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University Of Dublin

University of Dublin

The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity of Queen Elizabeth near Dublin or more commonly Trinity College, Dublin was founded in 1592 by Queen Elizabeth I, and is the only constituent college of the University of Dublin, Ireland's oldest university. Trinity is located on College Green in Dublin, opposite the former Irish Houses of Parliament (now a branch of the Bank of Ireland). The campus occupies 47 acres (190,000 m²), with many attractive buildings, both old and new, centred around large courts and two playing fields. The college and university are effectively one, and as such are often referred to collectively as the University of Dublin, Trinity College. The main exception to this is the conferring of degrees; the college provides all the programmes and academic staff are members of it, but the university confers the degree.

History

acre Trinity was founded by a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I in 1592. The Corporation of Dublin granted the new university the lands of All Hallows monastery, a mile to the south east of the city walls. Trinity is today in the very centre of Dublin, as the city has moved eastwards. During its early life, Trinity was a university exclusively for the Protestant ascendency class of Dublin. Following the first steps of Catholic Emancipation, Roman Catholics were first admitted in 1793 (prior to Cambridge and Oxford, upon which Trinity was modelled). In 1873 all religious tests were abolished, except for Divinity. The Roman Catholic Church had a policy until 1970 under the Archbishop of Dublin John Charles McQuaid of excommunication for Catholics who took a place, although they could receive a special dispensation. excommunication Women were admitted to Trinity for the first time in 1904, thus making it the first ancient university in Ireland or Britain to do so. The first woman professor was appointed in 1934. A more detailed history: [http://www.tcd.ie/Visitors/tcd_hist.html History of Trinity College (Trinity Website)].

Mergers

Trinity has been subject to several proposed mergers. One of the first proposals was in 1907 when the Chief Secretary for Ireland proposed the reconsitution of the University of Dublin. Dublin University Defence Committee was created and was successful in preventing any change to the status-quo, additionally the failure of the Catholic bishops to support the idea ensured its failure among the Catholic population. Chief among the concerns of the bishops was the remains of the Catholic University of Ireland which would become subsumed into a new university which on account of Trnity would be part Anglican. Ultimately this episode led to the creation of the National University of Ireland. In the late 1960s there was a proposal for University College, Dublin of the National University of Ireland to become a constituent college of a newly reconstituted University of Dublin. This plan, suggested by Brian Lenihan and Donagh O'Malley, was dropped after mass opposition by Trinity students. Since 1975 the colleges which now form Dublin Institute of Technology had their degrees conferred by the University of Dublin, this situation continued until 1998 and a merger was considered by the institute, but never seriously by the university.

Sister Colleges

Trinity has two sister colleges:
- Oriel College, University of Oxford
- St John's College, University of Cambridge

Status

The university is regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in Ireland and is consistently the highest ranked university on world-wide metrics in the country, usually within the top 100 universities globally. The University of Dublin, of which Trinity is the sole constituent college, claims sisterhood with Oxbridge, although for British students Trinity has traditionally been the destination for high-minded applicants who failed to gain entrance to the two most prestigious British universities. In recent times, and since the 1990s especially, Trinity has started to invest heavily in research with funding particularly from public sources, although in comparison to internationally rated institutions, some scholars claim that the strong reputation of the university is poorly served by its relatively low research funding.

Academic

research Undergraduate students are usually awarded an honours Bachelor of Arts degree after four years, but may receive an ordinary BA after three years' study. Furthermore, bachelors who have had their degrees for at least three years may pay a nominal fee to have the Master in Arts degree conferred on them, similar to that at Oxbridge. This is closer to the Scottish model than the English; most other Irish universities award Bachelor of Arts after three years of study, though other bachelor degrees such as dentistry, engineering, medicine or science usually take longer. The Law School awards the LL.B., the LL.B. (ling. franc.) and the LL.B. (ling. germ.). In recent years, students have been offered a broader range of courses, outside of their major field of study. As a result, the pedagogy has moved a little closer to the North American than the British university model. At postgraduate level, Trinity offers a range of taught and research degrees. In addition to academic degrees the college offers the Postgraduate Diploma. The Trinity academic year is divided into three terms — Michaelmas term (October, November and December), Hilary term (January, February, March) and Trinity term (March, April, May). Trinity's five faculties are as follows:
- Arts and Humanities
- Social and Human Sciences
- Engineering and Systems Sciences
- Health Sciences
- Natural Sciences

Admission

Irish school-leavers apply for places under the CAO points system, under which students compete for university places on the basis of the points score awarded for their Leaving Certificate results. Some students are admitted through the [http://www.tcd.ie/Trinity_Access Trinity Access Programme] which aims to facilitate the entry of sectors of society which would otherwise be underrepresented. The admissions office also has procedures for considering mature and international students' applications. There is high demand for many Trinity courses, so competition can be strong.

Awards

Students who enter with exceptional Leaving Certificate results are awarded an Entrance Exhibition. Senior Freshmen and Junior Sophisters may elect to sit the foundation scholarship examination, which takes places in the break between Hilary and Trinity terms. While the requirements vary between courses, candidates are generally required to sit a combination of papers from their first two years. Where a student obtains a 2.1 in a subject they may be exempted from sitting the annual examination in that subject. If a student achieves a first class honors in the scholarship exam, they may be elected a scholar. The list of new scholars and fellows is announced with great ceremony by the Provost on Trinity Monday. Foundation scholars are part of the body corporate, and all scholars from EU member countries are entitled to free rooms, commons and fees for the duration of their scholarship, which can last up to five years. Foundation scholars from non-EU member countries receive nearly identical benefits, though their fees are merely reduced to those that apply to students from EU member countries.

Years

In Trinity, first year students are called Junior Freshmen; second years, Senior Freshmen; third years, Junior Sophisters and fourth years, Senior Sophisters.

Associations

Academic

The Irish School of Ecumenics became an academic institute within the college on 1 January 2001. Two teaching hospitals are also associated with the college, these are Adelaide & Meath Hospital, Incorporating the National Children's Hospital, Tallaght and St. James's Hospital, Dublin. A number of teaching institutions are involved in jointly taught courses:
- St Catherine's College of Education for Home Economics, Blackrock
- Coláiste Mhuire, Marino
- Church of Ireland College of Education, Rathmines
- Church of Ireland Theological College, Braemor Park
- Froebel College of Education, Blackrock In October 2005 the School of Business announced a joint venture with the Irish Management Institute to form a Graduate School of Management incorporating the faculties of both organisations. Trinity has also been associated in the past with a number of other teaching institutions these include Dublin Institute of Technology, Magee College and Royal Irish Academy of Music. The Douglas Hyde Gallery, a contempory art gallery, is located on the main College campus.

Governance

The University is headed, titularly, by the Chancellor, currently former Irish president and former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Mary Robinson. The College is headed by the Provost, currently John Hegarty. The college is officially incorporated as The Provost, Fellows and Scholars of the College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity of Queen Elizabeth near Dublin. Indeed, the Body Corporate of the College is still headed by the Provost, Fellows & Scholars. The Provost is elected primarily by fellow academic staff, but students' votes have a small weighting. Election to Fellowship and Scholarship is given to academic staff and undergraduates respectively. Fellowship is awarded to academic staff who are seen to have excelled in their field of research. The Foundation Scholarships (informally known as Schols) are awarded to students who get a first class honours grade in the Scholarship examinations held annually at the end of Hilary term. Upon election to Scholarship (usually in their Senior Freshman or second year), Scholars are awarded a wide range of entitlements, including an annual salary, free accommodation on-campus, a meal every weekday at the traditional Commons dinner and exemption from the annual examinations at the end of their second year. The governance of Trinity was changed in 2000, by the Irish Government, in a bill introduced by the Board of Trinity: The Trinity College, Dublin (Charters and Letters Patent Amendment) Act, 2000. This was introduced separately from the Universities Act 1997. This states that the Board shall comprise:
- The Provost, Vice-Provost, Senior Lecturer, Registrar and Bursar;
- Six Fellows;
- Five members of the academic staff who are not Fellows at least three of whom must be of a rank not higher than senior lecturer;
- Two members of the academic staff of the rank of professor;
- Three members of the non-academic staff;
- Four students of the College at least one of whom shall be a post-graduate student;
- One member not being an employee or student of the College chosen by a committee of the Board which shall comprise the Provost and two members of the Board from among nominations made by such organisations as are representative of such business or professional interest as the Board considers appropriate;
- One member appointed by the Board on the nomination of the Minister for Education and Science following consultation with the Provost. The fellows, non-fellow academic staff and non-academic staff are elected to serve for a fixed term; the most recent elections took place in 2005 for three- and five-year terms, as a transitional step to more regular terms. The four student members are the president, education officer and welfare officer of the Students' Union and the president of the Graduate Students' Union (all ex officio) and are elected annually for one-year terms. The vice-provost, senior lecturer, registrar and bursar are 'annual officers' appointed for one-year (renewable) terms by the Provost.

Location

Trinity is an unusual university as it is centred in a capital city, but still retains a strong campus atmosphere. This is in large part due to the compact design of the campus: the main buildings look inwards, and there are a small number of public gates. Student numbers increased during the 1980s and 1990s, with total enrolment more than doubling in size, and leading to pressure on resources. Many students are housed on campus, or in Trinity Hall in Dartry, four kilometers to the south of the city campus, but large numbers secure accommodation external to the university. Foreign and exchange students are given priority when campus and Trinity Hall places are allocated. [http://www.trinity-hall.com Trinity Hall] houses one thousand students, of whom the majority are first years. Postgraduates, international students and other continuing students also have rooms there. Famous residents of Trinity include the historian Callum Keaveny. In addition to the superb city centre campus, Trinity also incorporates the Faculty of Health Sciences buildings located in St. James's Teaching Hospital and the Adelaide and Meath incorporating the National Children's Hospital, Tallaght (AMNCH). Phases 2 and 3 of the Trinity Centre in St James's Hospital have been recently completed and incorporate additional teaching rooms as well as the Institute of Molecular Medicine and John Durkan Leukaemia Institute. A recent addition to the architectural uniqueness of Trinity College Dublin is the new School of Nursing and Midwifery on D'Olier Street. This building, the former Bord Gáis headquarters, combines mock tudor and art deco styles in a unique combination.

Research and Innovation

Trinity College is the most productive internationally recognised research centre in Ireland. The University operates an Innovation Centre which fosters academic innovation and consultancy, provides patenting advice and research information and facilitates the establishment and operation of industrial laboratories and campus companies. In 1999 the University purchased an Enterprise Centre on Pearse Street, seven minutes walk from the on-campus Innovation Centre. The site has over 200,000 square feet (19,000 m²) of built space and contains a protected building, the Tower, which currently houses a Craft Centre. The Trinity Enterprise Centre will house companies drawn from the University research sector in Dublin.

Multi-disciplinary research

- Ageing Consortium
- Centre for Computing and Language Studies
- Centre for Irish-Scottish Studies
- Children's Research Centre
- CRITE, Centre for Research in I.T. in Education
- Employment Research Centre
- High Performance Computing Initiative
- The Policy Institute
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group
- The Sami Nasr Institute for Advanced Materials
- Trinity Centre for Bio-Engineering
- Trinity Institute of Neuroscience
- Institute for International Integration Studies
- Centre for Telecommunications Value-Chain Research
- CRANN, Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices
- Centre for Gender and Women's Studies

Programmes in advanced technology

- Biotechnology - National Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Centre
- Metals Research - Materials Ireland
- Polymers Research - Materials Ireland
- Optronics - Optronics Ireland

Campus industrial laboratories

- Élan Corporation Laboratory
- Hitachi Dublin Laboratory
- Kinerton Ltd Laboratory

Current and former campus companies

- [http://www.authentik.com/ Authentik Ltd ] - Language Learning Resources
- [http://www.broadcom.com/ Broadcom Ltd ] - Telecommunications Research Company
- Commencements Ltd - Management Consultancy
- [http://www.cellixltd.com/ Cellix Ltd ] - Microfluidic instrumentation suppliers to pharmaceutical, biotech and academic research laboratories
- [http://www.eneclann.ie/ Eneclann Ltd ] - Irish Genealogical Research Services
- EUnet - Internet solutions
- [http://www.havok.com/ Havok Ltd] - developer of middleware for the video game industry, creators of the Havok physics engine
- [http://www.identigen.com/ Identigen Ltd ] - Provision of DNA testing services for traceability of food
- [http://www.itslimited.ie/ Industrial Training Services Ltd ] - Training and Services for the IT industry
- [http://www.insightsc.ie/ Insight Ltd ] - Data Analysis Statistical Consultancy
- Institute of European Food Studies
- [http://www.iona.com/ Iona Technologies Ltd ] - Software
- [http://www.icel.ie/ Irish Centre for European Law ]
- Nutriscan Ltd - Human Nutrition Research and Consultancy Services
- Scientific Resources Ltd - Quality Assurance for the food, agriculture and pharmaceutical industries
- [http://www.smitherg.com/ Simtherg Ltd ] - Engineering consultancy and simulation software development
- Tolsys Ltd - Specialised hardware and software design in the area of fault-tolerant computers
- [http://www.xcomms.ie/ X-Communications ] - Multimedia research and development company

Student Activities

Clubs

Trinity College has 49 sports clubs that are affiliated to DUCAC (Dublin University Central Athletic Club). There is a very strong sporting tradition with Trinity, however in recent years sporting prowess has diminished somewhat with most students engaging in sport for recreational purposes rather than for competitive reasons. DUCAC is made up of five democratically elected committees who oversee the development of sport in the college: the Executive Committee who are responsible for all activities, the Captains' Committee who represent the 49 club captains and award pinks, the Pavilion Bar Committee who run the private members' bar, the Pavilion Members Committee and the Sports Facilities Committee. The oldest clubs include the [http://www.tcd.ie/Clubs/Cricket Dublin University Cricket Club] (1835) and [http://www.tcd.ie/Clubs/Boat Dublin University Boat Club] (1836). Dublin University Football Club,[http://www.dufc.ie] which plays Rugby football, was founded in 1854 and is the world's world's oldest documented "football club". The [http://www.tcd.ie/Clubs/DUHAC Dublin University Harriers and Athletic Club] was founded in 1895. There are several graduate sports clubs that exist separate to DUCAC including the Dublin University Museum Players (cricket) and the Lady Elizabeth Boat Club (rowing).

Publications

Trinity College, Dublin has a very strong tradition of student publications, ranging from the serious to the satirical. Student publications are administered by the Trinity Publications Committee (usually known as 'Pubs') who maintain and administer the Publications room (located in House 6) and all the associated equipment needed to publish its newpapers and magazines. Trinity News, which won the Newspaper of the Year Award at the National Student Media Awards earlier this year, has been in circulation since 1947 and is currently published on a fortnightly basis. Sections include News, National Review, International Review, Features, Film, Music, Film, Food and Drink, SU & Societies, Gaeilge, Science, Sports Features and Sports (amongst others). Magazines currently in publication include Piranha (of satirical nature)and the generalist Miscellany, Ireland's oldest magazine. Other active publications include the Student Economic Review which is a journal produced and organised independently by students of Economics, the Law Review and the Medical Review. Some older titles currently not in publication include Harlot, Evoke and Alternate. A rival on-campus student newspaper, the University Record, which exists separate to the Publications Committee is published every three weeks. The University Record, whilst independent of Pubs, is the voice of the Trinity College Dublin Students’ Union and is edited by the Deputy President. Many of the contributors are drawn from the ranks of class reps. Notable editors and contributors gone-by of student publications include Quentin Letts of the Daily Telegraph, Mark Little of RTE, Ken Early and Ger Gilroy of Newstalk 106/The Village, Michael O'Doherty of New York Dog, and John Maher, news editor with the Irish Times, and crime novelist John Connolly.

Societies

Trinity College has a vibrant student life with 96 societies, including the two debating societies situated in the Graduates' Memorial Building (GMB):College Historical Society (founded 1770) more commonly known as "The Hist" and the University Philosophical Society (Trinity College, Dublin) (founded 1853), more commonly known as The Phil. The largest society is the Vincent dePaul society with 4000 members, which is free to join and organises a large number of activities in the local community. The smallest societies have 40-50 members. The college Drama society Dublin University Players is also one of the largest societies in Trinity, and one of the most prolific in Ireland, hosting up to 50 shows and events a year in its own theatre in the Samuel Beckett Centre. Famous ex-members of Players include the actress and writer Pauline McLynn (Mrs Doyle from Father Ted).

The Graduate Students' Union

The Graduate Students' Union's primary role is to provide a recognised representative channel between postgraduates and the University and College authorities. The GSU president is an ex-offico member of the College Board. The Graduate Students' Union publish the "Journal of Postgraduate Research" on an annual basis.

The Students' Union

The Students' Union's primary role is to provide a recognised representative channel between undergraduates and the University and College authorities. The Executive, the Finance and Services Committee and Sabbatical Officers manage the business and affairs of the Union. The Sabbatical Officers are: The President, Deputy President/Publicity & Publications officer, Welfare Officer, Education Officer and Entertainments Officer and are elected on an annual basis by those undergraduate students who have joined the Students' Union. The SU President, Welfare Officer and Education Officer are ex-officio members of the College Board.

The Library

Father Ted The Library of Trinity College is the largest research library in Ireland. As a deposit library, it is entitled legally to a copy of every book published in Britain and Ireland, and contains 4.25 million books. The Book of Kells, the Library's most famous book, can be seen in the Long Room of the old Library. There are 5 libraries for general student use: the Berkeley, the Ussher, the Lecky, the Hamilton and the John Stearne located in St. James's Hospital. In addition, there is another library in the Adelaide & Meath Hospital, Incorporating the National Children's Hospital, Tallaght which students may use. It was widely reported that the visual appearance of the Jedi Archives in Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones is inspired by the Long Room due to the striking resemblance between the two. The Long Room is an area of the library that is available to see on the Book of Kells tour. There were [http://www.irish-architecture.com/onsite/jedi_archives/ reports] that Trinity considered legal action but the matter was eventually dropped.

External links

- [http://www.tcd.ie/ Trinity College, Dublin - official site]
- [http://www.tcd.ie/ISS/avms/photocentre/gallery1.php Photogallery of Trinity College]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=53.344012,-6.256242&spn=0.006547,0.014596&t=k&hl=en Satellite Photo of Trinity College]
- [http://www.netsoc.tcd.ie/~peterh/scarves/dublin Scarves of the University of Dublin] Category:Universities and colleges in Ireland

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I (7 September, 1533 – 24 March, 1603) Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes referred to as The Virgin Queen (since she never married), Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth I was the fifth and final monarch of the Tudor dynasty, having succeeded her half-sister, Mary I. She reigned during a period of turmoil in English history. Elizabeth's reign is referred to as the Elizabethan era or the Golden Age and was marked by increases in English power and influence worldwide. Playwrights William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson all flourished during this era. In addition, Francis Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe; Francis Bacon laid out his philosophical and political views; and English colonisation of North America took place under Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Like her father Henry VIII, she was a writer and poet. She granted Royal Charters to several famous organizations, including Trinity College, Dublin (1592) and the British East India Company (1600). The reign was marked by prudence in the granting of honours and dignities. Only eight peerage dignities, one earldom and seven baronies in the Peerage of England, and one barony in the Peerage of Ireland, were created during Elizabeth's reign. Elizabeth also reduced the number of Privy Counsellors from thirty-nine to nineteen, and later to fourteen. Virginia, an English colony in North America and afterwards a founding member of the United States, was named after Elizabeth I, the "Virgin Queen."

Early life

Elizabeth was the only surviving child of King Henry VIII by his second wife, Anne Boleyn, Marchioness of Pembroke, a former lady-in-waiting of Henry's first wife Queen Catherine of Aragon and sister of Henry's mistress Lady Mary Boleyn. She was born in the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, on September 7, 1533. Henry certainly would have preferred a son to ensure the Tudor succession, but upon her birth, Elizabeth was the heiress presumptive to the throne of England. Her surviving paternal aunts included Margaret Tudor and Mary Tudor. Her maternal aunt was Lady Mary Boleyn. Her maternal uncle was George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford. Elizabeth was three years old when Henry had her mother executed on charges of treason (adultery against the King), incest with Elizabeth's uncle, and witchcraft, as a pretext to eliminate the wife who had failed to produce a male heir; he then married Anne's lady-in-waiting, Jane Seymour, who bore him Edward VI. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, losing the title of Princess Royal, and was thereafter addressed as Lady Elizabeth and lived in exile from her father while he married his succession of wives. Elizabeth's first governess was Lady Margaret Bryan, a baroness whom Elizabeth called "Muggie". At the age of four, Elizabeth had a new governess, Katherine Champernowne, who was often referred to as "Kat". Champernowne developed a close relationship with Elizabeth and remained her confidante and good friend for life. She had been appointed to Elizabeth's household before Anne Boleyn's execution. Matthew Parker, her mother's favorite priest, took a special interest in Elizabeth's well-being, particularly since a fearful Anne had entrusted her daughter's spiritual welfare to Parker before her death. Later, Parker would become the first Archbishop of Canterbury after Elizabeth became queen in 1558. One companion, to whom she referred with affection throughout her life, was the Irishman Thomas Butler, later 3rd Earl of Ormonde (ob.1615). In terms of personality, Elizabeth was far more like her mother than her father: glamorous, flirtatious, and charismatic. Elizabeth also inherited her mother's delicate bone structure, onyx black eyes, and petite figure. The few charcteristics she inherited from her father were her auburn hair and her passion and vigor for ruling the people of England. Henry's last wife Catherine Parr helped reconcile the King with Elizabeth, and under the Act of Succession 1544 she and her half-sister, Mary, daughter of Catharine of Aragon, were reinstated in the line of succession after Prince Edward. Henry VIII died in 1547 and was succeeded by Edward VI. Catherine Parr, newly widowed, married Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and brother of Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector of England at the time, and took Elizabeth into her household. There, Elizabeth received her education under Roger Ascham. She came to speak and read seven languages: her native English, as well as Scots, French, Italian, Spanish, Greek, and Latin. She had an outstanding intellect, like her father and mother. Under the influence of Catherine Parr and Ascham, Elizabeth was raised a Protestant. Protestant] As long as her Protestant half-brother remained on the throne, Elizabeth's own position remained secure. In 1553, however, Edward died at the age of fifteen, after suffering ill health from birth and having left a will which purported to supersede his father's. Disregarding the Act of Succession 1544, it excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from succeeding to the throne and declared Lady Jane Grey, ward of Thomas Seymour, to be his heiress. The plot was formed by Seymour and John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, whose son Guilford was married to Jane. Lady Jane ascended to the throne, but was deposed nine days later. Backed by popular support, Mary rode triumphantly into London, her half-sister Elizabeth at her side. Mary I contracted a marriage with King Philip II of Spain, seeking to strengthen the Catholic influence in England. Wyatt's Rebellion in 1554 sought to prevent Mary from marrying Philip and, after its failure, Elizabeth was imprisoned in the Tower of London for her alleged involvement in it. There were demands for Elizabeth's execution, but Mary did not wish to put her sister to death - it would set a worrying precedent for regicide. Mary did attempt to remove Elizabeth from the line of succession, but Parliament would not allow it. After two months in the Tower, Elizabeth was released but kept under house arrest in the care of Sir Henry Bedingfield at Hatfield; by the end of that year, when Mary was falsely rumoured to be pregnant, Elizabeth was allowed to return to court at Philip's behest. If Mary died in childbirth, he preferred Lady Elizabeth, under his tutelage, to succeed rather than Mary I of Scotland, who was next in line. Mary, Queen of Scotland was openly hostile to Spanish interests because she was of French descent, her mother being Mary of Guise. For the remainder of her reign, Mary Tudor, who was devotedly Catholic, persecuted Protestants whom she saw as heretics, and came to be known as "Bloody Mary" among her enemies. Mary urged Elizabeth to take up the Catholic faith, but the princess, instead of converting, kept up a skillful show of allegiance to suit her own conscience and ambitions.

Early reign

Bloody Mary In 1558, upon Mary I's death, Elizabeth ascended to the throne. During her procession to the Tower of London, she was welcomed whole-heartedly by the common people, who perfomed plays and read poetry exclaiming her beauty and intelligence. She was crowned on 15 January 1559. There was no Archbishop of Canterbury at the time; Reginald Pole, the last Catholic holder of the office, had died only a few hours after Queen Mary. Because the senior bishops declined to participate in the coronation (since Elizabeth was illegitimate under both canon law and statute and since she was a Protestant), the relatively unimportant Owen Oglethorpe, Bishop of Carlisle crowned her. The communion was celebrated not by Oglethorpe, but by the Queen's personal chaplain, to avoid the usage of the Roman rites. Elizabeth I's coronation was the last one during which the Latin service was used; future coronations used the English service. She later persuaded her mother's chaplain, Matthew Parker, to become Archbishop. He only accepted out of loyalty to Anne Boleyn's memory, since he found working with Elizabeth difficult. One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth's early reign was religion; she relied primarily on Sir William Cecil, later Lord Burghly, for advice on the matter. Her first act, the Act of Uniformity 1559 required the use of the Protestant Book of Common Prayer in church services. Papal control over the Church of England had been reinstated under Mary I, but was ended by Elizabeth. The Queen assumed the title "Supreme Governor of the Church of England," rather than "Supreme Head," primarily because several bishops and many members of the public felt that a woman could not be the head of the Church. The Act of Supremacy 1559 required public officials to take an oath acknowledging the Sovereign's control over the Church or face execution for treason. Many bishops were unwilling to conform to the Elizabethan religious policy. They were removed from the ecclesiastical bench and replaced by appointees who would submit to the Queen's policies. She also appointed a new Privy Council, removing many Catholic counsellors in the process. Under Elizabeth, factionalism in the Council and conflicts at court were greatly silenced. Elizabeth's chief advisors were Sir William Cecil, a Secretary of State, and Sir Nicholas Bacon, the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal. Elizabeth also reduced Spanish influence in England. Though Philip II aided her in ending the Italian Wars with the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis, Elizabeth remained independent in her diplomacy. She adopted a principle of "England for the English." Ireland, another country under England's rule, never benefited from such a philosophy. The enforcement of English customs in an effort to eradicate Catholicism from Ireland proved unpopular with its inhabitants, as did the Queen's religious policies. Soon after her accession, many questioned whom Elizabeth would marry. Her reasons for never marrying were many. It has been suggested she may have felt repulsed by the mistreatment of Henry VIII's wives, her mother's death always in her mind or perhaps psychologically scarred by her rumoured childhood relationship with Lord Thomas Seymour, while in his household. Contemporary gossip was that she had suffered from a physical defect that she was afraid to reveal, perhaps scarring from smallpox, although this seems unlikely as she did not contract smallpox until several years into her reign. There were also contemporary rumors that she would only marry one man, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, with whom she was deeply in love, but with whom her council refused to sanction a marriage, partly due to his family's participation in the Lady Jane Grey matter, and partly due to what was viewed in some circles as the suspicious death of his first wife. A few historians have speculated that she was perhaps homosexual, but these have generally been dismissed. It is also possible that Elizabeth did not wish to share the power of the Crown with another, or given the unstable political situation, she feared an armed struggle among aristocratic factions, if she married someone not seen as equally favorable to all factions. Or, she could have remained unmarried and instead used the hint of marriage to her country's benefit when dealing with powerful suitors from Europe. Further, marrying anyone would have cost Elizabeth large amounts of money and independence, as all of the estates and incomes Elizabeth inherited from her father, Henry VIII, were only hers until she was married.

Conflict with France and Scotland

The Queen found a rival for her throne in her cousin, the Catholic Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots and wife of the French King Francis II. In 1559, Mary had declared herself Queen of England with French support. In Scotland, Mary Stuart's mother, Mary of Guise, attempted to cement French influence by providing for army fortification against English aggression. A group of Scottish lords allied with Elizabeth deposed Mary of Guise and, under pressure from the English, Mary's representatives signed the Treaty of Edinburgh, which led to the withdrawal of French troops. Though Mary vehemently refused to ratify the treaty, it had the desired effect, and French influence was greatly reduced in Scotland. Upon the death of her husband Francis II, Mary Stuart had returned to Scotland. In France, meanwhile, conflict between the Catholics and the Huguenots led to the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion. Elizabeth secretly gave aid to the Huguenots. She made peace with France in 1564; she agreed to give up her claims to the last English possession on the French mainland, Calais, which her sister Mary Tudor had all but lost during her reign, after the defeat of an English expedition at Le Havre. She did not, however, give up her claim to the French Crown, which had been maintained since the reign of Edward III during the period of the Hundred Years' War in the fourteenth century, and was not renounced until the reign of George III during the eighteenth century.

Plots and rebellions

At the end of 1562, Elizabeth fell ill with smallpox, but later recovered. In 1563, alarmed by the Queen's near-fatal illness, Parliament demanded that she marry or nominate an heir to prevent civil war upon her death. She refused to do either, and in April, she prorogued Parliament. Parliament did not reconvene until Elizabeth needed its assent to raise taxes in 1566. The House of Commons threatened to withhold funds until the Queen agreed to provide for the succession, but Elizabeth still refused. Different lines of succession were considered during Elizabeth's reign. One possible line was that of Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII's elder sister, which led to Mary I, Queen of Scots. The alternative line descended from Henry VIII's younger sister, Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk; the heir in this line would be the Lady Catherine Grey, Lady Jane Grey's sister. An even more distant possible successor was Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, who could claim descent only from Edward III, who reigned during the fourteenth century. Each possible heir had his or her disadvantages: Mary of Scots was a Catholic, Lady Catherine Grey had married without the Queen's consent, and the Puritan Lord Huntingdon was unwilling to accept the Crown. Mary, Queen of Scots, had to suffer her own troubles in Scotland. Elizabeth had suggested that if she married the Protestant Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, then Elizabeth would "proceed to the inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir." Mary Stuart refused, and in 1565 married a Catholic, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Lord Darnley was murdered in 1567, and Mary then married the alleged murderer of Lord Darnley, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. Scottish nobles then rebelled, imprisoning Mary and forcing her to abdicate in favour of her infant son, who consequently became James VI. The succession question was becoming a heated issue in Parliament and 30 MPs were assigned to a special committee to debate the matter. On 19 October, 1566, Sir Robert Bell boldly pursued Elizabeth for the royal answer despite her command to leave it alone; in her own words "Mr. Bell with his complices must needs prefer their speeches to the upper house to have you my lords, consent with them, whereby you were seduced, and of simplicity did assent unto it". Bell would revisit this matter in 1575, as Speaker of the House of Commons, where he humbly petitioned Elizabeth "to make the kingdom further happy in her marriage, so that they might hope for a continual succession of benefits in her posterity", this event having been preceded by the last viable English heir to the throne, Catherine Grey passing on in 1568. Catherine had left a son, but he was deemed illegitimate. Catherine's heiress was her sister, the Lady Mary Grey, a hunchbacked dwarf. Elizabeth was once again forced to consider a Scottish successor, from the line of her father's sister, Margaret Tudor, Queen of Scots. Mary I, however, was unpopular in Scotland, where she was imprisoned. She later escaped from her prison and fled to England, where she was captured by English forces. Elizabeth was faced with a conundrum: sending her back to the Scottish nobles would create political problems; sending her to France would put a powerful pawn in the hands of the French king; forcefully restoring her to the Scottish throne may have been seen as an heroic gesture, but would cause too much conflict with the Scots; and imprisoning her in England would allow her to participate in plots against the Queen. Elizabeth chose the last option: Mary was kept confined for eighteen years, much of it in Sheffield Castle and Sheffield Manor in the custody of George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, and his redoubtable wife Bess of Hardwick. In 1569, Elizabeth faced a major uprising, known as the Northern Rebellion, instigated by Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland and Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland. Pope Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth for apostasy and for her persecution of Catholics; he declared her deposed in a papal bull. The Bull of Deposition, Regnans in Excelsis, was only issued in 1570, arriving after the Rebellion had been put down. Elizabeth then found a new enemy in her brother-in-law, Philip II, King of Spain. After Philip had launched a surprise attack on the English privateers, Sir Francis Drake and John Hawkins, in 1568, Elizabeth assented to the detention of a Spanish treasure ship in 1569. Philip was already involved in putting down a rebellion in the Netherlands, and could not afford to declare war on England. Philip II participated in some conspiracies to remove Elizabeth, albeit reluctantly. The 4th Duke of Norfolk was also involved in the first of these plots, the Ridolfi Plot of 1571. The Duke planned to wed Mary and overthrow Elizabeth. After the Catholic Ridolfi Plot was discovered (much to Elizabeth's shock) and foiled, the Duke of Norfolk was executed and Mary lost the little liberty she had remaining. Spain, which had been friendly to England since Philip's marriage to Elizabeth's predecessor, ceased to be on cordial terms. In 1571, Sir William Cecil was created Lord Burghley; a shrewd man, who always advised caution in international relations, he had been Elizabeth's chief advisor from the earliest days, and he remained so until his death in 1598. In 1572, Burghley was raised to the powerful position of Lord High Treasurer; his post as Secretary of State was taken up by the head of Elizabeth's spy network, Sir Francis Walsingham. Also in 1572, Elizabeth made an alliance with France. The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, in which many French Protestants (Huguenots) were killed, strained the alliance but did not break it. Elizabeth even began marriage negotiations with Henry, Duke of Anjou (later King Henry III of France and of Poland), and afterwards with his younger brother François, Duke of Anjou and Alençon. During the latter's visit in 1581, it is said that Elizabeth "drew off a ring from her finger and put it upon the Duke of Anjou's upon certain conditions betwixt them two." The Spanish Ambassador reported that she actually declared that the Duke of Anjou would be her husband. However, Anjou, who is in any case said to have preferred men to women, returned to France and died in 1584 before he could be married.

Conflict with Spain and Ireland

In 1580, Pope Gregory XIII sent a force to aid the Desmond Rebellions in Ireland; but by 1583, the rebellion had been put down after a campaign waged by fire, sword and famine, in which a large part of the population of the western part of the province of Munster appears to have died; chilling, albeit approving, observations on the campaign are set out in A View of the Present State of Ireland by the poet, Edmund Spenser (first licensed for publication in 1633, four decades after it was written). In the same year Philip II of Spain and the Netherlands was crowned king of Portugal, thereby increasing his command of the high seas. After the assassination of the Dutch Stadholder William I, England began to side openly with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, who were at the time rebelling against Spanish rule. This, together with economic conflict with Spain and English piracy against Spanish colonies (which included an English alliance with Islamic Morocco), led to the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War in 1585 and in 1586 the Spanish ambassador was expelled from England for his participation in conspiracies against Elizabeth. Fearing such conspiracies, Parliament had passed the Act of Association 1584, under which anyone associated with a plot to murder the Sovereign would be excluded from the line of succession. However, a further scheme against Elizabeth, the Babington Plot, was revealed by Sir Francis Walsingham, who headed the English spy network. Having put the court on full proof of the charge, Mary Stuart was convicted of complicity in the plot on production of evidence produced by one of the earliest non-trivial code-breaking endeavours. It is likely, however, that Mary was framed. When Mary's enemies realized that deciphering the code did not provide enough proof, the decipherer was instructed to add statements that were not in the original coded document. The result was the "proof" used to convict her. Because this "proof" and conviction were presented to Elizabeth, she had no choice but to allow Mary’s execution to proceed. It was therefore against Elizabeth's wishes that the execution occurred at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February, 1587. Elizabeth had stalled on the question of Mary's execution until this final, undeniable, evidence because she feared that establishing the principle that a monarch theoretically chosen by God could be tried—much less executed—for temporal crimes could lead to the end of the monarchy. In this she was to be proven correct and it was less than fifty years after her own death that Charles the First was executed by a parliament of "commoners". executed by a parliament of "commoners" In her will, Mary had left Philip her claim to the English Throne; under force of the threat from Elizabeth's policies in the Netherlands and the east Atlantic, Philip set out his plans for an invasion of England. In April 1587, Sir Francis Drake burned part of the Spanish fleet at Cádiz, delaying Philip's plans. In July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a grand fleet of 130 ships bearing over 30,000 men, set sail in the expectation of conveying a Spanish invasion force under the command of the Duke of Parma across the English Channel from the Netherlands. Elizabeth encouraged her troops with a notable speech, known as the Speech to the Troops at Tilbury, in which she famously declared, "I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a King, and of a King of England too." The Spanish attempt was defeated by the English fleet under Charles Howard, 2nd Baron Howard of Effingham and Sir Francis Drake, aided by bad weather. The Armada was forced to return to Spain, with appalling losses on the north and west coasts of Scotland and Ireland; the victory tremendously increased Elizabeth's popularity. The battle, however, was not decisive, and the war continued in the Netherlands, where the Dutch Estates were seeking independence from Spain. The English government was also concerned with the conflict in France and the claim to the throne of a protestant heir, Henry (later Henry IV). Elizabeth sent 20,000 troops and subsidies of over £300,000 to Henry, and 8,000 troops and subsidies of over £1,000,000 to the Dutch. Emboldened by the defeat of the ominious Armada, a massive English expedition in 1589, the Drake-Norris Expedition, was repulsed by Spain, with great losses. English privateers continued to attack Spanish treasure ships from the Americas; the most famous privateers included Sir John Hawkins and Sir Martin Frobisher. In 1595 and 1596, a disastrous expedition on the Spanish Main led to the deaths of the aging Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake. Also in 1595, Spanish troops under the command of Don Carlos de Amesquita landed in Cornwall, where they routed a large English militia and burned several villages, before celebrating a mass and retiring in the face of a naval force led by Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1596, England finally withdrew from France, with Henry IV firmly in control. He had assumed the throne, commenting with double-edged irony that, "Paris is worth a mass;" the Holy League, which opposed him, had been demolished, and Elizabeth's diplomacy was beset with new problems. At the same time, the Spanish had landed a considerable force of tercios in Brittany, which had expelled the English forces that were present and presented a new front in the war, with an added threat of invasion across the channel. Elizabeth sent a further 2,000 troops to France after the Spanish took Calais. Then she authorised an attack on the Azores in 1597, but the attempt was a disastrous failure. Further battles continued until 1598, when France and Spain finally made peace. The Anglo-Spanish War, meanwhile, reached a stalemate after Philip II died later in the year. In part because of the war, Raleigh and Gilbert's overseas colonisation attempts came to nothing, and the English settlement of North America was stalled, until James I negotiated peace in the Treaty of London, 1604.

Later years

Treaty of London, 1604 In 1598, Elizabeth's chief advisor, Lord Burghley, died. His political mantle was inherited by his son, Robert Cecil, who had been appointed Secretary of State in 1590. Elizabeth's popularity declined, partly because of her practice of granting royal monopolies, the abolition of which Parliament continued to demand. In her Golden Speech Elizabeth promised reforms, and shortly thereafter twelve royal monopolies were ended by royal proclamation; nevertheless, the reforms were superficial, and the granting of royal monopolies continued. During the Anglo-Spanish war Elizabeth also faced a rebellion in Ireland (the Nine Years War). The chief executor of Crown authority in the north of Ireland, Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, was declared a traitor in 1595, but Elizabeth was determined to minimise expenditure from her treasury and accordingly authorised a series of truces with the earl. At the same time, Spain attempted two further armada expeditions against northern Europe, although both failed owing to adverse weather conditions. In 1598, Tyrone offered a truce, while benefitting from Spanish aid in the form of arms and training; upon expiration of the truce, the English suffered their worst defeat in Ireland at the Battle of the Yellow Ford. In 1599, one of the queen's leading noblemen, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and given command of the largest army ever sent to Ireland, in an attempt to defeat the rebels. Essex's campaign was soon dissipated, and after a private parley with Tyrone—in which the latter sat on horseback in the middle of a river—it became clear that victory was out of reach. In 1600, Essex returned to England without the Queen's permission, an offence for which he was punished by the loss of all political offices and of the trade monopolies, his principal source of income. The succession to the throne had been the ultimate political concern in England since Mary Stuart's arrival in Scotland in the 1560's, and by the end of the century there was only one question in the minds of Elizabeth's advisors: who next? It is in this context that the behaviour of Essex is best explained. In 1601, he led a revolt against the Queen, but popular support was curiously lacking, and the former darling of the masses was executed. Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy was sent to Ireland to replace Essex. With ruthless intent, Mountjoy attempted to blockade Tyrone's troops and starve his people into submission; the campaign effectively cast the English strategy of the earlier Desmond Rebellion (1580–83) into a larger theatre, with proportionately greater casualties. In 1601, the Spanish sent over 3,500 troops to aid the Irish, with the justification that their intervention countered Elizabeth's previous aid to the Dutch rebels in the campaign against Spanish rule. After a devastating winter siege, Mountjoy defeated both the Spanish and the Irish forces at the Battle of Kinsale; Tyrone surrendered a few days after Elizabeth's death in 1603, although the fact of her death was concealed from the supplicant rebel with great skill and irony on Mountjoy's part. During her last ailment, the Queen is reported to have declared that she had sent "wolves, not shepherds, to govern Ireland, for they have left me nothing to govern over but ashes and carcasses" (The Sayings of Queen Elizabeth (1925) p.?). Elizabeth's successor promoted Mountjoy to the office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, an office in which he showed skill and moderation, until his early death in 1605.

Death

Elizabeth I fell ill in February 1603, suffering from frailty and insomnia. After a period of distressing reflection, she died on March 24 at Richmond Palace, aged 69; at the time she was the oldest English Sovereign ever to have reigned. This mark was not surpassed until George II turned 70 in 1753; he would die in his seventy-seventh year in 1760. Elizabeth was buried in Westminster Abbey, immediately next to her sister Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb translates to "Partners both in Throne and grave, here rest we two sisters, Elizabeth and Mary, in the hope of one resurrection." The will of Henry VIII declared that Elizabeth was to be succeeded by the descendants of his younger sister, Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk, rather than by the Scottish descendants of his elder sister, Margaret Tudor. Had the will been upheld, Elizabeth would have been succeeded by Lady Anne Stanley. Alternative successors included James VI, King of Scots, first in line by the rules of male primogeniture, and potential claimants such as Edward Seymour, Baron Beauchamp (the illegitimate son of the Lady Catherine Grey) and William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby (Lady Anne Stanley's uncle). It is sometimes claimed that Elizabeth named James her heir on her deathbed. According to one story, when asked whom she would name her heir, she replied, "Who could that be but my cousin Scotland?" According to another, she said, "Who but a King could succeed a Queen?" Finally, a third legend suggests that she remained silent until her death. There is no evidence to prove any of these tales. In any event, none of the alternative heirs pressed their claims to the Throne. James VI was proclaimed King of England as James I a few hours after Elizabeth's death. James I's proclamation broke precedent because it was issued not by the new Sovereign himself, but by a Council of Accession, as James was in Scotland at the time. Accession Councils, rather than new Sovereigns, continue to issue proclamations in modern practice.

Legacy

Accession Council Elizabeth proved to be one of the most popular monarchs in English or British history. She placed seventh in the 100 Greatest Britons poll, which was conducted by the British Broadcasting Corporation in 2002, outranking all other British monarchs. In 2005, in the History Channel documentary Britain's Greatest Monarch, a group of historians and commentators analysed twelve British monarchs[http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/tv_guide/full_details/British_history/programme_2652.php] and gave them overall marks out of 60 for greatness (they were marked out of 10 in six categories, such as military prowess and legacy). Elizabeth I was the winner, with 48 points. She also ranked #94 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history. Her achievements, however, were greatly magnified after her death. She was depicted in later years as a great defender of Protestantism in Europe. In reality, however, she often wavered before coming to the aid of her Protestant allies. As Sir Walter said in relation to her foreign policy, "Her Majesty did all by halves." But Elizabeth did help to steady the nation even after inheriting an enormous national debt from her sister Mary. Under her, England managed to avoid a crippling Spanish invasion. Elizabeth was also able to prevent the outbreak of a religious civil war on English soil despite inheriting probably the greatest potential for such a war in the country's history. In addition, all that she did was often done in the face of an all-male council and parliament which was often openly hostile to the idea of a female monarch. Many artists glorified Elizabeth I and masked her age in their portraits. Elizabeth was often painted in rich and stylised gowns. Elizabeth is often depicted with an ermine or holding a sieve, which are both symbols of virginity. Benjamin Britten wrote an opera, Gloriana, about the relationship between Elizabeth and Lord Essex, composed for the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Notable portrayals of Queen Elizabeth in film and television have been plentiful; in fact, she is the most filmed British monarch. Those who have made an impression in the role of Elizabeth in the last 100 years, have included:
- French actress Sarah Bernhardt in Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth (1912),
- Florence Eldridge in Mary of Scotland (1936),
- Flora Robson in Fire Over England (1937) and The Lion Has Wings (1939),
- Bette Davis in The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939) and The Virgin Queen (1955) and
- Jean Simmons in Young Bess (1953).
- Perhaps most importantly, Glenda Jackson's seminal portrayal of Elizabeth I in the Emmy-Award winning BBC mini-series Elizabeth R in 1971. Jackson's role as Elizabeth is considered by many to be the defining portrayal of the queen. In recent years, the story of Elizabeth has been filmed more than ever.
- In 1998, Australian actress Cate Blanchett made her big break and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for her critically acclaimed performance in Elizabeth.
- Also in 1998 British actress Judi Dench won an Academy Award for her supporting performance as the Virgin Queen in the popular Shakespeare in Love, a performance of only eleven minutes.
- Miranda Richardson (in the 1986 classic BBC sitcom Blackadder — gave a comic interpretation of Elizabeth known fondly as Queenie), and in the event entered TV folklore.
- Helen Mirren gave a critically acclaimed performance in a Channel 4/HBO [http://www.mcdonaldrutter.com/Television/elizabethI/elizabethi.htm co-production] in 2005.
- The second installment for the film Elizabeth, Elizabeth: The Golden Age, is planned for 2006, with Blanchett, Hugh Dancy, Jeremy Irons as Leicester and Rush returning for the role of Walsingham.
- The English actress Anne-Marie Duff portrayed Elizabeth I in BBCs "The Virgin Queen" There have been many novels written about Elizabeth. They include: I, Elizabeth by Rosalind Miles, The Virgin's Lover and The Queen's Fool by Philippa Gregory, Queen of This Realm by Jean Plaidy, and Virgin: Prelude to the Throne by Robin Maxwell. Elizabeth's story is spliced with her mother's in Maxwell's book The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn. Maxwell also writes of a fictional child Elizabeth and Dudley had in The Queen's Bastard. Decades ago, Margaret Irwin produced a trilogy based on Elizabeth's youth: Young Bess, Elizabeth, Captive Princess and Elizabeth and the Prince of Spain. Lytton Strachey's "Elizabeth and Essex", is a reliable romantic reconstruction of the Queen's last political amour. Most fictional accounts of the reign "share too much" of the authors' private enthusiasms. In children's and young adults' fiction, Elizabeth's story is told in Elizabeth I, Red Rose of the House of Tudor, a book in the Royal Diaries series published by Scholastic, and also in Beware, Princess Elizabeth by Carolyn Meyer. The graphic novel Marvel 1602 by Neil Gaiman is set near the end of Elizabeth's reign.

Style and arms

Neil Gaiman Like her predecessors since Henry VIII, Elizabeth used the style "Majesty," as well as "Highness," and "Grace." "Majesty," which Henry VIII first used on a consistent basis, did not become exclusive until the reign of Elizabeth's successor, James I. Elizabeth I used the official style "Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, Queen of England, France and Ireland, Fidei defensor, etc." Whilst most of the style matched the styles of her predecessors, Elizabeth I was the first to use "etc." It was inserted into the style with a view to restoring the phrase "of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head," which had been added by Henry VIII but later removed by Mary I. The supremacy phrase was never actually restored, and "etc." remained in the style, to be removed only in 1801. She has been retroactively known as Queen Elizabeth I since the accession of Elizabeth II in 1952. Prior to that time she was referred to as Queen Elizabeth. Elizabeth's arms were the same as those used by Henry IV: Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England). Whilst her Tudor predecessors had used a gold lion and a red dragon as heraldic supporters, Elizabeth used a gold lion and a gold dragon. Elizabeth also adopted one of her mother's mottos, Semper Eadem ("Always the Same").

References

- Eakins, Lara E. (2004) [http://tudorhistory.org/elizabeth/ Elizabeth I.]
- Haigh, Christopher (1988) Elizabeth I. London: Longman.
- Jokinen, Anniina (2004). [http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/eliza.htm Elizabeth I (1533–1603).]
- Neale, J. E.. (1934). Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography London: Jonathan Cape.
- Perry, Maria. (1990). The Word of a Prince: A Life of Elizabeth I from Contemporary Documents Woodbirdge: Boydell Press.
- Ridley, Jasper Godwin (1987). Elizabeth I. London: Constable.
- Somerset, Anne (1991). Elizabeth I. London: Knopf. ISBN 0385721579.
- Starkey, David (2000). Elizabeth : The Struggle for the Throne. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
- Thomas, Heather (2004). [http://www.elizabethi.org/uk/ Elizabeth I.]
- Weir, Alison. (1998). The Life of Elizabeth I. (1st American edition) New York: Ballantine Books.
- The History of Parliament, House of commons 1558-1603, Sir Robert Bell, Hasler, P.W., p.421-424, HMSO 1981
- Mannings, Speakers, p.244 p. 1850, Sir Robert Bell
- Elizabeth I : Red Rose of the House of Tudor by Kathryn Lasky

External links

- [http://www.badley.info/history/Elizabeth-I-England.biog.html Elizabeth I World History Database]
- [http://www.tudor-portraits.com Buehler, Edward. (2004). "Tudor and Elizabethan Portraits".]
- [http://www.marileecody.com/eliz1-images.html Cody, Marilee. (2004). "Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I".]
- [http://www.archsoc.com/games/Mary.html Stevens, Garry. (2004). "Bloody Mary: Further Intrigue in the Tudor Court".]
- [http://members.optushome.com.au/peterpanandwendy/The%20birth%20of%20Elizabeth.htm Dunn, Wendy J. (2002) "Birth of Elizabeth"]
- [http://tudors.crispen.org/tudor_women/ Crispen (2002) "Life of Women in Tudor England]
- [http://48.1911encyclopedia.org/E/EL/ELIZABETH_QUEEN_OF_ENGLAND.htm Elizabeth I in 1911 EB] Category:1533 births Category:1603 deaths Category:Londoners Category:House of Tudor Category:Henry VIII's children Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Category:English monarchs Category:Queens regnant Category:British women ja:エリザベス1世 (イングランド女王) simple:Elizabeth I of England

Ireland

:This page is about the island of Ireland. For the state also called Ireland, see Republic of Ireland. :For an explanation of terms like Ulster, Northern Ireland, (Great) Britain and United Kingdom see British Isles (terminology) . British Isles (terminology)] Ireland (Irish: Éire) is the third-largest island in Europe. It lies in the Atlantic Ocean and it is composed of the Republic of Ireland (officially, Ireland), which covers five sixths of the island (south, east, west and north-west), and Northern Ireland; part of the United Kingdom, which covers the northeastern sixth of the island. The population of the island is approximately 5.8 million people; 4.1 million in the Republic of Ireland (1.6 million in Greater Dublin) and 1.7 million in Northern Ireland (0.6 million in Greater Belfast). Belfast 2003. Scotland, the Isle of Man and Wales are visible to the east]]
Geography
Wales with more details).]] A ring of coastal mountains surrounds low central plains. The highest peak is Carrauntuohill (Irish: Corrán Tuathail), which is 1041 m (3414 feet). The island is bisected by the River Shannon, at 259 km (161 mi) the longest river in Ireland or Britain. The island's lush vegetation, a product of its mild climate and frequent but soft rainfall, earns it the sobriquet "Emerald Isle". The island's area is 84,079 km² (32,477 mile²). Ireland is divided into four provinces: Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster. In Irish these are referred to as Cúige's ( Cúige - meaning fifths). Previously there were five provinces - Connacht, Munster, Ulster, Leinster and Meath, comprising the counties of Meath, Westmeath and Longford. These were further divided into 32 counties for administrative purposes. Six of the Ulster counties remain under British sovereignty as Northern Ireland following Ireland's partition in 1922 (the remaining 26 forming present-day Republic of Ireland); since the UK's 1974 reshuffle these county boundaries no longer exist in Northern Ireland for administrative purposes, although Fermanagh District Council is almost identical to the county. In the Republic, the county boundaries are still adhered to for local government, albeit with Tipperary and Dublin subdivided (some cities also have their own administrative regions). For election constituencies, some counties are merged or divided, but constitutionally the boundaries have to be observed. Across Ireland, the 32 counties are still used in sports and in some other cultural areas and retain a strong sense of local identity. Ireland's least arable land lies in the south-western and western counties. These areas are largely spectacularly mountainous and rocky, with beautiful green vistas.

Politics
Dublin Politically, Ireland is divided into:
- The Republic of Ireland, with its capital in Dublin. This state is often simply referred to internally and internationally as "Ireland" in English or "Éire" in Irish. Technically Ireland and Éire are the official names of the state while the "Republic of Ireland" is its official description.
- Northern Ireland is unofficially known as 'the North', and 'Ulster' (the province of Ulster also includes Donegal, Cavan, and Monaghan which are in the Republic). Northern Ireland is a region of the United Kingdom. Prior to the Government of Ireland Act 1920 the island had been a unified political entity within the United Kingdom (see United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) from 1801. From 1541 the Kingdom of Ireland was established by the King of England, though this realm did not cover the whole island till the early 17th century. Up to then, Ireland had been politically divided into a number of different Irish kingdoms (Leinster, Munster, Connacht, Mide, Ulster, and others). Contrary to some assertions, at no time did a national kingdom headed by an Ard Ri exist. In a number of respects, the island operates officially as a single entity, for example, in most kinds of sports. The major religions, the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of Ireland and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, are organised on an all-island basis. Some 92% of the population of the Republic of Ireland and about 44% of Northern Ireland is Roman Catholic. Some trade unions are also organised on an all-Irish basis and associated with the Irish Congress of Trades Unions (ICTU) in Dublin, while others in Northern Ireland are affiliated with the Trades Union Congress (TUC) in the United Kingdom - though such unions may organise in both parts of the island as well as in Britain. The island also has a shared culture across the divide in many other ways. Traditional Irish music, for example, though showing some variance in all geographical areas, is, broadly speaking, the same on both sides of the border. Irish and Scottish traditional music have many similarities. The Ireland Funds, an international fund-raising organisation, tries to help people on both sides find peace and reconciliation through community development, education, arts and culture. The island is often referred to as being part of the British Isles. However, some people, especially in Ireland, take exception to this name, which seems to suggest that both islands belong to Britain. For this reason, "Britain and Ireland" is commonly used as a more neutral alternative. Another suggestion, although much less used, is the Islands of the North Atlantic (IONA).
Flag of Ireland
There is no universally agreed flag that represents the island of Ireland. Historically a number of flags were used, including St. Patrick's cross, the flag sometimes used for the Kingdom of Ireland and which represented Ireland on the Union Jack after the Act of Union, a green flag with a harp (used by some radical nationalists in the 19th century and which is also the flag of Leinster), a blue flag with a harp used from the 18th century onwards by many nationalists (now the standard of the President of Ireland), and the Irish tricolour. However as the tricolour is the flag of the Republic of Ireland it is not used to represent the island of Ireland, given that the island also includes Northern Ireland. The Royal Standard also shows a version of an ancient Irish flag in one of its four quadrants. St Patrick's Saltire is used to represent the island of Ireland by the all-island Irish Rugby Football Union (IRFU). In contrast the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) uses the tricolour to represent the whole island.
History
Gaelic Athletic Association]] Ireland was mostly ice-covered and joined by land to Britain and Europe during the last ice age, has been inhabited for about 9,000 years. Stone age inhabitants arrived sometime after 8000 BC, with the culture progressing from Mesolithic to high Neolithic over the course of three or four millennia. The Bronze Age, which began around 2500 BC, saw the production of elaborate gold and bronze ornaments and weapons. The Iron Age in Ireland is associated with people now known as Celts. They are traditionally thought to have colonised Ireland in a series of waves between the 8th and 1st centuries BC, with the Gael, the last wave of Celts, conquering the island and dividing it into five or more kingdoms. Many scholars, however, now favour a view that emphasises cultural diffusion from overseas over significant colonisation.The Romans referred to Ireland as Hibernia. Ptolemy in AD 100 records Ireland's geography and tribes. Native accounts are confined to Irish poetry, myth, and archaeology. The exact relationship between Rome and the tribes of Hibernia is unclear; the only references are a few Roman writings. Tradition maintains that in AD 432, St. Patrick arrived on the island and, in the years that followed, worked to convert the Irish to Christianity. The druid tradition collapsed in the face of the spread of the new faith. Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin learning and Christian theology in the monasteries that flourished, preserving Latin learning during the Early Middle Ages. The arts of manuscript illumination, metalworking, and sculpture flourished and produced such treasures as the Book of Kells, ornate jewellery, and the many carved stone crosses that dot the island. This era was interrupted in the 9th century by 200 years of intermittent warfare with waves of Viking raiders who plundered monasteries and towns. Eventually they settled in Ireland, and established many towns, including the modern day cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Waterford. In 1172, King Henry II of England gained Irish lands by the granting of the 1155 Bull Laudibiliter to him by then English Pope Adrian IV, and from the 13th century, English law began to be introduced. English rule was largely limited to the area around Dublin, known as the Pale, and Waterford, but this began to expand in the 16th century with the final collapse of the Gaelic social and political superstructure at the end of the 17th century, as a result of the Tudor re-conquest of Ireland and English and Scottish Protestant colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland, which established English control over the whole island. After the the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Irish Catholics were barred from voting or attending the Irish Parliament. The new English Protestant ruling class was known as the Protestant Ascendancy In 1800 the Irish Parliament passed the Act of Union which, in 1801, merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland would remain within the United Kingdom, ruled directly by the UK Parliament in London. The 19th century saw the Great Famine of the 1840s in which at least 1 million Irish people died and over a million were forced to emigrate. The late 19th and early 20th century saw a vigorous but unsuccessful campaign for Irish home rule, followed by the eclipse of moderate nationalism by militant separatism. In 1922, following the Anglo-Irish War, twenty-six counties of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom as the Irish Free State. The remaining six, in the north-east, remained within the Union as Northern Ireland. Secession for the rest of Ireland led directly to the Civil War, as militant nationalists split into two factions and turned against one another.
History since partition

Irish Independence: The Irish Free State, Éire, Ireland
The Anglo-Irish Treaty was narrowly ratified by the Dáil in December 1921 but was rejected by a large minority, resulting in the Irish Civil War which lasted until 1923. In 1922, in the middle of this civil war, the Irish Free State came into being. For its first years the new state was governed by the victors of the Civil War. However in the 1930s Fianna Fáil, the party of the opponents of the treaty, were elected into government. The party introduced a new constitution in 1937 which renamed the state to simply "Éire or in the English language, Ireland" (preface to the Constitution). The state was neutral during World War II but offered some assistance to the Allies. In 1949 the state declared itself to be a republic and that henceforth it should be described as the Republic of Ireland. The state was plagued by poverty and emigration until the 1990s. That decade saw the beginning of unprecedented economic success, in a phenomenon known as the "Celtic Tiger". By the early 2000s, it had become one of the richest countries (in terms of GDP per capita) in the European Union, moving from being a net recipient to a net contributor and from a population with net emigration to one with net immigration.
Northern Ireland
From its creation in 1921 until 1972 Northern Ireland enjoyed limited self-government within the United Kingdom, with its own parliament and prime minister. However the Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland each voted almost entirely along sectarian lines, meaning that the government of Northern Ireland (elected by "first past the post") was always controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party. Consequently, Catholics could not participate in the government, which at times openly encouraged discrimination in housing and employment. Nationalist grievances at unionist discrimination within the state eventually led to large civil rights protests in 1960s, which the government suppressed heavy-handedly, most notably on "Bloody Sunday". It was during this period of civil unrest that the paramilitary Provisional IRA, who favoured the creation of a united Ireland, began its campaign against Unionist rule. Other groups, legal and illegal on the unionist side, and illegal on the nationalist side, began to participate in the violence and the period known as the "Troubles" began. Owing to the civil unrest the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed direct rule. In 1998, following a Provisional IRA cease-fire, the Good Friday Agreement was concluded and attempts began to be made to restore self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power sharing between the two communities. Violence has greatly decreased since the signing of the accord. In 2001 the armed police force in the north (which operated much like an army with armoured cars etc.), The Royal Ulster Constabulary (or RUC for short), was removed in place of the PSNI (Police Service of Northern Ireland) as a result of easing tensions. On July 28 2005, the Provisional IRA (PIRA) announced the end of its armed campaign and on September 25 2005 international weapons inspectors supervised the full disarmament of the PIRA.
Sport
Gaelic football and hurling are the most popular sports in Ireland. Along with Camogie, Ladies' Gaelic football, handball and rounders, they make up the national sports of Ireland, collectively known as Gaelic Games. All Gaelic games are governed by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), with the exception of Ladies' Gaelic Football, which is governed by a separate organisation. The GAA is organised on an all-Ireland basis with all 32 counties competing; traditionally, counties first compete within their province, in the provincial championships, and the winners then compete in the All-Ireland senior hurling or football championships. The headquarters of the GAA (and the main stadium) is located at the 83,000 capacity Croke Park in north Dublin. All major GAA games are played here, including the semi-finals and finals of the All-Ireland championships. All GAA players, even at the highest level, are amateurs and receive no wages. The Irish rugby team includes players from north and south, and the Irish Rugby Football Union governs the sport on both sides of the border. Consequently in international rugby, the Ireland team represents the whole island. The same is true of cricket. However, when Ireland was partitioned, organisation of football (soccer) in the Republic was transferred from the Belfast-based Irish Football Association (IFA) to the new Football Association of Ireland (FAI). The IFA remained in charge of the game in the six counties. (Consequently in International Association Football, the island has two teams: the Republic of Ireland, and Northern Ireland.) Northern Ireland qualified for the World Cup Soccer finals in 1958 (where they made it to the quarter finals), 1982 and 1986. The Republic of Ireland made it to the World Cup in 1990 (where they made it to the quarter finals), 1994 and 2002. Greyhound racing and horse racing are both popular in Ireland: greyhound stadiums are well attended and there are frequent horse race meetings. The Republic is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs. The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the central east of the Republic. Boxing is also an all-island sport governed by the Irish Amateur Boxing Association. Golf is an extremely popular sport in Ireland and Golfing Tourism is a major industry. The 2006 Ryder Cup will be held in the K Club in Co. Kildare, which is just outside Dublin. Prominent Irish sporting stars are: Sean Kelly (cycling), Stephen Roche (cycling), Brian O'Driscoll (rugby), Roy Keane (soccer), Damien Duff (soccer), D.J. Carey (hurling), Peter Canavan (GAA), Aidan O'Brien (racehorse trainer), Kieren Fallon (jockey), Eddie Jordan (F1), Padraig Harrington (golf), Sonia O'Sullivan (athlethics), Steve Collins (boxing) and Ken Doherty (snooker).
Culture

Literature and the arts
For a comparatively small country, Ireland has made a disproportionately large contribution to world literature in all its branches, mainly in English. Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century; Jonathan Swift, still often called the foremost satirist in the English language, was wildly popular in his day (Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal, etc.) and remains so in modern times amongst both children and adults. In more recent times, Ireland has produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: George Bernard Shaw, William Butler Yeats, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney. Although not a Nobel Prize winner, James Joyce is widely considered one of the most significant writers of the 20th century. His 1922 novel Ulysses is sometimes cited as the greatest English-language novel of the 20th century and his life is celebrated annually on June 16th in Dublin as the Bloomsday celebrations. The early history of Irish visual art is generally considered to begin with early carvings found at sites such as Newgrange and is traced through Bronze age artifacts, particularly ornamental gold objects, and the religious carvings and illuminated manuscripts of the mediæval period. During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, a strong indigenous tradition of painting emerged, including such figures as John Butler Yeats, William Orpen, Jack Yeats and Louis le Brocquy.
Music and dance
The Irish tradition of folk music and dance is also widely known. In the middle years of the 20th century, as Irish society was attempting to modernise, traditional music tended to fall out of favour, especially in urban areas. During the 1960s, and inspired by the American folk music movement, there was a revival of interest in the Irish tradition. This revival was led by such groups as The Dubliners, The Chieftains, the Clancy Brothers and Sweeney's Men and individuals like Sean Ó Riada and Danny O'Flaherty. Irish and Scottish traditional music are similar. Before long, groups and musicians including Horslips, Van Morrison and even Thin Lizz

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