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Simón Bolívar

Simón Bolívar

Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (July 24, 1783 – December 17, 1830) was a South American revolutionary leader. Credited with leading the fight for independence in what are now the countries of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and Bolivia, he is revered as a hero in these countries and throughout much of the rest of Latin America. He was born in Caracas, Venezuela. He later married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa. She died of yellow fever, and he never remarried. He was the first president of Bolivia when it became independent from Spain in 1824. Bolivar is known as the George Washington of South America. In Spanish he is known as "El Libertador" (as written in the picture to the right).

Family Heritage and Early life

The Bolívar aristocratic bloodline derives from La Puebla de Bolibar (or Bolíbar), a small village in Basque country of Biscay, the origin of their surname. A portion of their wealth by the 1600s came from the Aroa River gold and copper mines in Venezuela. By the 1500s, vague information about existence of gold was rumored around the rivers Yaracuy, Santa Cruz, and Aroa. In 1605, more precise locations of ores became known, particularly in a small valley lateral to the Aroa River next to La Quebrada de Las Minas. In 1632, gold was first mined, leading to further discoveries of extensive copper deposits. Towards the later 1600s, copper was exploited with the name "Cobre Caracas". These mines became property of Simon Bolivar's family. Later in his revolutionary life, Bolivar used part of the mineral income to finance the South American revolutionary wars. However, their family's prominence seems important before their wealth. For example, the Cathedral of Caracas, founded in 1575, has a side chapel dedicated to Simon Bolivar's family. [http://www.xs4all.nl/~jorbons/souterrains/art/venezcol.html] In this context, Simon Bolívar was born in Caracas, in modern-day Venezuela, into an aristocratic family, and educated by different tutors after his parents died. Among his tutors was Simón Rodríguez, whose great ideas and educational style heavily influenced the young man. Following the death of his parents, he went to Spain in 1799 to complete his education. There he married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa in 1802, but on a brief return visit to Venezuela in 1803, she succumbed to yellow fever. Bolívar returned to Europe in 1804 and for a time was part of Napoleon's retinue.

El Libertador

Bolívar returned to Venezuela in 1807 and, when Napoleon made Joseph King of Spain and its colonies in 1808, he participated in the resistance juntas in South America. The Caracas junta declared its independence in 1810, and Bolívar was sent to England on a diplomatic mission. Bolívar returned to Venezuela in 1811. But in July 1812, junta leader Francisco de Miranda surrendered, and Bolívar had to flee to Cartagena de Indias. In this period, Bolívar wrote his Cartagena Manifesto. In 1813, after acquiring a military command in New Granada under the direction of the Congress of Tunja, he led the invasion of Venezuela on May 14. This was the beginning of the famous Campaña Admirable, the Admirable Campaign. He entered Mérida on May 23, following the occupation of Trujillo on June 9. Six days later, on June 15, dictated his famous Decree of War to the Death (Decreto de Guerra a Muerte). Caracas was retaken on August 6, 1813, where he was proclaimed as El Libertador, thus proclaiming the Second Venezuelan Republic. Due to the rebellion of José Tomás Boves in 1814 and the fall of the republic, he returned to New Granada, where he then commanded a Colombian nationalist force and entered Bogotá in 1814, recapturing the city from the dissenting republican forces of Cundinamarca. He intended to march into Cartagena and enlist the aid of local forces in order to capture Royalist Santa Marta. However, after a number of political and military disputes with the government of Cartagena, Bolívar fled in 1815 to Jamaica, where he requested the Haitian leader Alexandre Pétion for aid. In 1816, with Haitian help, Bolívar landed in Venezuela and captured Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar). A victory at the Battle of Boyacá in 1819 added Colombia to the territories free from Spanish control, and in September 7, 1821 the Gran Colombia (a federation covering much of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador) was created, with Bolívar as president and Francisco de Paula Santander as vice president. Further victories at the Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha in 1822 consolidated his rule over Venezuela and Ecuador respectively. After a meeting in Guayaquil on July 26 and 27 1822 with Argentine General José de San Martín, who had received the title of Protector of Peruvian Freedom in August 1821 after having partially liberated Peru from the Spanish, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. The Peruvian congress named him dictator of Peru on February 10 1824, which allowed Bolívar to completely reorganize the political and military administration. Bolívar, assisted by Antonio José de Sucre, decisively defeated the Spanish cavalry on August 6 1824 at Junín. Sucre destroyed the still numerically superior remnants of the Spanish forces at Ayacucho on December 9. On August 6 1825, at the Congress of Upper Peru, the Republic of Bolivia was created in honour of Bolívar, who drafted a new constitution for the new nation. This constitution reflected the influence of the French and Scottish Enlightenment on Bolívar's political thought, as well as that of classical Greek and Roman authors. A great admirer of the North American Revolution (and a great critic of the French Revolution), Bolívar described himself in his many letters as a classical "liberal" and defender of the free market economic system. Among the books he traveled with when he wrote the Bolivian Constitution were Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws and Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. Bolívar's many speeches and writings reveal him to be an adherent of limited government, the separation of powers, religious freedom, property rights, and the rule of law. Bolívar had great difficulties maintaining control of the vast Gran Colombia. During 1826, internal divisions had sparked dissent throughout the nation and regional uprisings erupted in Venezuela, thus the fragile South American coalition appeared to be on the verge of collapse. An amnesty was declared and an arrangement was reached with the Venezuelan rebels, but political dissent in New Granada grew as a consequence of this. In an attempt to keep the republic together as a single entity, Bolívar called for a constitutional convention at Ocaña during April 1828. He had seen his dream of eventually creating an American Revolution-style federation between all the newly independent republics, with a government ideally set-up solely to recognize and uphold individual rights, succumb to the pressures of particular interests throughout the region, which rejected that model and allegedly had little or no allegiance to classical liberal principles. For this reason, and to prevent a break-up, Bolivar wanted to implement in Gran Colombia a more centralist model of government, including some or all of the elements of the Bolivian constitution he had written (which included a lifetime presidency with the ability to select a successor, though this was theoretically held in check by an intricate system of balances). This move was considered controversial and was one of the reasons why the deliberations met with strong opposition. The convention almost ended up drafting a document which would have implemented a radically federalist form of government which would have greatly reduced the powers of the central administration. Unhappy with what would be the ensuing result, Bolívar's delegates left the convention. After the failure of the convention due to grave political differences, Bolívar proclaimed himself dictator on August 27 1828 through the "Organic Decree of Dictatorship". He considered this as a temporary measure, as a means to reestablish his authority and save the republic, though it increased dissatisfaction and anger among his political opponents. An assassination attempt in September 1828 failed. Although he emerged physically intact, this nevertheless greatly affected Bolívar. Dissident feelings continued, and uprisings occurred in New Granada, Venezuela and Ecuador during the next two years. Bolívar finally resigned his presidency on April 27 1830, intending to leave the country for exile in Europe, possibly in France. He had already sent several crates (containing his belonging and his writings) ahead of him to Europe. He died before setting sail, after a painful battle with tuberculosis on December 17, 1830, in [http://www.simon-bolivar.org/bolivar/san_pedro_alejandrino.htm "La Quinta de San Pedro Alejandrino",] in Santa Marta, Colombia. On his deathbed, Bolivar asked his aide-de-camp Daniel O'Leary to burn the extensive archive of his writings, letters, and speeches. O'Leary disobeyed the order and his writings survived, providing historians with a vast wealth of information about Bolivar's classical liberal philosophy and thought. His remains were moved from Santa Marta to Caracas in 1842, where a monument was set up for his burial. [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=11917&pt=Simon%20Bolivar] Simón Bolívar has no direct descendants. His bloodline lives on through his sister Juana Bolívar y Palacios who married Dionisio Palacios y Blanco (Simón and Juana's maternal uncle) and had two children: Guillermo and Benigna. Guillermo died when fighting alongside his uncle in the battle of La Hogaza in 1817. Benigna Palacios y Bolívar married Pedro Amestoy. Their great-grandchildren, Pedro (94) and Eduardo (90) Mendoza-Goiticoa live in Caracas. They are Simón Bolívar's closest living relatives. [http://www.simon-bolivar.org/bolivar/biografias_familia_sb.html#JuanaNepomucena]

Honours

Bolívar was ranked #48 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history.

External links

- [http://www.bolivarmo.com/history.htm History of Simon Bolivar]
- [http://www.crystalbeach.com/history.htm The Life of Simon Bolivar] Bolívar, Simón Bolívar, Simón Bolívar, Simón Bolívar, Simón Bolívar, Simón Bolívar, Simón Bolívar, Simón ja:シモン・ボリバル simple:Simón Bolívar

July 24

July 24 is the 205th day (206th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 160 days remaining.

Events

- 311 - The end of the fifth year of reign of Constantine the Great
- 1216 - Cencio Savelli is consecrated as Pope Honorius III
- 1411 - Battle of Harlaw, one of the bloodiest battles on Scottish soil.
- 1487 - Citizens of Leeuwarden, Netherlands strike against ban on foreign beer
- 1534 - French explorer Jacques Cartier planted a cross on the Gaspé Peninsula and took possession of the territory in the name of the King Francis I of France.
- 1567 - Mary Queen of Scots is deposed and replaced by her 1 year old son King James VI.
- 1701 - Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded trading post at Ft Pontchartrain, which later becomes the city of Detroit.
- 1814 - War of 1812: General Phineas Riall advances toward Niagara to halt Jacob Brown's American invaders.
- 1832 - Benjamin Bonneville leads the first wagon train across the Rocky Mountains by using Wyoming's South Pass.
- 1847 - After 17 months of travel, Brigham Young leads 148 Mormon pioneers into Salt Lake Valley, resulting in the establishment of Salt Lake City.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Kernstown - Confederate General Jubal Early defeats Union troops led by General George Crook in an effort to keep Yankees out of the Shenandoah Valley.
- 1866 - Reconstruction: Tennessee becomes the first U.S. state to be readmitted to the Union following the American Civil War.
- 1901 - O. Henry is released from prison in Austin, Texas after serving three years for embezzlement from a bank.
- 1910 - James MacGillivray publishes first account of Paul Bunyan in the Detroit News.
- 1911 - Hiram Bingham III re-discovers Machu Picchu "the Lost City of the Incas".
- 1915 - Passenger ship Eastland capsizes in central Chicago, Illinois, with the loss of 845 lives.
- 1923 - The Treaty of Lausanne, settling the boundaries of modern Turkey, is signed in Switzerland by Greece, Bulgaria and other countries that fought in the First World War.
- 1927 - The Menin Gate war memorial is unveiled at Ypres.
- 1929 - The Kellogg-Briand Pact, renouncing war as an instrument of foreign policy, goes into effect (it was first signed in Paris on August 27, 1928 by most leading world powers).
- 1931 - A fire at a home for aged people in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania kills 48 people.
- 1935 - The dust bowl heat wave reaches its peak, sending temperatures to 109°F (44°C) in Chicago, Illinois and 104°F (40°C) in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
- 1937 - Alabama drops rape charges against the so-called "Scottsboro Boys."
- 1943 - World War II: Operation Gomorrah begins: British and Canadian aeroplanes bomb Hamburg by night, those of the Americans by day. By the end of the operation in November, 9,000 tons of explosives will have killed more than 30,000 people and destroyed 280,000 buildings.
- 1956 - At New York City's Copacabana Club, Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis perform their last comedy show together which started on July 25, 1946.
- 1959 - At the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow, US vice-president Richard Nixon and Nikita Khrushchev have a "kitchen debate."
- 1965 - Vietnam War: Four F-4C Phantoms escorting a bombing raid at Kang Chi are the targets of antiaircraft missiles in the first such attack against American planes in the war. One is shot down and the other three sustain damage.
- 1967 - During an official state visit to Canada, French President Charles de Gaulle declares to a crowd of over 100,000 in Montreal: Vive le Québec libre! (Long live free Quebec!). The statement, interpreted as support for Quebec independence, delighted many Quebecers but angered the Canadian government and many English Canadians.
- 1969 - Apollo program: Apollo 11 splashes down safely in the Pacific Ocean.
- 1974 - Watergate Scandal: The United States Supreme Court unanimously rule that President Richard Nixon did not have the authority to withhold subpoenaed White House tapes and they order him to surrender the tapes to the Watergate special prosecutor.
- 1983 - George Brett, batting for the Kansas City Royals against the New York Yankees, has a game-winning home run nullified in the "Pine Tar Incident".
- 1998 - Russel Eugene Weston Jr. bursts into the United States Capitol and opens fire killing two police officers. He is later ruled to be incompetent to stand trial.
- 2001 - Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the last Tsar of Bulgaria when he was a child, was sworn in as Prime Minister of Bulgaria, and became the only monarch in history to regain political power through democratic election to a different office.
- 2001 - The Taiwan Solidarity Union is established.
- 2002 - James Traficant is expelled from the United States House of Representatives on a vote of 420 to 1.
- 2002 - Alfred Moisiu becomes President of Albania.
- 2005 - Lance Armstrong wins his seventh Tour de France.

Births

- 1660 - Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury, English politician (d. 1718)
- 1725 - John Newton English cleric and hymnist (d. 1807)
- 1783 - Simón Bolívar, South American liberator (d. 1830)
- 1786 - Joseph Nicollet, French mathematician and explorer (d. 1843)
- 1802 - Alexandre Dumas père, French writer (d. 1870)
- 1803 - Adolphe Charles Adam, French composer (d. 1856)
- 1853 - William Gillette, American actor and author (d. 1937)
- 1857 - Henrik Pontoppidan, Danish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1943)
- 1860 - Alfons Mucha, Czech artist (d. 1939)
- 1864 - Frank Wedekind, German writer (d. 1918)
- 1874 - Oswald Chambers, Christian writer (d. 1917)
- 1878 - Lord Dunsany, Irish writer (d. 1957)
- 1880 - Ernest Bloch, Swiss composer (d. 1959)
- 1895 - Robert Graves, English author (d. 1985)
- 1898 - Amelia Earhart, American aviator (disappeared 1937)
- 1899 - Chief Dan George, Meti actor (d. 1981)
- 1908 - Cootie Williams, American trumpeter (d. 1985)
- 1916 - John D. MacDonald, American novelist, (d. 1986)
- 1917 - Robert Farnon, Canadian-born conductor, composer, and arranger (d. 2005)
- 1918 - Ruggiero Ricci, American violinist
- 1920 - Bella Abzug, U.S. Congresswoman (d. 1998)
- 1929 - Oriana Fallaci, Italian journalist and author
- 1931 - Ermanno Olmi, Italian director
- 1933 - Doug Sanders, American golfer
- 1935 - Pat Oliphant, Australian political cartoonist
- 1936 - Ruth Buzzi, American actress and comedienne
- 1940 - Stanley Hauerwas, American theologian
- 1942 - Chris Sarandon, American actor
- 1945 - Azim Premji, Indian businessman
- 1947 - Robert Hays, American actor
- 1947 - Peter Serkin, American pianist
- 1949 - Michael Richards, American comedian
- 1951 - Lynda Carter, American actress
- 1951 - Chris Smith, British politician
- 1952 - Gus Van Sant, American film director
- 1957 - Pam Tillis, American singer
- 1963 - Karl Malone, American basketball player
- 1964 - Barry Bonds, baseball player
- 1965 - Kadeem Hardison, American actor
- 1968 - Kristin Chenoweth, American singer and actress
- 1968 - Laura Leighton, American actress
- 1969 - Rick Fox, Canadian basketball player
- 1969 - Jennifer Lopez, American actress and singer
- 1980 - Gauge, American actress
- 1981 - Summer Glau, American actress
- 1982 - Anna Paquin, Canadian-born actress
- 1985 - Teagan Presley, American actress

Deaths

- 1115 - Matilda, Countess of Tuscany (b. 1046)
- 1129 - Shirakawa, Emperor of Japan (b. 1053)
- 1394 - Alexander Stewart, 1st Earl of Buchan, Scottish prince (b. 1343)
- 1568 - Prince Don Carlos of Spain (b. 1545)
- 1739 - Benedetto Marcello, Italian composer (b. 1686)
- 1768 - Nathanial Lardner, English theologian (b. 1684)
- 1862 - Martin Van Buren, eighth President of the United States (b. 1782)
- 1927 - Ryunosuke Akutagawa, Japanese writer (b. 1892)
- 1965 - Constance Bennett, American actress (b. 1904)
- 1969 - Witold Gombrowicz, Polish novelist and dramatist (b. 1904)
- 1970 - Peter de Noronha, Indian buisnessman (b. 1897)
- 1974 - James Chadwick, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1891)
- 1980 - Peter Sellers, British comedian and actor (b. 1925)
- 1986 - Fritz Albert Lipmann, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1899)
- 1991 - Isaac Bashevis Singer, Polish-born Yiddish author, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1995 - George Rodger, British photojournalist (b. 1908)
- 1996 - Mohammed Farah Aidid, Somali warlord (b. 1934)
- 1997 - William J. Brennan, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. 1906)
- 2005 - Richard Doll, English epidemiologist (b. 1912)

Holidays and observances

- Ecuador - Simón Bolívar Day
- Utah - Pioneer Day (1847)
- Vanuatu - Children's Day
- Venezuela - Birth of the Libertador (Simón Bolívar Day)
- Ancient Latvia - Jekaupa Diena held

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/24 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/7/24 This Day in History] ---- July 23 - July 25 - June 24 - August 24 -- listing of all days ko:7월 24일 ms:24 Julai ja:7月24日 simple:July 24 th:24 กรกฎาคม

December 17

December 17 is the 351st day of the year (352nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 14 days remaining.

Events

- 283 - St Gaius becomes Pope.
- 384 - St Siricius becomes Pope.
- 1586 - The reign of Emperor Go-Yozei, the 107th imperial ruler of Japan, begins.
- 1637 - The Shimabara Rebellion breaks out in Japan.
- 1777 - France becomes the first nation to recognize the United States.
- 1843 - "A Christmas Carol", a fictional short story by Charles Dickens, is first published.
- 1862 - General Ulysses S. Grant issues General Order No. 11, expelling Jews from Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky.
- 1903 - First powered flight, by the Wright Brothers.
- 1919 - Uruguay becomes a signatory to the Buenos Aires copyright treaty.
- 1935 - First flight of the Douglas DC-3 airplane.
- 1939 - German battleship Admiral Graf Spee is scuttled by Captain Hans Langsdorff outside Montevideo four days after the Battle of the River Plate.
- 1941 - German siege of Sevastopol begins
- 1944 - Western Defense Command issues proclamation ending requirement of Japanese internment.
- 1944 - In what became known as the Malmédy massacre, around 80 American POW are executed by Waffen-SS troops of Jochen Peiper’s Kampfgruppe.
- 1961 - India seizes Goa from Portugal
- 1961 - A fire at a circus in Niteroi, Brazil kills 323 people.
- 1967 - Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1908) disappears while swimming near Portsea, Victoria
- 1969 - The U.S. Air Force announces that its UFO investigations have found no evidence of extraterrestrial spacecraft.
- 1969 - SALT I talks begin
- 1970 - My Lai trial begins
- 1970 - Coastal cities events Mass riots in the coastal cities of Poland ended in massacre of shipyard workers in Gdynia
- 1973 - The American Psychiatric Association removes homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses.
- 1978 - The Workers Party of Jamaica is founded by Trevor Munroe.
- 1981 - U.S. army officer James Dozier is abducted by the Red Brigades in Verona, Italy
- 1983 - A fire at a night club in Madrid kills 82.
- 1989 - The first episode of The Simpsons airs on the Fox network
- 1989 - Brazil holds its first free election in 25 years.
- 1989 - Full-scale street manifestations and riots in Timisoara ignite the Romanian Revolution
- 1997 - A chartered Yakovlev-42 from Ukraine crashes into the mountains near Katerini, Greece killing 70
- 1998 - Claudia Benton is murdered in her West University, Texas home by Angel Maturino Resendiz. She is his fifth murder victim in his fourth incident.
- 2002 - A peace accord is signed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
- 2003 - First supersonic flight by Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne
- 2003 - The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, the third and final film in Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy, opens in theaters.

Births

- 1239 - Kujo Yoritsugu, Japanese shogun (d. 1256)
- 1267 - Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (d. 1324)
- 1619 - Prince Rupert, Royalist commander in the English Civil War (d. 1682)
- 1632 - Anthony Wood, English antiqurian (d. 1695)
- 1685 - Thomas Tickell, English writer (d. 1740)
- 1706 - Émilie du Châtelet, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1749)
- 1734 - Maria I of Portugal, Portuguese queen (d. 1816)
- 1749 - Domenico Cimarosa, Italian composer (d. 1801)
- 1770 - Ludwig van Beethoven, German Composer (d. 1827)
- 1778 - Humphry Davy, English chemist (d. 1829)
- 1787 - Jan Evangelista Purkyně, Czech anatomist (d. 1869)
- 1796 - Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian novelist (d. 1865)
- 1799 - Titian Peale, American artist (d. 1885)
- 1807 - John Greenleaf Whittier, American poet and abolitionist (d. 1892)
- 1830 - Jules de Goncourt, French publisher (d. 1870)
- 1853 - Herbert Beerbohm Tree, English actor (d. 1917)
- 1853 - Emile Roux, French physician (d. 1933)
- 1859 - Paul César Helleu, French artist (d. 1927)
- 1872 - Mistinguett, French actress and singer (d. 1956)
- 1873 - Ford Madox Ford, English writer (d. 1939)
- 1874 - William Lyon Mackenzie King, tenth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1950)
- 1887 - Josef Lada, Czech painter (d. 1957)
- 1888 - King Alexander I of Yugoslavia (d. 1934)
- 1892 - Sam Barry, American basketball coach (d. 1950)
- 1893 - Erwin Piscator, German film director (d. 1966)
- 1894 - Arthur Fiedler, American conductor (d. 1979)
- 1901 - Lee Strasberg, Austrian-born actor and director (d. 1982)
- 1903 - Erskine Caldwell, American author (d. 1987)
- 1903 - Ray Noble, English musician
- 1906 - Simo Häyhä, Finnish soldier (d. 2002)
- 1908 - Willard Frank Libby, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980)
- 1911 - André Claveau, French singer (d. 2003)
- 1916 - Penelope Fitzgerald, English writer (d. 2000)
- 1929 - Jacqueline Hill, British actress (d. 1993)
- 1929 - William Safire, American columnist
- 1930 - Bob Guccione, American magazine publisher
- 1930 - Bob Mathias, American athlete
- 1930 - Armin Mueller-Stahl, German actor
- 1938 - Gordon Lightfoot, Canadian musician
- 1938 - Peter Snell, New Zealand athlete
- 1939 - Eddie Kendricks, American musician (d. 1992)
- 1941 - Gene Clark, American musician (d. 1991)
- 1942 - Paul Butterfield, American musician (d. 1987)
- 1943 - Ron Geesin, Scottish musician
- 1943 - Lauren Hutton, American model and actress
- 1944 - Jack L. Chalker, Canadian novelist
- 1944 - Bernard Hill, English actor
- 1945 - Elvin Hayes, American basketball player
- 1945 - Ernie Hudson, American actor
- 1949 - Paul Rodgers, British singer (Free)
- 1951 - Ken Hitchcock, Canadian hockey coach
- 1955 - Brad Davis, American basketball player
- 1966 - Kristiina Ojuland, Estonian politician
- 1968 - Paul Tracy, Canadian race car driver
- 1970 - Joshua Seth, American voice actor and hypnotist
- 1971 - Antoine Rigaudeau, French basketball player
- 1971 - Alan Khan, South African Radio DJ and breakfast TV host on am2day
- 1973 - Paula Radcliffe, English runner
- 1975 - Nick Dinsmore, American professional wrestler
- 1975 - Milla Jovovich, Ukrainian-born actress and model
- 1979 - J M McDermott, American Fantasy Novelist
- 1981 - Alexander R. Scott, American artist

Deaths

- 1187 - Pope Gregory VIII
- 1195 - Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut (b. 1150)
- 1273 - Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, Persian poet and mystic (b. 1207)
- 1663 - Queen Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba (b. 1583)
- 1721 - Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough, English statesman (b. 1640)
- 1763 - Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony (b. 1722)
- 1812 - Kaspar Hauser, German foundling (b. 1812)
- 1830 - Simón Bolívar, Latin American politician and activist (b. 1783)
- 1897 - Alphonse Daudet, French writer (b. 1840)
- 1907 - William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Irish-born physicist (b. 1824)
- 1909 - King Léopold II of Belgium (b. 1835)
- 1917 - Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, English physician (b. 1836)
- 1957 - Dorothy L. Sayers, English writer (b. 1893)
- 1964 - Victor Franz Hess, Austrian-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1883)
- 1987 - Irving Allen, American producer (b. 1916)
- 1987 - Marguerite Yourcenar, Belgian novelist (b. 1903)
- 1992 - Dana Andrews, American actor (b. 1909)
- 1998 - Claudia Benton, Peruvian child psychologist (b. 1959)
- 1999 - Grover Washington Jr., American musician (b. 1943)
- 2003 - Ed Devereaux, Australian actor (b. 1925)
- 2003 - Otto Graham, American football player (b. 1921)

Holidays and observances

- National Day in Bhutan (1907)
- Roman Empire - Saturnalia, in honor of Saturn, began.
- Wright Brothers Day-US (by Presidential Proclamation)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/17 BBC: On This Day] ---- December 16 - December 18 - November 17 - January 17 -- listing of all days ko:12월 17일 ms:17 Disember ja:12月17日 simple:December 17 th:17 ธันวาคม

1830

1830 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

- February 3 - The previously autonomous state of Greece gains full independence from the Ottoman Empire as the final result of the Greek War of Independence. Negotiations for the borders between the two states continue until 1832, under the supervision of Russia, France and Britain.
- March 26 - Joseph Smith publishes the Book of Mormon
- April 6 - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is organized.
- May 13 - Ecuador separates from Gran Colombia.
- May 28 - US congress passes the Indian Removal Act
- June 24 - Last person put on pillory in England - Peter Bossey, in addition to 6 months in prison and seven years of penal transportation to Australia
- June 26 - William IV succeeds George IV as King of the UK.
- July 5 - France invades Algeria.
- July 17 - France grants Barthélemy Thimonnier a patent (#7454) for a sewing machine. It chain stitches at 200/minute.
- July 18 - Uruguay adopts its first constitution.
- July 20 - Greece grants citizenship to Jews.
- July 25 - Rioting breaks out in Paris against Charles X
- July 27-29 - "Three Glorious Days" - people in Paris rebel against the Ordinance of St. Cloud by king Charles X of France and clash against the National Guard - 1800 rioters and 300 soldiers dead. King has to flee the capital. The July Revolution begins in France.
- August 2 - Abdication of King Charles X of France in favor of his grandson, Henry V, who is not allowed to take the throne.
- August 9 - The Duke of Orleans becomes King of the French as Louis Philippe.
- August 13 - Louis Philippe appoints the Duc de Broglie as Prime Minister of France.
- August 25 - Beginning of the Belgian revolution.
- August 31 - Edwin Beard Budding is granted a patent for the invention of lawnmower.
- September 15 - Liverpool-Manchester railway opened
- October 4 - The Provisional Government in Brussels declares the creation of the independent state of Belgium, in revolt against the government of the Netherlands.
- November 2 - Jacques Laffitte succeeds the Duc de Broglie as Prime Minister of France
- November 8 - Ferdinand II becomes King of the Two Sicilies
- November 22 - The Whig Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey succeeds Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- November 29 - Beginning of a major Polish insurrection in Warsaw against Russian rule.
- December 20 - Recognition of the Independence of Belgium by the Great Powers.
- First long-distance (Manchester–Liverpool) railway begins operation.

Births

- February 3 - Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury (d. 1903)
- February 9 - Abd al-Aziz, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1876)
- March 15 - Paul von Heyse, German writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1914)
- August 18 - Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria (d. 1916)
- September 2 - William P. Frye, American politician (d. 1911)
- September 8 - Frédéric Mistral, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1914)
- December 10 - Emily Dickinson, American poet (d. 1886)

Month/day unknown

- Mary Hunt, American temperance movement leader (d. 1906)
- Harriet (Galápagos tortoise), the world's oldest known living animal alive today, and purported inspiration for Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.
- Winter of the Deep Snow (1830-1831) in Illinois.

Deaths

- January 7 - Thomas Lawrence, English painter (b. 1769)
- March 17 - Laurent, Marquis de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, French marshal (b. 1764)
- June 4 - Antonio José de Sucre, Venezuelan revolutionary leader and statesman (b. 1795)
- June 26 - King George IV of the United Kingdom (b. 1762)
- September 18 - William Hazlitt, British essayist (b. 1778)
- November 8 - King Francis I of the Two Sicilies (b. 1777)
- December 1 - Pope Pius VIII (b. 1761)
- December 8 - Benjamin Constant, Swiss writer (b. 1767)
- December 17 - Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan revolutionary leader and statesman (b. 1783) Category:1830 ko:1830년 ms:1830 simple:1830 th:พ.ศ. 2373

South America

South America is a continent, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. South America is situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. Commonly referred to as part of America, like North America, South America is named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered New World. South America has an area of 17,821,601 km² (6,880,959 sq mi), or almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface. As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,200,000. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).Europe __TOC__

Geography

The classification of its geographic location is subject to dispute, as in some non-English speaking regions of the world, the Americas are a continent and North, Central and South America are its subcontinents. In English-speaking and certain other regions of the world, North and South America are considered to be continents and their union is referred to as the supercontinent of the Americas. The classification given to South America, as a subcontinent in a continent or a continent in a supercontinent, depends entirely on regional preferences. It became attached to North America only recently (geologically speaking) with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama some 3 million years ago, which resulted in the Great American Interchange. The Andes, likewise a comparatively young and seismically restless mountain range, run down the western edge of the continent; the land to the east of the Andes is largely tropical rain forest, the vast Amazon River basin. The continent also contains drier regions such as Patagonia and the extremely arid Atacama desert. The region of South America also includes various islands, most of which belong to countries on the continent. The Caribbean territories are grouped with North America. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Sea – including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana – are also known as Caribbean South America. Major natural resources are copper, iron ore, tin and oil. The many resources in South America have become useful around the world, but they have failed to diversify their economies. This has lead to major highs and lows in their economy causing instability. South America is home to many interesting species of animals including parrots, tarantulas, snakes, and mammals. The largest country in South America by far, in both area and population, is Brazil followed by Argentina. Regions in South America include the Andean States, the Guianas, the Southern Cone, and Eastern South America.

History

South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering strait, though there are also suggestions of migration from the southern Pacific Ocean.

Chavín

The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.

Inca

Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tahuantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization.

European colonization

Before arrival of Europeans, an estimated 30 million people lived in South America. brain surgery In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (which is now known to comprehend most of the South American soil), would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles and typhus) to which the native populations had no resistance, and cruel systems of forced labor, such as the infamous haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated the American population under Spanish control. After this, African slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their American subjects to Christianity, and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as American groups simply blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs. On the other hand, the Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion, and the Catholic Church's evangelization in , and actually contributed to the expansion of these American languages, equipping them with writing systems. Eventually the Natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a Mestizo class. These and the original Americans were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish government and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included the many gold and silver sculptures found in the Americas, which were melted down before transport to Europe. Mestizo

Independence

The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the South American Wars of Independence. Simon Bolivar and José de San Martín led their independence struggle. In Brazil, a Portuguese colony, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the War of the Triple Alliance and the War of the Pacific. A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
- Trinidad and Tobago, from the United Kingdom, in 1962
- Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966.
- Suriname, from the Dutch control, in 1975 French Guiana remains part of France as of 2005, and hosts the European Union's principal spaceport, the Centre Spatial Guyanais.

Recent history

The continent, like many others, became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. The government of Chile was overthrown in the early 1970s, as a late (and peculiar) development of the U.S. Monroe Doctrine. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from internal conflicts (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Other revolutions and military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is the norm now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century.

Economy

As of 2002, South America's gross domestic product declined by 0.3 percent, and its unemployment rate was 10.8 percent. Due to histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest rates and thus investment remain high and low, respectively. Interest rates are usually double that of the United States. For example, interest rates are about 22 percent in Venezuela and 23 percent in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which had a head start from 1973 under Augusto Pinochet. The South American Community of Nations is a planned continent-wide free trade zone to unite two existing free-trade organizations—Mercosur and the Andean Community. In South America, the gap between the rich and the poor is tremendous. In Venezuela, Paraguay, Brazil, and many other South American countries, the richest 20 percent may own over 60 percent of the nation's wealth, while the poorest 20 percent may own less than 5 percent. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie next to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.

Culture

Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. French Guiana also has a large number of Protestants. Guyana and Suriname are exceptions, with three major religions: Christianity in general, Hinduism, and Islam. Portuguese and Spanish are the primary languages of the continent. The majority of South Americans (51%) speak Portuguese. However, most South American countries are Spanish-speaking, and nearly all of the continent's lusophones reside in Brazil. Among other languages used by many South Americans are:
- Aymará in Bolivia and Peru.
- Quechua in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru.
- Guaraní in Paraguay.
- English in Guyana.
- Hindi in Guyana and Suriname.
- Dutch and Indonesian in Suriname.
- Italian and German in certain pockets across southern South America. South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include samba from Brazil and cumbia from Colombia. Because of South America's ethnic mix, South American cuisine takes on African, American Indian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is especially well-known for its West African-influenced cuisine.

People

Ethnic groups of South America include:
- Awá
- Banawa
- Caiapos
- Enxet
- European descendants, especially from Spain, Portugal and Italy.
- Ge
- Guarani
- Incas
- Quechuas
- Juris
- Latin peoples
- Mapuche
- Mestizo
- Xucuru
- Zaparos Indigenous peoples make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru, and are a significant element in most other former Spanish colonies. Exceptions to this include Argentina and Uruguay. At least three of the Amerindian languages (Quechua in Peru and Bolivia, Aymara also in Bolivia, and Guarani in Paraguay) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages. Argentina is 10 percent Indian.

Mestizos

"Mestizo" is a term of Spanish origin used to designate the peoples of mixed European and Amerindian racial strain inhabiting the region spanning the Americas. Mestizos officially make up the majority of the populations of Chile (90%), Colombia (58%), Ecuador (65%), Paraguay (95%) and Venezuela (67%). Figures in other countries are Argentina (about 13%), Bolivia (30%), Brazil (about 12%), Uruguay (8%) and Peru (37%).

African ancestry

Africans first arrived with the Spanish and Portuguese in the 16th century. Most were brought as slaves and delivered to Brazil and the Caribbean. Brazil now has about 60 million black people. Venezuela and Colombia also have significant black population. "Mulato" is a term of Spanish origin (Mulatto in English) describing Latin Americans of mixed African and White racial descent. "Zambo" is a term of Spanish origin describing Latin Americans of mixed African and Amerindian racial descent. The feminine form is zamba.

Territories and divisions

Notes:
¹ La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia; Sucre is the judicial seat.
² Santiago is the administrative capital of Chile; Valparaíso is the site of legislative meetings.
³ Claimed by Argentina.
⁴ The South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands have no permanent population, only hosting a periodic contingent of about 100 researchers and visitors.
- Depending on definitions, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of South and North America.

External links

News
- [http://www.notisur.com/ NOTISUR -- Political and social news of South America (in Spanish)] Sports
- [http://www.conmebol.com/ CONMEBOL -- Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (The South American Footbal Confederation) in Spanish and Portuguese] Geography
- [http://www.freeworldmaps.net/southamerica/index.html Physical map of South America] South American Community of Nations Category:Continents South America zh-min-nan:Lâm Bí-chiu ko:남아메리카 ja:南アメリカ simple:South America th:ทวีปอเมริกาใต้

Venezuela

Venezuela, officially known as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is the northernmost country in South America and part of Caribbean South America. It borders the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north, Guyana to the east, Brazil to the south, and Colombia to the west. Off the Venezuelan coast are also found the Caribbean states of Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles and Trinidad and Tobago. Together Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, Venezuela also is a member of Mercosur, since December, 2005, although it has yet to finalize policy changes in order to gain voting rights. A former Spanish colony, Venezuela is a Federal Republic. Culturally and geographically it is the most Caribbean country of South America, having in its possession over 600 islands in the aforementioned sea. Historically, Venezuela has had territorial disputes with Guyana, largely concerning the Essequibo area. This issue is not yet resolved. To this day, Venezuela is known for its petroleum industry, the environmental diversity of its territory, and its sheer natural beauty. It has been claimed that Christopher Columbus was so enthralled by Venezuela's landscape, when arriving to its coast in 1498, that he referred to the land as Tierra de Gracia (Land of Grace), which has become the country’s nickname.

Origin and history of the name

The name "Venezuela" is believed to have originated from the cartographer Amerigo Vespucci, who together with Alonso de Ojeda led a 1499 naval expedition along the northwestern coast (known today as the Gulf of Venezuela). On reaching the Guajira Peninsula, the crew observed the distinctive stilt villages (palafitos) that the indigenous Añu people had built over the water. This reminded Vespucci of the city of Venice and as a result the region was named Venezuela, which means Little Venice. On the other hand, Spanish conquistador and geographer Martín Fernández de Enciso, member of the same crew, says in his work Summa de Geografía that the above mentioned population was called Veneciuela, and that it was built on a large, plain rock. Therefore, the name Venezuela would be a native word. Nevertheless, the first version remains by far the most popular and accepted version.

History

geographer Venezuela was the site of one of the first permanent Spanish settlements in South America in 1522, and most of the territory eventually became part of the viceroyalty of New Granada. Parts of what is now eastern Venezuela became New Andalusia. After several unsuccessful uprisings, the country declared independence from Spain on July 5th 1811 under the leadership of its most famous son, Simón Bolívar. Nevertheless, the full control over Venezuelan territory was achieved after Bolivar, with the help of General José Antonio Páez and especially the then General Grand Marshall Antonio José de Sucre, whose battle plan Bolívar chose to follow, won the Battle of Carabobo in June 24th 1821, and after José Prudencio Padilla won the Naval Battle of Lake Maracaibo on July 24th 1823. Subsequently, Bolívar led the armies of Venezuela and other countries to freedom and founded what are now Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Another important military leader during the war was the aforementioned Antonio José de Sucre, who won many battles for Bolivar and was a candidate to become his natural successor until he was murdered. Venezuela became, after the war of independence, along with Colombia and Ecuador part of the Republic of Gran Colombia (República de Gran Colombia) until 1830, when the country separated through a rebellion led by the aforementioned Jose Antonio Páez and declared itself as a sovereign republic. Páez became the first president of Venezuela. Much of Venezuela's 19th and early 20th century history was characterized by political instability, political struggle, and dictatorial rule. Following the death of Juan Vicente Gómez in 1935 and the demise of caudillismo (authoritarian oligarchical rule), democratic struggles eventually forced the military to withdraw from direct involvement in national politics in 1958. Since that year, Venezuela has enjoyed an unbroken tradition of democratic civilian rule, though not without conflict. Venezuela is member of the South American Community of Nations (SACN). (more) See also: Discoverer of the Americas, List of Presidents of Venezuela

Politics

The Venezuelan president is elected by a popular vote, with direct and universal suffrage, and functions as both head of state and head of government. The term of office is six years, and a president may be re-elected to a single consecutive term. The president appoints the vice-president and decides the size and composition of the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the legislature. The president can ask the legislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can override these objections. The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the National Assembly or Asamblea Nacional. Its 165 deputies, of which three are reserved for indigenous peoples, serve five-year terms and may be re-elected for a maximum of two additional terms. They are elected by popular vote through a combination of party lists and single member constituencies. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Tribunal Supremo de Justicia, whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a single 12-year term. The Consejo Nacional Electoral is in charge of electoral processes; it is formed by five main directors elected by the National Assembly. Members of the Venezuelan military, including Hugo Chávez, attempted a coup in 1992 to remove the democratically elected president, Carlos Andrés Pérez from power. The coup, which resulted in the deaths of 80 civilians and 17 members of the armed forces, failed and its supporters were jailed for treason. President Pérez was eventually impeached and convicted of corruption and his successor Rafael Caldera released the coup leaders from jail in 1994. Chávez's role in the coup made him popular amongst the lower classes leading him to run for president in 1998. Chávez was elected president in 1998 with 56% of the vote as part of a new political party, the Movement for the Fifth Republic. His platform, (Bolivarian revolution), called for the signing of a new constitution written by a Constituent Assembly and approved by referendum in 1999. Chávez was re-elected in 2000 under the new constitution with 59% of the vote. In November 2000, the National Assembly granted Chávez the right to rule by decree for one year, and in November 2001, Chávez made a set of 49 decrees, including large reforms in oil and agrarian policy which made him even more popular with the poor. Chávez has enacted a number of socialist reforms in Venezuela, fostering close ties with Cuban President Fidel Castro, including expropriation of plantations that owner-occupants claim are private property. Although political parties supporting Chávez have consistently won a majority of seats in parliament, Chávez has slowly made party policy to garner control of most branches of the government. The government has often had to create new grassroots public services in the form of "missions." The government's claim is that this is necessary to avoid going through a "corrupt bureaucracy," but after six years in power, and with a almost absolute control of the several governmental branches, it has begun to raise questions as to its indifference - or powerlessness - to eradicate corruption. (see Transparency International). In December 2001, the umbrella group of the nation's largest business organizations, Fedecamaras, several workers' groups, the Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela and the petroleum workers' union, PDVSA, called the country to a general strike. It was a first in the history of labour relations; owners, executives, managers and a few rank-and-file workers joined together to protest Chávez's economic policies. In April 11th 2002, high-ranking members within the Armed Forces, during massive opposition demonstrations that unexpectedly began to march towards the Presidential Palace refused to carry out the Plan Avila, ordered by Chávez. Although the exact circumstances are unknown, many unarmed protesters were shot at (television broadcasts at the time showed pro-government protesters firing guns into the general direction of the demonstrators), with the result that 18 people were killed. To this day, the responsibil