hence it is also known as Table Top. Typically the Deccan Plateau is made up of basalt. This is an extrusive igneous rock. Also in certain sections of the region, we can find granite, which is an intrusive igneous rock. The difference between these two rock types are basalt rock forms on eruption of lava, that is, outside a volcano, while granite forms inside a volcano, that is, when the volcano becomes extinct the lava solidifies inside the volcano itself. The Deccan is rich in minerals. Primary mineral ores found in this region are mica and iron ore in the Chhota Nagpur region, and diamonds, gold and other metals in the Golconda region.

People

The Deccan is home to many languages and peoples. Bhil and Gond peoples live in the hills along the northern and northeastern edges of the plateau, and speak various languages that belong to both the Indo-European and Dravidian families of languages. Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language, is the main language of the north-western portion of the Deccan plateau. Urdu, Telugu, and Kannada, are the predominant languages of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka respectively, they occupy the plateau. Tamil is the main language of the country to the south of the plateau, and Malayalam that of the hills and coast to the south-west. Moreover, the city of Hyderabad is an important centre of Urdu language in the Deccan; its surrounding areas also host a notable population of Urdu speakers.

References

- [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0400/mw__0498.html Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 498] (scanned image at SriPedia Initiative): Sanskrit dakṣiṇa meaning `right', `southern'. ja:デカン高原 Category:Plateaus Category:Geography of India

1336

Events

- End of the Kemmu restoration and beginning of the Muromachi period in Japan.
- Start of the reign of Emperor Kōmyō, second of the Northern Ashikaga Pretenders
- Foundation of Vijayanagara on the southern part of the Deccan plateau in India by the brothers Harihara and Bukka Raya.
- Aberdeen is burned by the English.

Deaths

- April 14 - Emperor Go-Kogon of Japan (died 1374)
- July 25 - Albert, Count of Holland (d. 1404)
- King Albert of Sweden (died 1412)
- Cyprian, Metropolitan of Moscow (died 1406)
- Pope Gregory XI (died 1378)
- Pope Innocent VII (died 1406)
- Gao Qi, Chinese poet (died 1374)
- Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Empire (died 1405)

Births

- May 17 - Emperor Go-Fushimi of Japan (born 1288)
- Bagdad Katun, Chobanid princess
- Arpa Ke'un, Ilkhanid emperor
- Ramon Muntaner, Catalan soldier and writer (born 1270)
- Cino da Pistoia, Italian poet (born 1270)
- Elizabeth of Portugal, Catholic saint (born 1271) Category:1336 ko:1336년

Harihara

Harihara is a term used to denote the unity of Vishnu and Shiva as one and the same with Hari being the name of Vishnu and Hara that of Shiva. This is a popular concept, especially among those trying to bridge the gaps between Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Smartism holds this concept as a tenet. There is scriptural support for those assertions as both the Shri Rudram and Vishnu sahasranama indicate that Vishnu and Shiva are one. As Swami Sivananda discussed, in his book, All about Hinduism, " A bigoted Virasaivite entertains hatred towards Lord Vishnu, Vaishnavites and Puranas which treat of Vishnu. Is this not the height of folly? Is this not extreme ignorance? He has not understood the true nature of Lord Siva. He has no idea of true religion. He is a fanatic, a bigot, a man of little understanding, a narrow sectarian, with a very small constricted heart. He is like a frog in the well which has no idea of the vast ocean. Likewise, a bigoted Vira Vaishnavite entertains hatred towards Lord Siva, Saivites and Siva Puranas which discuss Lord Siva." He notes that sectarian worship is of recent origin with Saiva Siddhanta of Kantacharya and the Vaishnava sects of Madhva and Sri Ramanuja being no more than eight hundred years old. Sivananda concludes by stating: "Siva and Vishnu are one and the same entity. They are essentially one and the same. They are the names given to the different aspects of the all-pervading Supreme Soul or the Absolute. ‘Sivasya hridayam vishnur-vishnoscha hridayam sivah—Vishnu is the heart of Siva and likewise Siva is the heart of Vishnu’." Accordingly, a devotee can have intense love for his Ishta-Deva in the beginning, to intensify his devotion for that particular deity but he should have equal devotion to the other forms of the Lord also. Harihara was also the name of the founding ruler of the Vijaynagar empire.

References and external Links

- [http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_127 Siva and Vishnu are One and the Same.]

Bukka

Background

Early Life

The early life of Bukka (also known as Bukka Raya)as well as his brother Hakka (also known as Harihara Raya) are relatively unknown and most accounts of their early life are based on theories (see the Vijayanagara Empire article to get a more extended description of these theories). One such theory states that Bukka and Hakka were born from the Kuruba clan as well as commanders of the King of Warangal's army. After the King of Warangal was defeated by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, he would capture both Bukka and his brother as prisoners and send them to Delhi were both were forced to follow Islam. Even so, Bukka and his brother eventually escaped and retained their Hindu traditions and founded the Vijayanagara Empire under the influence of the Brahim sage Vidyaranya. Another account says that the brothers were instead in connection with the Hoysalas and were born from Karnataka near the Hampi territory, and that they were the successors to to the Hoysala sovereignty by natural process. Though the following may have been uncertain, either way Bukka and his brother were praised for their success in battle as well as the first rulers of the Empire.

Life in the Empire

Bukka , one of the most well-known of the Panchasangamas) as well as his brother Hakka founded the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire which reigned from the year 1336 and onwards. Under Bukka Raya's thirty seven year reign (according to Nuniz) the kingdom prospered and continued to expand as Bukka Raya conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India, continually expanding the territory of the empire. In the beginning of Bukka Raya's reign, Bukka desperately tried to destroy all hostile kingdoms so that he could strenghen the new empire, though initially he could not do anything as most of his forces were concentrated on fighting the Bahmanis. Later on, Bukka conquered Madhura and extended his territory into the south all the way to Rameswaram. He would also defeat the Shambuvaraya Kingdom of Arcot and the Reddis of Kondavidu. In 1371, his son, Kumara Kamapna defeated the Sultanate of Madhura and conquered the territory in the penninusla south of Tungabhadra. Goa and the kingdom of Orissa (Orya) were also captured and Bukka forced the kingdoms of Ceylon and Malabar to have to pay tributes to him. During his reign Bukka would also have clashes with the Bahamani Sultans. The first was during the time of Muhammad I and the other during the time of Mujahid. It is said that Bukka also sent a mission to China as well during his reign. Bukka however would later on die in about 1380 AD and was succeeded by Harihara II. It is also notable that under Bukka Raya's reign the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire established itself at Vijayanagara, on the south side of the river, which was more secure and defensive than their previous capitol at Anegondi. Even with the wars and internal conflicts, Bukka still managed to help support internal improvements for the city.

Vijayanagara

Vijayanagara (often written Vijayanagar, meaning the city of victory), in northern Karnataka, is the name of the now ruined capital city of the historic Vijayanagara empire in the Southern part of India.

Vijayanagara

Most of the city lies on the south side of the Tungabhadra river. The city was built around the original religious centre of the Virupaksha temple at Hampi. Other holy places lie within its extents, including the site of what is said to be Kishkinda, the cave home of Sugriva, the monkey king of the Ramayana. The central areas of the city, which include what are now called the Royal Centre and the Sacred Centre, extend over an area of at least 40 sq. km. It includes the modern village of Hampi. Another village, Kamalapuram, lies just outside the old walled city, but is also surrounded by ruins and monuments. The nearest major town and railhead is the town of Hospet, about 13 km away by road. The natural setting for the city is a hilly landscape, dotted with numerous granite boulders, of all sizes. The Tungabhadra river runs through a gorge alongside it, and provided protection from the north. Beyond the hills on the south bank on which the city was built, a plain extended further the south. Large scale walls and fortifications of hewn granite defended the centre of the city. The name means 'City of Victory', from vijaya (victory) and nagara (city). The ruined city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, (where it is called the Ruins of Hampi). This site has been included in the 'UNESCO List of World Heritage in Danger: 1999'.

History

The Hindu Vijayanagar empire was founded by Hakka and Bukka who were brothers of the Kuruba clan. Hakka, (later named Harihara), and Bukka (later known as Bukka Raya), from 1336 onwards. It is known that their original base was located in the area. The capital was probably first placed at Anegondi, now a small village on the north side of the Tungabhadra, opposite the Vitthala temple. As the empire began to expand and prosper under Bukka Raya, the capital was established at the more defensible and secure location of Vijayanagara, on the south side of the river. The city flourished between the 14th century and 16th century, during the height of the power of the Vijayanagar empire. During this time, it was often in conflict with the Muslim kingdoms which had become established in the northern Deccan, and which are often collectively termed the Deccan sultanates. In 1565, the empire's armies suffered a massive and catastrophic defeat at the hands of an alliance of the sultanates, and the capital was taken. The victorious armies then proceeded to raze, depopulate, and destroy the city over a period of several months. Despite the empire continuing to exist thereafter during a slow decline, the original capital was not reoccupied or rebuilt. It has not been occupied since. The buildings in the city show a certain amount of Islamic influence considering the various levels of interaction with the Islamic kingdoms. Islamic

The Sacred Center

This title is given to the areas extending from Hampi village to Matanga Hill to its east. It is sometimes extended further northeast to the Vitthala Temple.

Virupaksha Temple

This surviving temple and temple complex is the core of the village of Hampi. It is also known as the Pampapati temple. It was built and extended between the 13th and 17th centuries, and has two courts with entrance gopurams. It faces a ceremonial and colonnaded street, that exends eastwards for more than half a mile, to a monolithic statue of Nandi. The temple is still in use at the present day. It is dedicated to Virupaksha, an aspect of Shiva and his consort Pampa, a local deity. Shiva

Krishna Temple

This is a ruined temple, south of Hampi, built by the emperor Krishnadevaraya after military campaigns in Orissa. Parts of the temple and its compound have collapsed. Orissa

Ugra Narasimha

Also to the south of Hampi is this massive rock cut idol of Narasimha, the fierce aspect of Vishnu, 6.7m high. The Narasimha statue has recently been restored; the granite strap binding between his knees is a recent addition to stabilise the icon. The donation of this statue is ascribed to either Krishnadeva Raya, or to a wealthy merchant during his reign. Originally the icon bore a smaller image of Lakshmi on one knee; this had fallen off, probably due to vandalism. The statue is now in the museum at Kamalapuram.

Sugriva's cave

This is a natural cave, said to be the original home of the monkey king Sugriva, where Rama is said to have met him and Hanuman on his travels. The cave is marked by coloured markings, and the attentions of pilgrims.

Kodandarama Temple

Situated to the east of Hampi, in the sacred centre of the city, and by a narrow point of the Tungabhadra river. This temple marks the spot where Rama crowned Sugriva. The temple is still in use. Rama

Vittala Temple

Situated northeast of Hampi, opposite the village of Anegondi, this is one of the principal monuments of the city. It is dedicated to Vittala, an aspect of Vishnu worshipped in the Maratha country. It is believed to date from the 16th century. In the front of the temple is the famous stone chariot or ratha. This is itself a miniature temple, carved out of a single rock, to resemble the temple chariots or rathas in which temple idols are traditionally taken out in procession. One of the unique features of the Vittala Temple is the musical pillars. Each of the pillars that support the roof of the main temple is supported by a pillar representing a musical instrument, and is constructed as 7 minor pillars arranged around a main pillar. These 7 pillars, when struck, emanate the 7 notes from the representative instrument, varying in sound quality based on whether it represents a wind, string or percussion instrument.

The Royal Centre

This extensive area starts about 2 km to the southeast of Hampi, and extends southeast, almost to the village of Kamalapuram. It contains the ruins of palaces, administrative buildings, and some temples directly associated with royalty. Little remains of the palaces except the foundations, as they were largely timber structures, for comfort. The temples and some of the other stone structures survive however, as do many of the surrounding city walls. An aquaduct runs through much of the Royal Enclosure - a sign of the engineering accomplishments in irrigation.

Ramachandra Temple

This is also known as the Hazara Rama temple (temple of a thousand Ramas), due to the recurrence of images of Rama in the friezes on the outside of the temple. It is situated in the Royal Center of the city, to the south and east of Hampi. It is believed to be constructed at the site of Bali's killing in the hands of Rama.

Underground Temple

Also known as the Virupaksha Temple (not to be confused with the temple of the same name at Hampi), this extensive temple stands in an excavation in the ground, and is surrounded by earth embankments. At times the base of the temple is flooded and may be inaccessible. Vishnu

Lotus Mahal

A palace for the queen that has special devices for environmental control such as pipes with running water. A construction of the later Vijayanagara period, this structure has definite Islamic influence in its arched gateways and vaulted ceilings; its construction entirely in stone is a clear deviation from conventional Vijayanagara construction that used wooden structures on stone platforms (which also explains why only the platforms of most of the other buildings in the Royal enclosure remain after the city was burnt by the allied forces after the Battle of Talikota of 1665). Vishnu

Pushkarani

Also called the Stepped Bath, this is a stepped well designed for bathing, often referred to as the Queen's baths. Such sunken wells were created to provide relief from daytime heat. It is likely to have been protected by awnings or tents when the city was occupied. Vishnu

Elephant stables

A set of large stables, to house the ceremonial elephants of the royal household. The area in front of them was a parade ground for the elephants, and for troops. This is another structure that shows definite Islamic influence in its domes and arched gateways. The guards' barracks are located right next to the elephant stables.

External links

- [http://www.cloudband.com/frames.mhtml/magazine/articles/feat_fritz_vijiyanagara_p1.html Vijayanagara - City of Victory]
- [http://www.hampionline.com/ A Guide to History and Tourism at Hampi]
- [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3310 Robert Selwell's "A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): a contribution to the history of India"] Category:Cities and towns in Karnataka Category:Vijayanagara Empire

Karnataka

Karnataka (ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ in Kannada) is one of the four southern states of India. Before 1973, the state was known as Mysore state, as it was formed out of the former Kingdom of Mysore in 1950, and enlarged in 1956 to include the Kannada-speaking regions of neighboring states. Karnataka's capital Bangalore is the only city in the state with a population of more than 1 million. Other major cities include Mysore, Mangalore, Hubli-Dharwad, Bellary and Belgaum. Kannada is the official language of Karnataka. As of 2001, it is one of 10 Indian states with a population greater than 50 million.

Geography

Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the east and southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. It is situated at the angle where the western and eastern mountain ranges of South India converge into the Nilgiri Hills. The state has three principal physical zones;
- The coastal strip, between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, which is lowland, with moderate to high rainfall levels. This strip is around 320 km in length and 48-64 km wide.
- The Western Ghats, a mountain range inland from the Arabian Sea, rising to about 900m average height, and with moderate to high rainfall levels.
- The Deccan Plateau, comprising the main inland region of the state, which is drier and verging on the semi-arid. The humidity in these plains or maidans never exceeds 50 percent. There are several suggested etymologies for the name Karnataka. The most reasonable one is that it comes from "karu" + "nadu" meaning "elevated land". It is interesting to note that Karnataka has one of the highest average elevations of Indian states at 1,500 feet. The highest recorded temperature was 45.6 C (114.08 F) at Raichur on May 23, 1928. The lowest recorded temperature was 2.8 C (37.04 F) at Bidar on December 16, 1918.

Districts

see article Districts of Karnataka

Language

Language was the basis for the formation of the Indian states after independence and the new Karnataka state was formed by the inclusion of 9 new districts from the erstwhile Madras State (present day Tamil Nadu), Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh states in 1957. Certain larger districts were further divided for asdministrative convenience resulting in 27 districts in total. The predominant language of Karnataka is Kannada, which is its official language. Other languages include Tamil, Marathi, Konkani, Kodava Thakk, Tulu, Sankethi, Hindi and Urdu.

Economy

Karnataka is one of the more industrialised states in India. Its capital Bangalore has become a major hub of the Information Technology industry. 90% of India's gold production comes from Karnataka, and it is also the IT capital of india. Recently there has been a lot of activity in the extraction of manganese ore from the districts of Bellary and Hospet.

History

Hospet of Karnataka in the 13th century.]] The history of Karnataka dates back to the period of epics. The capital of Vali and Sugriva, 'Vanara Sena' of the Ramayana, is said to have been Hampi in the present day Bellary district. Hidimbasura of Mahabharatha, a cruel and fierce demon, is said to have lived in present day Chitradurga district of Karnataka, who was then exterminated by Bhima who came there along with the other Pandavas and their mother Kunti during the Vanavaasa. Stone transcriptions from the period of Ashoka are the oldest available archaelogical evidence. In the 4th century BCE, a local dynasty called Satavahana came to power, and its rule lasted nearly 300 years. With the disintegration of the Satavahana dynasty, the Kadambas came to power in the north, and the Gangas in the south of the state. The gigantic monolithic statue of Gomateswara is considered to be the monument of the Ganga period. The Chalukyas of Badami (500 to 735) ruled over a wider area, from the Narmada to the Kaveri from the days of Pulikeshi II (609 to 642) who had even defeated Harshavardhana of Kannauj. This dynasty created fine monuments at Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, both structural and rock-cut. Aihole has been one of the cradles of temple architecture in the country. The Rashtrakutas (753-973) of Malkhed who succeeded them levied tribute on the rulers of Kannauj successively in the so-called Age of 'Imperial Kannauj'. Kannada literature developed in this period. Outstanding Jain scholars of India lived in their court. The Chalukyas of Kalyana (973 to 1183) and their feudatories, the Hoysalas of Halebidu built fine temples, encouraged literature and fine arts. Noted jurist Vijnaneshwara (work-Mitakshara) lived at Kalyana. The great religious leader Basaveshwara was a minister at Kalyana. The Vijayanagar empire (1336 to 1565) fostered indigenous traditions and encouraged arts religion and literature in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil. Overseas trade flourished. The Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga (later capitals were Bidar and Bijapur) and the Adil Shahi sultans of Bijapur raised fine Indo-Saracenic buildings and encouraged Urdu and Persian literature. After the fall of Maratha Peshwa (1818) and Tipu Sultan of Mysore (1799) Karnataka came under the British. After Indian independence, the Wodeyar Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore became an Indian state, and the former Maharaja became its rajpramukh, or governor. After accession to India, the Woyedar family was provided with a pension by the Indian state until 1975, and members of the family still reside in part of their ancestral palace in Mysore. On November 1, 1956 or Rajyotsava Day (Formation Day), Mysore State was enlarged to its present boundaries, incorporating the state of Coorg and the Kannada-speaking portions of neighboring Madras, Hyderabad, and Bombay states, with an elected Chief Minister and state assembly. On November 1 1973 the name of the state was changed to Karnataka.

Natural areas

Karnataka is home to several national parks, including Bandipur National Park in Mysore District, Bannerghatta National Park Savandurga forest Kempegowda Dhama Bangalore District, Nagarhole National Park in Mysore and Kodagu districts, Kudremukh National Park in Dakshina Kannada and Chickmagalur districts, and Anshi National Park in Uttara Kannada District. There are also a number of wildlife sanctuaries and nature preserves. Jog falls of Shimoga District is the highest waterfalls in Asia.

References

External links

- [http://kstdc.nic.in/ Karnataka State Tourism Development Corporation]
- [http://www.karnatakatourism.org/ Karnataka Tourism]
- [http://www.karnataka.gov.in/ Karnataka State Government]
- [http://www.karnatakainformation.org/ Karnataka Government Information Department]
- [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/ Topics on Karnataka's History and Culture] Category:States and territories of India

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above the age of eighteen are eligible to vote. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature. India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are eighteen appellate High Courts, having jurisdiction over a large state or a group of states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.

Politics

Chief Justice of India For most of its independent history, India's national government has been controlled by the Indian National Congress Party. Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, Congress, usually led by a member of the Nehru-Gandhi family, dominated national politics for over forty years. In 1977, a united opposition, under the banner of the Janata Party, won the election and formed a non-Congress government for a short period after the unpopular 'emergency rule' imposed by Indira Gandhi in the previous Congress regime. In 1996, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a political party with a right wing nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established for the first time a serious opposition to the largely centre-left Congress. But power was held by two successive coalition governments, who stayed on with the support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) along with smaller parties and became the first non-Congress government to sustain the full five year term after it returned to power in 1999. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by short-lasting governments, with seven separate governments formed within that period. One however, a Congress government formed in 1991, lasted the full five years and initiated significant economic reforms. In the 2004 Indian elections the Congress party returned to power after winning the largest number of seats, by a narrow margin. Congress formed a government in alliance with the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and with several mostly-regional parties called the United Progressive Alliance. The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments formed since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single majority party, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.

States and union territories

India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into districts), six Union Territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government, though some have elected governments. India has had two scientific bases in Antarctica – the Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri, but has made no territorial claims so far.

Geography

Maitri in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]] India's entire north and northeast states are made up of the Himalayan Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile Indo-Gangetic plain. Towards western India, bordering southeast Pakistan, lies the Thar Desert. The southern Indian peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan plateau. The plateau is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. India is home to several major rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, and the Krishna. The rivers are responsible for the fertile plains in northern India which are conducive to farming. The Indian climate varies from a tropical climate in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalaya have a tundra climate. India gets most of its rains through the monsoons.

Economy

monsoon India has an economy ranked as the tenth largest in the world in terms of currency conversion and fourth largest in terms of purchasing power parity. It recorded one of the fastest annual growth rates of 6.9% for the year ending March 2005. India's per-capita income by purchasing power parity is US$ 3,262, ranked 125th by the World Bank. India's foreign exchange reserves amount to over US$ 143 billion. Mumbai serves as the nation's financial capital and is also home to both the headquarters of the Reserve Bank of India and the pre-eminent Bombay Stock Exchange. While a quarter of Indians still live below the poverty line, a large middle class has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the IT industry. The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on agriculture, which now contributes to less than 25 % of GDP. Other important industries are mining, petroleum, diamond polishing, films, textiles, information technology services, and handicrafts. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in software and business process outsourcing services, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005. Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages. business process outsourcing While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3 % of India's GDP. The actual employment generation, both direct and indirect, is estimated to be 42 million, or about 10 % of India's work force. In monetary terms, it contributes about US$4 billion in foreign exchange. India's major trading partners are the United States, Japan, China and the United Arab Emirates. India's main exports items include agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellry, software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals and leather products while its main import commodities are crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion while the imports were worth at US $89.33 billion.

Demographics

India is the second most populous country in the world, with only China having a larger population. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China with the world's largest population, estimated at 1.6 billion. Language, religion, and caste are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse Indian population today. Its biggest metropolitan agglomerations are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Chennai (formerly Madras). Chennai]] India's literacy rate is 64.8 % with 53.7 % of females and 75.3 % of males being literate. The sex ratio is 933 females for every 1000 males. Work Participation Rate (WPR) (the percentage of workers to total population) stands at 39.1 % with male WPR at 51.7 % and female WPR at 25.6 % inote|eu{inote|demostats{inote|religion{ref|languages{inote|tongues{see2|Christianity in India|Jews in India{seealso3|List of Indian languages by total speakers|List of cities in India|Religion in India{main|Culture of India{seealso4|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India{main|Sports in India{main|Holidays in India{Official Holidays of India{Topics related to India{portal{sisterlinks|India{wikitravel{wikicities|india|India{explain-inote{Web reference | title=India facts and figures | work=Embassy of India| URL= http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Forex reserves up by $1bn | work=Economic Times| URL= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India Economy | work=Travel Document Systems |URL= http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Services | work=India in Business| URL= http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work=Times of India | URL= http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= US, UAE, UK, China, Japan among India's top trade partners | work=Indian Express| URL= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/business/20050102-0.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= CIA Factbook : India | work=CIA Factbook | URL= http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census| work=Census of India| URL=http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Debating India & India's literacy rate | work=Debating India | URL= http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India – Country profiles | work=indexmundi.com | URL= http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work=Census of India | URL= http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Languages of India | work=India image | URL= http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm| date=August 14 | year=2005{Book reference | Author=K.M. Matthew | Title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 | Publisher= Malaya Manorama | Year=2003 | ID=ISBN 8190046187{mnb|afgh|1{mnb|LoC|2{South Asia{Asia{Commonwealth of Nations{SAARC{Life in India{Link FA|sv{Link FA|sv

Niccolò Da Conti

Niccolò Da Conti (also Nicolò de' Conti) (1395–1469) was a Venetian merchant and explorer, born in Chioggia, who traveled to India and Southeast Asia during the early 15th century. Da Conti departed from Venice about 1419 and established himself in Damascus, Syria, where he studied Arabic. Over a period of 25 years, he traveled as a Muslim merchant to numerous places in Asia. Da Conti's familiarity with the languages and cultures of the Islamic world allowed him to travel to many places, onboard ships owned by Islamic merchants. Da Conti's travels occurred around the same time and in the same places as the Chinese expeditions of Admiral Zheng He. His accounts are contemporary, and fairly consistent with those of the Chinese writers who were on Zheng He's ships, such as Ma Huan (writing in 1433) and Fei Xin (writing in about 1436).

Travels

Fei Xin Da Conti first crossed the desert to reach Baghdad and from there sailed down the Tigris to Basra. He then sailed through the Persian Gulf and went to Iran where he learned Persian. He then crossed the Arabian sea to Cambay, in Gujarat. He travelled in India to "Pacamuria", "Helly" and Vijayanagar, capital of the Deccan before 1555. He went to "Maliapur" on the east coast of India (probably modern-day Mylapore, in Chennai), where he visited the tomb of St. Thomas, who in Christian tradition is recorded to have founded a Christian community there. About 1421, Da Conti crossed to "Pedir" in northern Sumatra, where he spent a year, gaining local knowledge, particularly on the gold and spice trade. He then continued after sailing 16 days to Tenasserim on the Malay peninsula. He then sailed to the mouth of the Ganges, visited Burdwan (in West Bengal, India), then went overland to Arakan (in Burma). After traveling through Burma, he left for Java where he spent nine months, before going to Champa (in modern Vietnam). Da Conti described South-East Asia as "exceeding all other regions in wealth, culture and magnificence, and abreast of Italy in civilization". Around 1440 Da Conti sailed back to India (Quilon, Cochin, Calicut, Cambay) and then to the Middle-East (Socotra, Aden, Berbera in Somalia, Jidda in Egypt), from where he travelled overland via Mt. Sinai to Cairo. Da Conti had been traveling all along with his familly. However his wife, whom he had met in India, and two of his four children died in Egypt following an epidemic. He continued to Italy with his remaining chidren. Niccolò Da Conti returned to Venice in 1444, where he remained as a respected merchant.

Account of his voyages

1444 Throughout his travels, he had abandoned Christianity for Islam, and he was requested by Pope Eugenius IV, as a penance, to relate his travels to the papal secretary Poggio Bracciolini. Poggio's recording of Niccolò's account, made in 1439, constitute one of the best accounts of the East by a 15th century traveler. They were included in the Book IV of his "DeVarietate Fortunae" (The Vicissitudes of Fortune). Niccolò Da Conti's travels, which first circulated in manuscript form, are said to have profoundly influenced the European geographical understanding of the areas around the Indian Ocean during the middle of the 15th century. They were the first accounts to detail the Sunda Islands and Spice Islands since the accounts of Marco Polo. His accounts probably encouraged the European travels of exploration of the end of the century. He also influenced 15th century cartography, as can be seen on the Genoese Map (1447-1457), and in the work of the mapmaker Fra Mauro, whose influential Fra Mauro map (1457) offered one of the clearest depiction of the Old World. In these two maps, many new location names, and several verbatim descriptions, were taken directly from Da Conti's account. The "trustworthy source" whom Fra Mauro quoted in writing in his map about the travels of a "junk from India" (lit. "Zoncho de India"), beyond the Cape of Good Hope into the Atlantic Ocean around 1420, confirming that it was possible to sail around Africa through the south, is thought to have been Niccolo Da Conti himself. In his descriptions of Eastern Asia, Niccolo Da Conti matter-of-factly describes huge junks of about 2,000 tons, more than four times the size of 16th century Western galleons: : They make ships larger than ours, about 2,000 tons in size, with five sails and as many masts. The lower part is made of three decks, so as to better resist storms, which occur frequently. These ships are separated into several compartments, so that if one is touched during a storm, the others remain intact." Niccolò Da Conti's book was used by several explorers and travels writers, such as Ludovico di Varthema (1510), and Antonio Pigafetta, who traveled around the world with Magellan's expedition.

Editions

The first printed edition of Conti’s account was made in 1492 in the original Latin by Cristoforo da Bollate and dedicated to Pietro Cara, who was going on a journey to India. Various translations followed, into Portuguese (1502) and Spanish (1503). The first Italian-language edition appears to have been translated from the Portuguese edition, and was made a part of the collection of travellers’ accounts published in 1550 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio. The first English edition was translated from the Spanish, and printed in 1579 by John Frampton, using a combination of Marco Polo's and Da Conti's narrations.

References

- Bracciolini, Poggio: De varietate fortunae, book iv [c.1445] (ed. by Abb・Oliva, Paris 1723).
- Major, R.H. (ed.). India in the fifteenth century: Being a collection of narratives of voyages to India in the century preceding the Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, (Works issued by the Hakluyt Society) (English trans. by J. Winter Jones, Hakluyt Society, London 1857). Republished by Asian Educational Services (June 30, 1992) ISBN 8120607686
- J. H. Parry, The European Reconnaissance: Selected Documents. London, Macmillan, 1968
- Nicolo De Conti, Chandeigne (ed.), Le voyage aux Indes (in French), 2004, ISBN 2906462861

External links

- [http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/conti.html Niccolo da Conti] Conti, Niccolò Da Conti, Niccolò Da Conti, Niccolò Da Conti, Niccolò Da Conti, Niccolo Da

Tungabhadra

The Tungabhadra is a river of southern India. It is the chief tributary of the Krishna River. It formed by the confluence of two rivers, the Tunga and the Bhadra, which rise in the eastern slope of the Western Ghats, in the state of Karnataka. The Tungabhadra flows east across the Deccan Plateau, joining the Krishna in Andhra Pradesh state, from where the Krishna continues east to empty into the Bay of Bengal. The wedge of land that lies north of the Tungabhadra, between the Tungabhadra and the Krishna, is known as the Raichur Doab. Category:Rivers of India Category: Karnataka Category: Andhra Pradesh

Muslim

A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم) (sometimes also pronounced Moslem) is an adherent of Islam. Literally, the word means someone who has submitted/surrendered himself or herself to the will of God.

Definition

Most Muslims accept as a fellow Muslim anyone who has sincerely pronounced the Shahada, a ritual declaration of submission to God and assertion that Muhammad is the last prophet. Muslims describe many Biblical figures, such as Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus), as Muslims because they submitted completely to God.
- For a list of Muslims, see List of Muslims.
- For a list of different Muslim sects and divisions, see Divisions of Islam.

Etymology

The singular form of the word Muslim comes from the Arabic plural form 'Al-Muslimīn, from the tri-consonantal root SLM, also found in the words Islam and salām. The plural form is instanced in the Qur'an, 22:79, Al-Hajj.

Pronunciation and spelling

Until around the late 1980s, the word was commonly spelled Moslem. The spelling has since fallen into disuse. Muslims do not recommend this spelling because it is often pronounced "mawzlem," which sounds somewhat similar to an Arabic word for "oppressor" (Za'lem in Arabic). The word is pronounced "Mus"-lim in Arabic, but some English dictionaries allow both "Mus"-lim and "Muz"-lim. The word is written "Muslim".

Other words for Muslim

Many English-language writers used to call Muslims "Mohammedans" or "Mahometans," meaning "followers of Mohammed," but this terminology is considered incorrect and insulting, because Muslims believe it implies that they worship the prophet Muhammad, contrary to the fundamental principles of Islam itself. This terminology is seen as too similar to Christians as followers and worshippers of Christ. In addition, Muslims believe that the religion of submitting to God (Islām in Arabic) existed long before the birth of Muhammad, making all the prophets before him "Muslims." English writers of the 19th century and earlier sometimes used the words Mussulman, Musselman, or Mussulmaun. Variant forms of this word are still used by many Indo-European languages. These words are similar to the French, Spanish, and Italian words for "Muslim."

Disputes

The Ahmedi sect consider themselves Muslim, and an agnostic or atheist of Islamic background may refer to themselves as a cultural Muslim; however, most mainstream Muslims disagree with both these classifications, since they conflict with the conventional religious definition of Islam.

Warangal

Warangal is a city in Andhra Pradesh state of southeastern India. Warangal is 157 km northeast of the state capital of Hyderabad. Warangal is the administrative seat of Warangal District. Warangal is the fourth-largest city in Andhra Pradesh. It is home to Kakatiya Medical College, Kakatiya University, Kakatiya Institute of Technology and Sciences(KITS-Wgl) and the National Institute of Technology, Warangal (NITW), formerly known as Regional Engineering College, Warangal (REC).

History

National Institute of Technology, Warangal Warangal was the capital of a Hindu kingdom ruled by the Kakatiya dynasty from the 12th to the 14th centuries. The Kakatiyas left many monuments, including an impressive fortress, four massive stone gates, the Swayambhu temple dedicated to Shiva, and the Ramappa temple situated near Ramappa Lake. The cultural and administrative distinction of the Kakatiyas was mentioned by the famous traveller Marco Polo. Famous or well-known rules included Ganapathi Deva, Prathapa Rudra, and Rani (queen) Rudramma Devi. Kakatiya rule ended in the 14th century, when Warangal was conquered by the Muslim-ruled Bahmani Sultanate, which later broke up into several smaller sultanates, of which the Golconda sultanate ruled Warangal. The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb conquered Golconda in 1687, and it remained part of the Mughal empire until the southern provinces of the empire split away to become the state of Hyderabad in 1724. Hyderabad was annexed to India in 1948, and became an Indian state. In 1956 Hyderabad was partitioned as part of the States Reorganization Act, and Telangana, the Telugu-speaking region of Hyderabad state which includes Warangal, was joined to Andhra Pradesh.

Tourist attractions

Warangal Fort Warangal fort is 12-km from Hanamakonda, which dates back to the 13th century. Thousand Pillar Temple: This temple is one of the finest examples of Kakatiya architecture and sculpture. Rudra Deva built it in 1163 in the style of Chalukyan temples, star shaped and triple shrined. Bhadra Kali Temple: Situated on a hilltop between Hanamkonda and Warangal, it is noted for its stone image of the Goddess Kali. The temple is located beside the "Bhadrakali" lake (Cheruvu). Jain Temple: The 2,000-year-old Jain temple of Mahavira is a famous place of worship for Jains in the country. The temple is embellished with beautiful images of Tirthankaras. The 5ft high image of Mahavira is carved entirely out of jade. Kolanupaka: Kolanupaka, 80 km from Hyderabad, is situated between Hyderabad and Warangal. This was the second capital town of Kalyani Chalukyas during the 11th century. During this period the village was a religious centre of Jains, and ranks among other great Jain centers in the south. The State Department of Archaeology and Museums established the Kolanupaka Museum which exhibits exquisite artifacts from the numerous historical monuments in Kolanupaka. Sri Veeranarayana Temple: This temple was built in the Chalukyan style around 1104. Pakhal Lake: A man-made lake built in 1213 by the Kakatiya king, Ganapathidev, by harnessing a small tributary of the Krishna River. It is located 50 km from Warangal and spreads over an area of 30 km². Ramappa Temple: also known as Ramalingeswara Temple, this temple is situated in Palampet village, 70 km from Warangal. This is a beautiful monument dating back to 1213. It displays the glory and richness of the Kakatiya kingdom. Vanavigyan Kendra: Situated on Hunter Road between Hanamkonda and Warangal. Getting There
- Air : The nearest Airport is at Hyderabad (140-km) connected by Indian Airlines flights to all the major cities of India.
- Rail : Warangal is well connected to all the major cities in India by rail.
- Road : Volvo buses ply from Warangal to Bangalore. The regular Hi-Tech bus services are available through APSRTC from Warrangal to all other cities in Hyderabad, Yadagirigutta, Vijayawada, Armur, Kolanupaka, Jangaon, Kodad, Karimnagar, Nizamabad, Adilabad, Suryapet, Palampet, Jagtial, Khammam, Bhadrachalam, Basara, Bangalore, Mysore and Tirupati once in every 15 minutes interval.

External links

http://www.warangal.in
Category: Cities and towns in Andhra Pradesh Category: University towns

Delhi

:This article deals with the metropolis of Delhi. For the capital of India see New Delhi. Delhi (Hindi: दिल्ली Urdu: دہلی or دلّی) is a metropolis in India. The name Delhi also refers to the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), which is a special union territory jointly administered by the Central government, NCT's elected government and three municipal corporations. New Delhi, an urban area within the metropolis of Delhi, is the seat of the Government of India. Delhi's metropolitan area, known as the National Capital Region (NCR) encompasses the entire NCT as well as the neighbouring satellite towns of Faridabad and Gurgaon in Haryana, and Noida and Ghaziabad in Uttar Pradesh making it the 6th largest megalopolis in the world with a total population of 19.5 million people. Delhi has the most vibrant history of any of the more prominent cities or towns of India. It has been the "capital of seven empires" in Indian history and as per the Archaeological Survey of India, has over 60,000 recognized monuments built over several millennia. The first city of Delhi is believed to be founded by the Pandavas of the Mahabharata around 3000 BC. It was called Indraprastha. Archaeological evidence suggests that Indraprastha once stood where Purana Quila is today. A village called Indarpat existed in Delhi until the beginning of the 19th century. The name Delhi may originate from the Persian word Dahleez (دہلیز) (English: threshold, or frontier) or from the name of a Mauryan king, Raja Dhillu. The people of Delhi are known as Delhi-ites. The latter is a historical and cultural term describing people of the old city and the associated diaspora. There are, for example, communities (often living in neighbourhoods dominated and named after them) of Dilliwaalay (Urdu: دلی والے) in major Pakistani cities who still identify their clan with neighbourhoods in the Old City of Delhi. The Persianized surname Dahelvi is also related to residents of Delhi. Economically, Delhi is one of the most affluent urban centres in India and is at the heart of India's largest consumer belt. As an indicator, Delhi has more cars plying its roads than India's other four 'metros', Bangalore, Calcutta, Chennai and Bombay combined and is widely considered to have the best transport and utilities infrastructure in the country. It has in recent years emerged as an entrepôt for multi-nationals and is the primary destination for FDI in India, particularly with the emergence of its suburbs Noida and Gurgaon as commercial and industrial centres in their own right. The nation's automobile, media and consumer goods industries have facilities in and around Delhi. There is also a strong showing by key knowledge-based industries in Delhi, particularly in the life sciences, telecom and the information technology arena. A preferred destination due to the quantity and high calibre of English speakers, Delhi and its suburbs account for over 30% of India's IT and IT-enabled services (ITeS) exports--the second largest in the country (Bangalore accounts for 35%). Delhi is a very cosmopolitan city due to the multi-ethnic and multi-cultural presence of the vast Indian bureaucracy and political system, and now expanding economic base. From an international perspective, there are more than 160 embassies present and an ever increasing expatriate population. Delhi derives its historic importance from its position in Northern India, occupying a location between the Aravalli Hills to the southwest and the Yamuna river on whose western banks it stands. This enabled it to dominate the old trade routes from northwest India to the plains of the Ganges. As a result, it has always been an important cultural and intellectual centre. With a steadily increasing quality of life, a booming economy and consumer market and by virtue of the fact that it is the nation's capital, cultural and intellectual life in Delhi are burgeoning as well. Delhi also has a high standard in education. It is the home of many major educational institutions in India. Delhi also boasts of a great number of quality schools. Delhi is also home to a number of think tanks, museums, art galleries, parks and theatres. Ganges is one of the most famous landmarks in Delhi.]]

History

Ganges's new capital Shahjahanabad. Modern day Delhi is believed to be made up of seven successive cities; one of them being Shahjahanabad.]] Ganges stands at 72.5 meters above sea level.]] Ganges who lost their lives during the Afghan Wars and World War 1.]] Delhi has seen the rise and fall of many empires which have left behind a plethora of monuments that attest to the grandeur and glory of bygone ages. Traditionally, Delhi is said to be the site of the magnificent and opulent Indraprastha, capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. A village called Indarpat existed in Delhi until the beginning of the 19th century. The ancient historic village was obliterated to make place for construction of New Delhi by the British.

Ancient history

Excavations have unearthed sherds of the grey painted ware (c. 1000 BC) that some archaeologists associate with the age of the Mahabharata, but no coherent settlement traces have been found. Some locate Indraprastha in the Purana-Qila area. The earliest architectural relics age back to the Mauryan Period (c. 300 BC); since then, the site has seen continuous settlement. In 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan King Ashoka (273-236 BC) was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Two sandstone pillars inscribed with the edicts of Ashoka were later brought to the city by Firuz Shah Tughluq. The famous Iron pillar near the Qutub Minar was commissioned by the emperor Kumara Gupta I of the Gupta dynasty (320-540) and transplanted to Delhi at some time in the 10th century. Eight major cities have been situated in the Delhi area. The first four cities were in the southern part of present-day Delhi. The more recent city is believed to be made up of seven successive cities, the remains of some of which can still be seen on the ground. They are # Qila Rai Pithora built by Prithvi Raj Chauhan, near the oldest Rajput settlement in Lal-Kot; # Siri, built by Alauddin Khilji in 1303; # Tughluqabad, built by Ghiyazudin Tughluq (1321-1325); # Jahanpanah, built by Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325-1351); # Kotla Firoz Shah, built by Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388); # Purana Qila built by Sher Shah Suri and Dinpanah built by Humayun, both in the same area near the speculated site of the legendary Indraprastha (1538-1545); and # Shahjahanabad, built by Shah Jahan from 1638 to 1649, containing the Lal Qila and the Chandni Chowk.

8th century to 16th century

The Tomara Rajput dynasty founded Lal Kot, which lies near the Qutub Minar, in 736. In the Prithvirajaraso, the Rajput Anangpal is named as the founder of Delhi. The Chauhan Rajput kings of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot from the Tomaras in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora. The Chauhan king Prithviraj III was defeated in 1192 by the Afghan army of Muhammad Ghori. After 1206, Delhi became the capital of the Delhi Sultanate. the first rulers were known as the Slave Dynasty as many of the rulers of this dynasty were former slaves. This includes the first Sultan of Delhi, Qutb-ud-din Aybak who was a former slave who rose through the ranks to become a general followed by governor and then Sultan of Delhi. Qutb-ud-din started the construction the Qutub Minar, instantly recognisable as a symbol of Delhi, to commemorate his victory but died before its completion. He also constru

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